IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 28, NO.

12, DECEMBER 2013

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A Fully Directional Universal Power Electronic Interface for EV, HEV, and PHEV Applications
Omar C. Onar, Member, IEEE, Jonathan Kobayashi, Student Member, IEEE, and Alireza Khaligh, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractThis study focuses on a universal power electronic interface that can be utilized in any type of the electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Basically, the proposed converter interfaces the energy storage device of the vehicle with the motor drive and the external charger, in case of PHEVs. The proposed converter is capable of operating in all directions in buck or boost modes with a noninverted output voltage (positive output voltage with respect to the input) and bidirectional power ow. Index TermsBidirectional dc/dc converters, electric vehicles (EVs), energy storage system, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), universal dc/dc converter.
Fig. 1. Power electronic interfaces in an electric vehicle.

I. INTRODUCTION

LECTRIFICATION of the transportation industry is essential due to the improvements in higher fuel economy, better performance, and lower emissions [1][6]. In vehicular applications, power electronic dc/dc converters require high power bidirectional ow capability with wide input range since the terminal voltage of energy storage devices varies with the state of charge (SoC) and load variations [7]. In the case of a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), a bidirectional dc/dc converter interfaces the energy storage device with the motor drive inverter of the traction machine; i.e., the converter is placed between the battery and the high-voltage dc bus. In acceleration or cruising mode, it should deliver power from the battery to the dc link, whereas in regenerative mode, it should deliver power from the dc link to the battery. In the case of an EV or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), while accomplishing the aforementioned task, the bidirectional dc/dc converter also interfaces the battery with the ac/dc converter during charging/discharging from/to grid [8]. Therefore, the bidirectional dc/dc converter

Manuscript received June 29, 2012; revised September 10, 2012 and November 28, 2012; accepted December 17, 2012. Date of current version June 6, 2013. This work was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation under Grants 0801860, 1157633, and 0852013. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor A. Sathyan. O. C. Onar is with the National Transportation Research Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 USA (e-mail: onaroc@ornl.gov). J. Kobayashi is with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA (e-mail: jkobayashi@berkeley.edu). A. Khaligh is with the Power Electronics, Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA (e-mail: khaligh@ ece.umd.edu). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2012.2236106

should interface the battery with the charging converter, as well. Fig. 1 illustrates the role of the bidirectional dc/dc converter in the electrical power system of a plug-in electric vehicle [9]. In grid-connected mode, the bidirectional dc/dc converter must have the capability to convert the output voltage of the ac/dc converter into a suitable voltage to recharge the batteries and vice versa when injecting power to the grid. In driving mode, dc/dc converter should be able to regulate the dc link voltage for wide range of input voltages. In driving mode, usually the battery voltage is stepped-up during acceleration. DC link voltage is stepped-down during braking, where Vdc > Vbatt . However, if motor drives nominal voltage is less than batterys nominal voltage, Vdc < Vbatt , the battery voltage should be stepped-down during acceleration and the dc link voltage should be steppedup during regenerative braking. In addition to these cases, in an HEV to PHEV conversion, the grid interface converters output voltage might be less or more than the batterys nominal voltage [10], depending on the grids Vac voltage and the grid interface converters topology. The rectied grid voltage should be stepped-up if Vrec < Vbatt in V2G charging mode or the battery voltage should be stepped-up for V2G discharging mode. If the rectied grid voltage is more than the batterys nominal voltage, i.e., Vrec > Vbatt , the rectied voltage should be stepped-down in V2G charging mode and the battery voltage should be stepped-up in V2G discharging mode. When all these possibilities are considered, the need for a universal bidirectional dc/dc converter is obvious which should be capable of operating in all-directions with stepping-up and stepping-down functionalities. Such a universal converter would meet all the needs of the auto industry. The proposed converter in this manuscript not only fullls these conditions, but also can be utilized for retrot conversion of conventional cars to HEVs as well as the HEV to PHEV conversions. It can be placed between the energy storage device and the high-voltage bus of the vehicle regardless of the nominal voltage ratings of

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TABLE I OPERATION MODES OF THE PROPOSED CONVERTER

Fig. 2.

Proposed fully directional universal dc/dc converter.

the battery, motor drive, and the grid interface converter inputs and outputs. Therefore, the proposed converter is called a fully directional converter. This paper is organized as follows. In Section II, the topological overview and the operation modes are presented. The analytical model of the converter and the control system development is given in Section III. Section IV focuses on the simulation and experimental results to evaluate and validate the capabilities of the proposed converter. Finally, the conclusion remarks and future work are provided in Section V. II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING MODES The circuit schematic of the proposed converter is depicted in Fig. 2. The converter has ve power switches (T1 -5 ) with internal diodes and ve power diodes (D1 D5 ), which are going to be properly combined to select buck and boost modes of operation. Here, Vdc represents the motor drive nominal input voltage during driving mode or the rectied ac voltage at the output of the grid interface converter during plug-in mode (also the input voltage of the grid interface converter to be inverted to ac). The nominal voltage of the vehicles ESS is represented by Vbatt . The proposed converter is capable of operating from Vdc to Vbatt boosting, Vdc to Vbatt bucking, Vbatt to Vdc boosting, or Vbatt to Vdc bucking, all with positive output voltage. In any of the four modes, only one of the power switches is operated in pulse width modulation (PWM) mode, while all the other switches are completely ON or OFF. Therefore, the switching losses are not more than that of any conventional buck or boost converter. In addition, the proposed converter requires only one high-current inductor unlike some of the existing buck and boost converter combinations or the cascaded congurations. Conventional buckboost converters can step-up or stepdown the input voltage. However, they are not capable of providing bidirectional power ow. Moreover, their output voltage is negative with respect to the input voltage, which needs an inverting transformer to make the output voltage positive [11]. The noninverted operation capability of the proposed converter totally eliminates the need for an inverting transformer, which reduces the overall size and cost. Although there are some noninverted topologies [12][22], some of them require two or more switches being operated in PWM mode that causes higher total

switching losses [12][14], [16][23]. Among these topologies, although they provide buck or boost operations, bidirectional power ow cannot be achieved in the topologies of [12], [16], [19], and [24][26]. The conventional two-quadrant bidirectional converters would operate buck mode in one direction and boost mode in the other direction; however, they cannot operate vice versa. They would not step-up the voltage in the direction that they can step-down [15], [18], [27], [28]. Two cascaded two-quadrant bidirectional converters may achieve bidirectional power ow with bucking or boosting capabilities; however, they require more than one high-current inductor [13], [17]. In [18], although two switches and two inductors are used, only unidirectional bucking or boosting can be achieved. In the case of a dual-active bridge dc/dc converter, all switches are operated in PWM mode; therefore, switching losses are four times higher in the half-bridge case or eight times higher in fullbridge case than that of the proposed converter. Dual-active bridge dc/dc converters [29][41] also require a transformer at the middle stage which would increase the overall losses, size, and cost [20][23]. In [20], two inductors are required in addition to the transformer, and in [21] the number of inductors is three. In [22], bidirectional power ow is possible with ten switches and two inductors. Although soft switching strategies can be considered for dual-active bridge dc/dc converters in order to reduce the switching losses such as in [23], there should be eight power switches and eight power diodes with three inductors; therefore, a high number of components would not be economical. Moreover, having more than one switch operating in PWM mode would make the control system more complicated. However, in the proposed converter, the controls are as simple as the conventional buck or boost dc/dc converters in spite of all the competences. Finally, in [24], the proposed dc/dc converter requires two transformers with one being multiwinded which complicates the structure, adds up to cost, and it does not have the bidirectional operating capability. The operation capabilities of the proposed converter signicantly increases the exibility of the converter while offering a broad range of application areas in all HEV and PHEV applications as well as their conventional to HEV or HEV to PHEV conversions with add-on batteries regardless of the voltage ratings of the motor drive, battery, and the grid interface converter. The different operation modes of the converter, including the status of the corresponding switches in each mode and the direction of power ow, are mapped in Table I. T2 and T4 serve as simple ON/OFF switches to connect or disconnect the corresponding current ow paths, whereas T1 , T3 , and T5 are either ON/OFF or PWM switches with respect to the

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Fig. 3.

V d c -to-V b a tt boost mode of operation. Fig. 5. V d c -to-V b a tt buck mode of operation.

Fig. 4.

V b a tt -to-V d c buck mode of operation.

side. D3 and D2 are forward-biased, whereas D1 and D4 do not conduct. D5 only conducts when T3 is OFF. In this mode, Vbatt and Vdc are the input and output voltages, respectively. During stepping-down the battery voltage while delivering power from battery to the dc link, the inductor is at the output and its current is a state variable. Therefore, the dc link voltage and the current delivered to the dc link can be controlled in driving mode. B. Case 2: Vdc > Vbatt If the rated dc link voltage is more than the batterys rated voltage, dc link voltage should be stepped-down during charging in grid-connected mode and in regenerative braking while the vehicle is being driven. Under the same voltage condition, the battery voltage should be stepped-up during plug-in discharging in grid-connected mode and in acceleration or cruising while driving. Mode 3) Vdc Vbatt Buck Mode for Plug-in Charging and Regenerative Braking: In this mode, T1 is in the PWM switching mode. Switches T2 , T3 , and T5 remain in OFF state while T4 is kept ON all the time. Therefore, from Vdc to Vbatt , a buck converter is made up by D1 , T1 , D5 , L, D4 , and T4 as shown in Fig. 5. When T1 is turned ON, the current from Vdc passes through D1 , T1 , L, D4 , and T4 while energizing the inductor. When T1 is OFF, the output current is recovered by freewheeling diode D5 decreasing the average current transferred from dc link to the battery. Since diodes D1 and D4 are forwardbiased, they conduct whereas D2 and D3 do not conduct. D5 only conducts when T1 is OFF. In this mode, Vdc and Vbatt are the input and output voltages, respectively. The dc link voltage can be regulated in driving mode (regenerative braking) by controlling the current transferred to the battery. In plug-in charging mode, the current or power delivered to the battery is also controllable. Mode 4) Vbatt Vdc Boost Mode for Plug-in Discharging and Acceleration: During this mode, T1 and T4 remain OFF, whereas T2 and T3 remain ON all the time. Switch T5 is operated in PWM switching mode. Therefore, from Vbatt to Vdc , a boost converter is formed by T3 , D3 , L, T5 , T2 , and D2 , as illustrated in Fig. 6. When T5 is turned ON, the current from Vbatt passes through T3 , D3 , L, and T5 while energizing the inductor. When T5 is OFF, both inductor and the source currents pass through T2 and D2 to the dc link. In this mode, D3 and D2 are forward-biased

corresponding operating mode. Different cases and operating modes of the converter are detailed in following sections. A. Case 1: Vdc < Vbatt If the rated dc link voltage is less than batterys rated voltage, the dc link voltage should be stepped-up during charging in gridconnected mode and in regenerative braking during driving. Under the same voltage condition, the battery voltage should be stepped-down during plug-in discharging in grid-connected mode, and in acceleration or cruising during driving. Mode 1) Vdc Vbatt Boost Mode for Plug-in Charging and Regenerative Braking: In this mode, T1 and T4 are kept ON, while T2 and T3 remain in the OFF state, as shown in Fig. 3. The PWM switching signals are applied to switch T5 . Therefore, from Vdc to Vbatt , a boost converter is formed by D1 , T1 , L, T5 , D4 , and T4 . Since D1 and D4 are forward-biased, they conduct; whereas D3 and D2 do not conduct. Since T5 is in PWM switching mode, when it is turned ON, the current from Vdc ows through D1 , T1 , L, and T5 while energizing the inductor. When T5 is OFF, both the source and the inductor currents ow to the battery side through D4 and T4 . During this mode, Vdc and Vbatt sequentially become the input and output voltages. Since the inductor current is a state variable of this converter, it is controllable. Therefore, the charging power delivered to the battery in plug-in mode or high-voltage bus current in regenerative braking can be controlled. Mode 2) Vbatt Vdc Buck Mode for Plug-in Discharging and Acceleration: The circuit schematic of this operation mode is provided in Fig. 4. In this mode, T1 , T4 , and T5 remain OFF, while T2 is kept in ON state all the time. The PWM switching signals are applied to switch T3 . Therefore, from Vbatt to Vdc , a buck converter is formed by T3 , D3 , D5 , L, T2 , and D2 . When T3 is turned ON, the current from the battery passes through T3 , D3 , L, T2 , and D2 , while energizing the inductor. When T3 is OFF, the output current is freewheeled through the D5 , T2 , and D2 , decreasing the average current transferred to the load

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Fig. 9.

DC/DC converter charge/discharge power controller.

Fig. 6.

V b a tt -to-V d c boost mode of operation.

Fig. 10.

DC/DC converters cascaded controller for driving mode. TABLE II EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

Fig. 7.

State-space model of the simplied converter in boost mode.

Fig. 8.

State-space model of the simplied converter in buck mode.

and they conduct, whereas D1 , D4 , and D5 are reverse-based and do not conduct. In this mode, Vbatt and Vdc are sequentially the input and output voltages. The dc link voltage can be regulated in driving mode (regenerative braking) by controlling the current drawn from the battery. In plug-in charging mode, the current or power drawn from battery is also controllable. III. CONTROL SYSTEMS For the control system of the proposed topology, an allelectric range focused operating strategy has been considered [25]. As described in Section II and shown in Figs. 36, all operation modes of the proposed converter are combinations of buck and boost operations with different congurations and input/output voltages, as expressed in Table I. Therefore, simplied state-space averaged large-signal transfer functions of the buck or boost modes of operations can be derived. The statespace block diagrams for the boost and buck modes of operations of the proposed converter are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Two different controllers are incorporated for the proposed system: one employed in plug-in charging/discharging and the other is for acceleration/deceleration during driving. In plug-in

mode, generally, it is desired to control the charging or discharging power of the battery, whereas in driving mode it is important to provide a regulated dc link voltage to the motor drive. Therefore, a power controller is used for plug-in modes and a double-loop voltage and current controller is employed for acceleration/braking modes of the driving. The battery power controller, shown in Fig. 9, allows the reference charge or discharge power to/from the battery to be tracked This reference power can be determined based on the SoC of the battery, user requirements, and the state of the grid. The cascaded voltage and current controller, shown in Fig. 10, allows the high-voltage bus to be kept at the proper voltage while also accommodating the power demanded or supplied by the dc link. This enables regenerative recharging of the battery from the dc link and discharging of the battery to the dc link, while maintaining the proper dc link voltage level for the hybrid vehicle. IV. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSIONS The details of the experimental setup of the proposed converter are provided in Table II. Since the proposed topology is new and has not been built or tested before, it is more appropriate to build the small-scale prototypes rather than the full-scale high power converters. Moreover, due to the safety purposes and to protect the students and the laboratory equipment, a smaller

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Fig. 12.

Experimental results for V d c -to-V b a tt boost mode.

Fig. 11.

Experimental setup of the proposed converter.

scale prototype with lower voltage rating is preferred to serve as a proof of principle. As given in Section II, there can be two cases, namely, Case 1: Vdc < Vbatt and Case 2: Vdc > Vbatt . Therefore, in order to represent these cases for two different application scenarios, the Vdc and Vbatt voltages selected to be 24 and 42 V, respectively, in Case 1. In Case 2, since rated dc link voltage is higher than the rated voltage of the battery, Vdc and Vbatt are selected to be 42 and 24 V, respectively. The picture of the experimental setup of the proposed converter is shown in Fig. 11. As a feedback and control system interface, TMS320F2812 DSP module from Texas Instruments has been employed. For programming the DSP, processing the feedback signals, and control realizations, Target Support Package 4.1 for TMS320C2000 and Embedded IDE Link for Code Composer Studio from MathWorks Inc have been used that allows deploying generated code onto the real-time embedded processors, microcontrollers, and DSPs. For the experimental tests, in each mode, voltage is applied to one terminal, representing the charging voltage or regenerative braking while output is a load, representing the battery charging load or regenerative braking power of the motor drive. In the other mode, battery is the source while the dc link is the load, representing the plug-in discharging or acceleration mode. A. Case 1. Mode I: Vdc Vbatt Boost The experimental results for this mode of operation are presented in Fig. 12 where channel 1 is Vdc , channel 2 is Vbatt , channel 3 is input current before the capacitor, and channel 4 is the switching signal of switch T5 . As shown in Fig. 12, 24-V Vdc voltage is boosted to slightly more than the 42 V, battery rated voltage Vbatt .

Fig. 13.

Experimental results for V b a tt -to-V d c buck mode.

B. Case 1. Mode 2: Vbatt Vdc Buck The experimental results for this mode of operation are presented in Fig. 13, where channel 1 is Vdc , channel 2 is Vbatt , channel 3 is output current after the capacitor, and channel 4 is the switching signal of switch T3 . The input voltage Vbatt is stepped-down to about 24 V (Vdc terminals), as shown in Fig. 13. C. Case 2, Mode 3: Vdc Vbatt Buck The experimental results for this mode of operation are presented in Fig. 14 where channel 1 is Vdc , channel 2 is Vbatt , channel 3 is output current after the capacitor, and channel 4 is the switching signals of the switch T1 . From Fig. 14, it is seen that the input voltage of Vdc is stepped down to 24 V of the battery terminal voltage. D. Case 2, Mode 4: Vbatt Vdc Boost The experimental results for this mode of operation are presented in Fig. 15, where channel 1 is Vdc , channel 2 is Vbatt ,

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Fig. 14.

Experimental results for V d c -to-V b a tt buck mode.

Fig. 16. Simulation results for Case 1, Modes 1 and 2. (a) Load current and switching between respective modes. (b) Switches in PWM mode with respect to the operating mode. (c) Regulated load bus voltage.

Fig. 15.

Experimental results for V b a tt -to-V d c boost mode.

channel 3 is input current before the capacitor, and channel 4 is the switching signal of switch T5 . It can be seen from Fig. 15 that the modied converter is capable of boosting the 24 V of Vbatt voltage to about 42 V of Vdc output voltage. The capacitors at the input and output of the converter, Cdc = Cbatt = 2200 F, possess a portion of energy stored at the input and output of the converter; therefore, the input or output currents of the proposed topology are not necessarily equal to the inductor current. For boost modes of operation, the input currents and for the buck modes of operations the output currents are presented in the results. In order to present the long-term performance of the proposed converter over a drive cycle and to show the capability of switching between the modes for each of the cases, simulations were performed in addition to the experiments. For the simulations, a portion of Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule drive cycle has been implemented that includes driving conditions such as acceleration, braking, and idling. In order to make an accurate analysis, the simulations were also down scaled assuming a rated dc link voltage of 24 V and rated battery voltage of

42 V for Case 1, and assuming a rated load bus voltage of 42 V and rated battery voltage of 24 V for Case 2, respectively. The load demand of the drive cycle is also scaled-down, keeping the same load demand prole. Simulation results for Case 1 are presented in Fig. 16. In Fig. 16(a), the load current that corresponds to the load demand of the drive cycle is presented. When the load demand is positive (Mode 2), the vehicle is accelerating and battery power should be delivered to the dc link. Since Vdc < Vbatt , battery voltage should be stepped-down in this situation. When the load demand is negative (Mode 1), motor drive delivers power from the traction machine to the dc link. Therefore, power should be recovered from the dc link to the battery by stepping-up the dc link voltage and supplying the braking energy to the battery. The switches receiving PWM signals are mapped in Fig. 16(b) with respect to the operation mode. Finally, regulated dc link voltage at 42 V is presented in Fig. 16(c). Simulation results for Case 2 are presented in Fig. 17 under the same load conditions. In Fig. 17(a), the load current that corresponds to the load demand of the drive cycle is presented. When the load demand is positive (Mode 4), the vehicle is accelerating and battery power should be delivered to the dc link. Since Vdc < Vbatt , the battery voltage is boosted in this situation. When the load demand is negative (Mode 3), the vehicle is being braked and the motor drive delivers power from traction machine to the dc link. Therefore, power should be recovered from the dc link to the battery by stepping-down the dc link.

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operating modes, losses should be examined separately as all modes introduce different loss components. When the converter is operated in boost mode from dc link to the battery (for example, in plug-in charging mode), it can be found that the difference in loss is the conduction losses of a pair of an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) (T1 and T4 ) and a diode D1 , whereas the switching losses are the same if the bottom line is a regular boost dc/dc converter. In dc analysis, diode conduction loss would be PD = vF .IF , while the IGBT conduction loss would be PT = vCE(SAT) .ICE . Therefore, in this mode, change in losses can be expressed as Ploss , 1 = PD 1 + PT 1 + PT 4 . (1)

When the dc/dc converter is operated in buck mode from battery to the dc link (for example, in plug-in discharge mode), it is seen that the additional conduction losses in compare to a conventional buck converter are due to a pair of additional diode (D2 and D3 ) and the switch T2 . Therefore, in this mode, additional conduction losses can be calculated by Ploss , 2 = PD 2 + PD 3 + PT 2 . (2)

Fig. 17. Simulation results for Case 2, Modes 2 and 3. (a) Load current and switching between respective modes. (b) Switches in PWM mode with respect to the operating mode. (c) Regulated load bus voltage.

Similarly, when dc/dc converter is operated in buck mode from dc link to the battery (for example, the regenerative braking in driving mode), additional conduction losses occur due to the forward biased diodes D1 and D4 and the conducting switch T4 as given by Ploss , 4 = PT 4 + PD 1 + PD 4 . (3)

The switches receiving PWM signals are mapped in Fig. 17(b) with respect to the mode of operation. Finally, regulated dc link voltage at 24 V is presented in Fig. 17(c). In both Figs. 16 and 17, converter switches from buck to boost or boost to buck modes of operation as the load current changes its direction. In all cases, converter performs well and the dc link voltage is not affected by these changes as it is regulated continuously. The transition from acceleration to/from regenerative braking does not affect the converters stability as well. V. EFFICIENCY-LOSS ANALYSIS AND COMPARISONS WITH EXISTING APPROACHES The switching losses of the proposed fully directional noninverted buckboost converter are very similar to that of a regular noninverting buckboost converter. To make the criteria of comparison clear, the compared converter should have noninverted output and have a relatively wider voltage for both the battery and the dc link. Even if the proposed converter is compared with the simplest fundamental buck or boost dc/dc converters for each of its modes, the switching losses are identical since the proposed converter has only one switch in PWM mode in all of the modes. Since the number of switches operating in PWM is the same for the proposed and the conventional converters, one can obtain that there is no increase in switching losses. However, it can be stated that the proposed converter has relatively slightly more conduction loss in all operating modes. The additional conduction loss is mainly due to the additional switches or diodes in the current ow paths of the proposed converter. Since the proposed dc/dc converter has four different

When the dc/dc converter is operated in boost mode from battery to the dc link (for example, the acceleration in driving mode), the additional conduction losses as compared to a conventional boost converter are due to a pair of additional conducting switches (T2 and T3 ) and the diode D3 . This results in additional losses to be Ploss , 3 = PT 2 + PT 3 + PD 3 . (4)

To estimate comparative change in efciency, is identied as efciency of the conventional buck or boost mode and is dened as the efciency of the proposed converter with additional losses. If Po is the output power and Pin is the input power, the change in the efciency can be obtained as = = Po Po Pin Pin + Ploss (5)

The comparative change in efciency for all of the four modes is formulated as a function of the Pin , Pout , Ploss , and Ploss ; as Ploss for different modes are given by (10)(13). For these analyses, as used in the experiments, HGTG30N60A4D IGBT modules and FFPF30U60STTU power diodes from Fairchild Semiconductor are used where IGBTs VCE(SAT) is 1.6 V, whereas diodes VF is 2.1 V as given in the manufacturers datasheets. Change in efciency values is summarized in Table III with respect to different operating modes. For a typical plug-in vehicle (Chevrolet Volt) in Vdc Vbatt boost mode, where the input voltage is 120 2 = 169.7 V, output voltage is 300 V, and the average input and output currents are 15.48 and 8.5 A, respectively (scaled-up proportionally with

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TABLE III COMPARATIVE CHANGE IN EFFICIENCY OF DC/DC CONVERTER FOR DIFFERENT MODES

TABLE IV COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF THE PROPOSED DC/DC CONVERTERS WITH CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES

respect to the experimental average currents). Therefore, the change in efciency for this mode can be expressed as 1 = 1 1 = 300 8.5 169.7 15.48 300 8.5 169.7 15.48+[(1.6 15.48)+(1.6 8.5)+(2.1 15.48)] (6)

= 0.9707 0.9452 = 2.55%.

When stepping-down the battery voltage, in Vbatt Vdc buck mode, input voltage is 300 V, output voltage is 169.7 V, and the input and output currents can be scaled-up to 8.5 and 14.62 A, respectively. Under these conditions, the change in efciency can be calculated by 2 = 2 2 = 169.7 14.62 300 8.5 169.7 14.62 300 8.5 + [(2.1 8.5) + (2.1 14.62) + (1.6 14.62)] (7)

= 0.9729 0.9462 = 2.67%.

For the rest of the operation modes, the analyses are the same, as detailed in (3) and (4). Therefore, change in efciencies in modes 1 and 2 are identical to that of modes 3 and 4. The proposed fully directional dc/dc converter is also capable of providing potential cost reductions as compared to the conventional or commercially available approaches. For example, if the ac grid voltage is 120 V, the rectied dc link voltage could be 120 2 = 169.7 V. Since the battery voltage in commercially available EV or PHEV (346 V for Prius Plug-in and 300 V for Chevy Volt) is higher than this voltage, dc link voltage should be boosted to recharge the battery. In order to discharge the battery to the grid, a buck converter operation is necessary from battery to the dc link (buck from 346 or 300 V to 169.7 V). Therefore, in plug-in mode, one boost and one buck converter or a two-quadrant dc/dc converter would be required. In driving mode, again the battery voltage is around 346 or 300 V; however, the input voltage for the motor drive inverter is 650 V for Prius Plug-in and 500 V for Chevy Volt. Therefore, battery voltage should be boosted in acceleration or cruising modes. On the other hand, buck converter operation is necessary in order to recharge the battery during regenerative braking conditions (buck from 650 or 500 V to 346 or 300 V battery terminals). Therefore, in driving mode, one boost and one buck converter or a two-quadrant dc/dc converter would be required. Considering

these buck and boost functionalities, the proposed converter reduces the number of dc/dc converters in a typical plug-in hybrid or all-electric vehicle. In order to provide the same functionality, four dc/dc converters would be needed with conventional converters: two of them would be boost dc/dc converters (one for plug-in and one for driving modes) and other two of them would be buck dc/dc converters (one for plug-in and one for driving modes). In this case, instead of one inductor, four inductors would be needed for each of the converters. In commercially available EVs and PHEVs, currently the capability of injecting power back to the grid does not exist. In plug-in charging, there is a boost converter employed after the rectier and for the driving mode, they utilize a two quadrant converter to provide both the boost and buck functions either for acceleration or regenerative braking modes. The boost converter after the rectier can be replaced by a two-quadrant converter in order to have both the grid charging and discharging functionalities. In Table IV, the proposed converter is compared with the conventional approach with four conventional dc/dc converters and the commercially available vehicle power electronics with and without the grid discharging capability. As seen from Table IV, the proposed converter adds only two more semiconductor devices; however, it reduces the number of inductors from four to one as it is compared to the twobucktwo-boost converters approach. Since the inductor core and winding materials are extremely more expensive than the semiconductor devices, it is always desirable to add two more semiconductor devices for reducing the number of inductors by three. Moreover, inductors would require much more space as it is compared to the space requirement of two switches. Therefore, one can state that the proposed dc/dc converter would reduce both the cost and the size of the conventional approach for the same functionality basis. As compared to the commercial

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approach without the grid discharge mode, the proposed converter has six more semiconductor switches. However, it reduces the size, cost, and space requirements of the inductors by 50% while adding the grid discharge functionality.

VI. CONCLUSION This study presents a novel dc/dc converter structure that is suitable for both industrial needs and the retrot electric vehicle conversion approaches for all EV, HEV, and PHEVs regardless of their rated dc link voltage and motor drive inverter voltage as well as the battery nominal voltage. The functionalities of the proposed converter provide a broad range of application areas. Due to the operational capabilities, the proposed converter is one of a kind plug-and-play universal dc/dc converter that is suitable for all electric vehicle applications. The proposed topology is suitable not only for conversion approaches but also is a good candidate to reduce the number of dc/dc converters from two to one in commercially available vehicles such as Toyota Prius. Through the simulation results and experimental prototype, the functionalities for two different cases with four different modes have been veried. In each case, bidirectional power ow is provided with fully directional bucking and boosting capabilities. In the future, a full-scale dc/dc converter will be built for a typical mid-size sedan vehicle and the converter will be implemented for a real-world application. REFERENCES
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Jonathan Kobayashi (S08) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, in 2011. He is currently working toward the M.S. degree in controls and dynamics at the Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley. He worked as a power electronics researcher at the Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory (EHREL), Electric Power and Power Electronics Center (EPPEC), IIT, where he has worked on an experimental bi-directional AC/DC and DC/DC power electronic converters for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. He was with the IIT Formula Hybrid Team from August 2008 to May 2009, where he was working on control systems and data acquisition. Earlier, he was with the Hawaiian Electric Company in Honolulu, Hawaii, working on various projects related to transmission and distribution substations, system protection, and communications. He is an expert in computer, web, and electrical power technologies. Mr. Kobayashi received the First Hawaiian Bank Scholarship in 2007-2008; received the Heald Scholarship, and the FIRST Robotics Scholarship in 2007. He was included in the Illinois Institute of Technologys Deans List in Fall 2007 and Fall 2009.

Omer C. Onar (S05M10) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, in July 2010. At IIT, he was a Doctoral Research Assistant at the Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory (EHREL), Electric Power and Power Electronics Center (EPPEC). His research interests include power electronics, energy storage systems, electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. He is the principle author/coauthor of over 45 journal and conference papers as well as three books including Energy Harvesting: Solar, Wind, and Ocean Energy Conversion Systems (CRC Press, 2009). Dr. Onar received the IEEE-Vehicular Technology Societys 2008-2009 Transportation Electronics Fellowship (world-wide single award) and the IEEE-Power Electronics Societys 2009 Joseph J. Suozzi INTELEC Fellowship in Power Electronics (world-wide single award). In July 2010, he was awarded the distinguished Alvin M. Weinberg Fellowship at the U.S. Department of Energys Oak Ridge National Laboratory, where he joined the Energy and Transportation Science Division. He is a Member of the IEEE Vehicular Technology Society, IEEE Power Electronics Society, IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, IEEE Industry Applications Society, and IEEE Power and Energy Systems Society. He has been the Top Reviewer of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, elected by the Editor-in-Chief and Editorial Board of the Vehicular Technology Society. He is also a Guest Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS Special Issue on Transportation Electrication and Vehicle Systems.

Alireza Khaligh (S04M06SM09) is an Assistant Professor and the Director of Power Electronics, Energy Harvesting and Renewable Energies Laboratory (PEHREL), Electrical and Computer Engineering Department (ECE), and the Institute for Systems Research (ISR), University of Maryland at College Park (UMCP). Prior to UMCP, he was a PostDoctoral Research Associate in the Grainger Center for Electric Machinery and Electromechanics in the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC), Urbana, IL, and also an Assistant Professor at Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, IL. He is the author/coauthor of over 100 journal and conference papers. His major research interests include modeling, analysis, design, and control of power electronic converters, electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, biomechanical energy harvesting, and miniature power electronic interfaces for microrobotics. Dr. Khaligh is the recipient of the Best Vehicular Electronics Paper Award from the IEEE Vehicular Technology Society in 2012, Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award from Society of Automotive Engineers in 2010, the Armour College of Engineering Excellence in Teaching Award from IIT in 2009, and the Distinguished Undergraduate Student Award from Sharif University of Technology in 1999. He is the General Chair of the 2013 IEEE Transportation Electrication Conference and Expo., and the Grants and Awards Chair for the 2013 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Expo. He was the Program Chair of the 2011 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, and the Program Cochair of the 2012 IEEE Transportation Electrication Conference and Exposition.