A, Scrap -Book

of

Elementary

Mathematics

Notes, Recreations,

Essays

By

William
State Normal

F. White,
School,
New

Ph. D.
New York

Paltz,

Chicago
The

Open
Kegan

Court
London

Publishing Company
Agents
Trubner "

Paul, Trench,

Co., Ltd.

1908

Copyright
by

The

Open

Court

Publishing

Co.

1908.

" c
.

""
""

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Preface The
two

systems

of numeration

of

large numbers

9
11

Repeating

products
at

Multiplication
A A

sight:

new

trick

with

an

old

principle..

15 17

repeating
few

table curiosities
'.

numerical

19

Nine Familiar General

Test Test

25

tricks
test

based

on

literal

arithmetic

27 30
31

of

divisibility

of of

divisibilityby 7 divisibilityby 7, II, and

notes
on

13

32 34 34 35 35

Miscellaneous
The

number

theory

of

numbers theorem

Fermat's
Wilson's

last

theorem for

Formulas
A Are

prime

numbers for
one

36
numbers of

Chinese
there

criterion
more

prime
set

36
factors of
a ber? num-

than

prime

2"7

Asymptotic
Growth
Some Tables Some of

laws
the of

37

concept

of

number

2"7 27
39

results

permutation

problems

long
may
a

numbers

40

How
Numbers Decimals Some

particular number
measurement

arise

41

arising from
as

43 of. accuracy of
measure..

indexes

of

degree

44

applications
interest Indians hadn't

45 47

Compound
If the

spent

the
3

$24

47

424KK4

A"Stft\^"OOtK,OT
separatrixes
trends

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.
PAGE

Decimal Present

49

in arithmetic and division of decimals

51 59 66 aids
to

Multiplication
Arithmetic

in the
rods in and

Renaissance
other mechanical calculation.
. .

Napier's
Axioms
Do the

69
J2"

elementary algebra
apply
solution
to

axioms
the

equations ?
an

76
81

Checking Algebraic
Two

of

equation

fallacies
common

83
factors numbers of of

highest
and

89
90

Positive Visual

negative

representation
of the

complex signs
in

numbers

92

Illustration
A

law

algebraic multiplication.

97 97

geometric
a

illustration

From A
more

definition of multiplication

98

general
as

form
a

of the

law

of

signs

99
100

Multiplication
Gradual

proportion
of

generalization

multiplication

100 101 102

Exponents
An

exponential equation negative

three conclusions reached in the

Two
The

19th century.

103

parallel postulates illustrated puzzles rings plane into regular polygons leveling
device

105
109

Geometric
Paradromic

117 118
120
121

Division
A

of

homemade

"Rope
The The The The

stretchers."

three circle

famous

problems

of

antiquity

122

squarer's paradox
that
are

126
130

instruments

postulated

triangle
and

and

its circles

133

"Linkages
The

straight-line motion
theorem of forces

136
140 142

four-colors

Parallelogram
A

question

of

fourth

dimension

by analogy

143

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Symmetry Apparatus

illustrated
to

by

paper

folding
values of

144

illustrate

line

trigonometric

tions func-

146
Sine Growth Some Law of the

148 philosophy
of of the calculus
149

illustrations of commutation of U.

limits.

152 154 of of

Equations
The

S. standards
treatment

length

and

mass

155

mathematical

statistics

156
162

Mathematical

symbols
of mathematics facts
on

Beginnings
A

the

Nile

164
165
166 168 yrinths signatures, labI/O

few

surprising
on

in the

history of mathematics

Quotations Autographs Bridges

and

mathematics mathematicians

of

isles,figure tracing, unicursal

The

number
squares

of the

beast

180

Magic
Domino

183
squares

magic hexagons
of

187 187

Magic
The
A

square

Gotham

189
191 193 194

mathematical of
more

game-puzzle
camels old-timers

Puzzle A A few few

the

catch

questions
game

196
197

Seven-counters To determine

direction advice
age
to

by
a

watch committee

199
201

Mathematical The The

building

golden
movement

of
to

mathematics make mathematics

203

teaching

more

crete con-

205 The mathematical recitation

as an

exercise

in

public speaking
210

The Alice

nature

of

mathematical of

reasoning
mathematics

212

in the

wonderland

218

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

PAGE

Bibliographic
Mathematical Publication

notes

234

recreations of

234

foregoing

sections

in

periodicals

235

Bibliographic
General index

Index

236

241

PREFACE.

Mathematics

is the of

language
those who

of

definiteness,
Hence and and

the the

cessary ne-

vocabulary
connection The of

know.

timate in-

between
to

mathematics the

science. tions illustramercial com-

tendency
mathematics and

select

problems
from of the

mostly
activities accord. have this of

scientific,
is
one

industrial writer pages is in

to-day,
seem

with in the the over, Morematics. mathe-

which

the

It may
too
a

that taken

following place
of

puzzles
But is
one

largely
text-book. of

problems.

is not the fields

amusement

applied

The

author M.

desires

to

express

obligation Colgate
four for years

to

Prof.

James (whose

Taylor,
the

LL.

D.,
was

of for

University
and ward after-

pupil
his

author for
two

assistant in

years)

early inspiration
to

and

guidance
who

mathematical favored the

study;
author

many

maticians mathewords of
tions sec-

have
or

with
some

encouragement
of form have
most ; and

suggestion
have authors in been and

while

of in of

the

the
to

book the

appearing publishers

periodical
books that in the

been
cases,

used

preparation.
reference

Footnotes
to

give, identify
see

only
For

sufficient full thanks

book

cited.

bibliographic
are

data
to

pages

236-240.
M.S.,
of
were

Special
the

due

E. the His

B.

Escott,

of

mathematics who read value the

department manuscript. theory

of

University
comments

Michigan,
of

especial

in' the
7

of

numbers.

Ex-

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

tracts

from

his

notes

on

that

subject generously
Where be is made Escott. less found

(many

of

them the

hitherto

unpublished)
of the

were

placed
used,
at

at

disposal
of the

present
will

writer.

mention the

name

generally

place.
kindness

Grateful and The the

acknowledgement
critical
acumen

of

the

of in

Mr.

arrangement
for favor of occasional notification

more

or

distinct The author that

sections asks be

accounts

repetitions.
of
any
errors

the found. The

may

aim and

has

been

to

present

some

of the

the

most

esting interTo this has that

suggestive
others have

phases yielded,
been be

of

subject.
that It
accuracy

aim,
never

all

except

intentionally
little book and may

sacrificed. found

is all

hoped
the

this

to

possess its title The

unity,

completeness

originality

that

claims. Author.

New

Paltz,

N.

Y.,

August,

1907.

THE

TWO

SYSTEMS LARGE

OF

NUMERATION

OF

NUMBERS.

What In Great of groups

=

does

billion and the

mean?

Britain

usually
numeration

in

the of

northern numbers

tries coun-

Europe
of six

is

by
1018 and

figures
while

(106
in

million,

1012

billion,

trillion, etc.)
America 10"
=

south of
=

European
three

countries

in

it is

by

groups 1012

figures etc.).
:

( 106
Our

lion, mil-

billion,
from
a

trillion,
usage

names

are

derived of
; etc.

the
;

English

billion, the
power of

second
a

power

million

trillion, the

third

lion mil-

As

the which

difference
are

appears best of written

only
and

in read

such

large by
"

bers, num-

exponents,
indeed the in
;
one

it

is

not

matter

practical
is

importance
noticed
"

difference
case

in billion.
a

usage

rarely
word when

except
heard

the it half of

of

This

is

often

and

means

thousand and
a

million

spoken
in the

by

of the

the other

world,
half. "A
a

million

million

mouths

Billion.
mind dollar
a. as

billion

does number has

a

not

strike in this

the

average of
at

very yet

great
a

day
that had

billion 10 :40

trusts,

scientist

computed
minutes wonders but verified.

m.,

April
the

29, 1902,
birth of data of his

only
Christ." for such

billion One accuracy,

elapsed
where he

since obtained
correctness

the

the

general
"Billion"

result

is

easily

IO

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

is

here

used

in

the

French

and

American

sense

sand (thou-

million).
An

English
created in been till

professor
4004 able B. C.

has

computed

that

if

Adam and uously continthree

was

(Ussher's
work 24 hours the

chronology),
a

if

he

had

to

day
of half the

now

at

counting
have but

at

rate

second,

he the

would task of

little

more

than in

pleted com-

counting

billion

English

sense

(million

million).

REPEATING

PRODUCTS.

If

142857

be

multiplied
in the around
same

by

successive

numbers,
order in the
at
;

the 1

figures
that

repeat

cyclic
the but circle

is, they
in the

read
same

4 2 8

margin
a

order,
each

beginning

different

figure

time. 285714
" =

2x142857=
3x 4x

428571 571428 714285 857142 999999

"

5x 6x 7x
8x

" =

"
=

" =

"

=1142856.

(When
in occupy the
our

we

attempt

to

put

this the

seven

-place
and last
we

ber num-

six-place
same

circle,
Add

first

figures
have

the

place.

them,

and

still

circular

order

142857.)
1285713
"
=

9x142857= 10
11 23
x
"

(285714) (428571)

1428570 1571427 3285711 12714273.

six
-

x
"

(57142,$)
(285714)

x
"

89

(Again adding

placing figures
the 12 and

in that

the
would

place

circular
the
same

order

and
or

occupy

place,

taking

adding
=

it

to

the

73,

we

have

714285.)
the 50
to

356x142857
the

50857092

(adding

092,

857142).

12

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

The
to

one

exception given
order number:

above the

(7x142857=999999)
clew
to

the this

circular

furnishes

the

identity
of

of the

"peculiar"

142857

is the

repetend

fraction

1/1 expressed
to

decimally. just

Similar

erties propthe

belong
number of of is

any

"perfect repetend"
is
one

(repetend
the the

whose

figures
common

less than
to

nominato de-

the

fraction

which

late circu-

equal).
=
.

Thus

"/"

.0588235294117647; (same
;

2x
;

0588.
.

1176470588235294
-

circular

order)
x

0588
...

41 17647058823529

while the

17

0588
. . .

=9999999999999999.
which

So

also

with

repetend

of

V20,

is 0344827586206896551724137931.
to
a see

It is easy

why,
the

in

reducing \/p (p being

figures
must

prime)
in in the than

to

decimal,
than of

begin
at

to

peat re-

less process

decimal

places ;
the therefore

for

every be
-

step
less ferent difthat

division There that

can

remainder

must

the

divisor.

are

only p

numbers the process

be

remainder.

After

repeats.

.14285| W.lf .14" .142?.1428^

"

=*

.142857^
=
...

Hence
the

if

we

multiply 142857
after

by 3, 2, 6, 4, 5,
the

we

get

repetend beginning

1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th

figures respectively.
"If

repetend
p
-

contains

t"
"

"

"

digits,all
two

the

multiples
each
con-

up

to

1
y

will
"

give

one

of

numbers
1

i"

sistingof

digits. Example:

"

==

.076923

REPEATING

PRODUCTS.

13 153846

1x76923=

76923

2x76923

"In into

the

repetend
sum

for

1/7, if
is

we

divide
of

the

number
+

halves, their
=

composed
is true

9's, viz., 142

of the

857
for

999.

similar
This

property

is true

repetend
the
we

1/17 etc. repetends

property
from

also

of

two

numbers the

obtained

1/13. However,

when

find
con-

of fractions

\/p

where

the

repetend
form

tains

but only^--" digits,

the but halves the
two

which
numbers

is of the which

An

3,

it is not

of the

are

mentary, compleExample:

numbers

themselves.

^
SO
"

.032258064516129

^=

.096774193548387

.967741935483870

Sum

.999999999999999" useful

(Escott)
be made of this

"A of

applicationmay
a

property
decimal.
as

repeating, in reducing
a

fraction been

\/p

to

After
more

number be

of found

figures have
It

found,

many

may

by multiplying those already found

is, of
a

by

the

remainder.
on

course,

advantageous
small In

to
mainder re-

carry

the
has

work
been

until
found.
we
a

comparatively
obtained 5.
same

Example:
have

reducing 1/97
the

to

decimal,
we on

after

digits
of

.01030927835
this

get

remainder the

Therefore, from
as

point

the

digits are

those

1/97

multiplied by 5.

Multiplying by

(or dividing by 2)

14

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

we

get

11 of

more

digits reciprocals
as

at

once.

The

lengths
have been

of

the

periods
at

the least

of

primes
100,000."

mined deter-

far

as

/"

(Escott.)

MULTIPLICATION
TRICK WITH AN

AT OLD

SIGHT: PRINCIPLE.

NEW

This

property
numbers,
that the
seem

of

repeating
one

the
to

figures,

possessed
rations opestands under:

by

these

enables marvelous For

perform
the
one

certain

till

observer says below three

process.

example,
you
may

"I
it

will
any

write

the

multiplicand,
you

write
two
or

multiplier
and I will

choose

of
"

say down

"

figures, product,
the tiplicand mulwrite number

immediately
left
to

set

the He

complete
for

writing

from

right."

writes observers of 493 the

x

142857.
493
as as

Suppose
He he

the thinks

then the first Now

the
=

multiplier. 703/7
;
so

493/7
the

writes from of
as

70
left 3
x

as

figures

of

product
3
x

(writing
is

to

right).

3/7
and it

(i. e.,

1/7)
to

thought

the

repetend,
to

is necessary the determined

determine in the

first circular

where order. since the

next
one

begin
This

in may

ing writbe units is in the

figures by
the the

thinking multiplicand)
first

that,
=

3x7
last

(the figure
1

figure
therefore circular

of

21,
the

1;
the 4

figure
4. So From

is

after may in

order,
3

namely by
4285.
be

(Or
he the

obtain the

by

dividing
the

7.).

writes 71

product
the

(after
first

70)

remaining,
the

70

written of

must

subtracted

(compare above).
This stands themselves
correct

nation explathe

89x142857

given
01, and
have the

leaves

last When

two

figures
the

product
satisfied is the

70428501.

spectators

by

tual ac-

multiplication

that

this
15

product,

let

l6

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

us

suppose

that
as a

they

test

the

"lightning
117

calculator"
Write is 8.

with 6
x

825 7
=

multiplier. figure

825/7=
2 in

6/7.

117.
Write Write

42. From

Next the

after 142

repetend
the

857.

remaining

subtract

117.

025.
Note in the that last six after the

figures
have

obtained

by

division there number

(117
remain first

example)
to

been and from order

written,
that the the

just
written found

figures
is to be the the may

write,

subtracted

six-place
subtracted
a

number from

from in

circular
last

(117
After

857142

example).
written in

little

practice,
tion. hesita-

products

be

this

way

without

If
even

the

multiplier
Take
as

is

multiple
for Write

of

7,

the

process

is
=

simpler.
of six

378

multiplier.
53. 7
x

378/7
the from

54.

Think

it

53

7/7.

repetend
999999,

gives
write,
This
to

nines. the
may

Mentally 53, 999946.

be varied

subtracting

53

after trick

in

many

ways, will

so

as

not

repeat.
E.

(Few
g., the

such

performances
may
say,

bear will

tition.) repe-

operator
may

"I

give
divide

"

multiplicand,
your
soon

you

write
I

the

multiplier,
the

product
as

by
have

13, and
written

will
the

write

quotient
He

as

you
as

multiplier."
which rule be is above.

then

writes and the is

multiplicand

1857141,
the

13x142857

written

instantly by
the

Now,
as

as

13

cancels,
was

quotient
in

may

written

the Of

product
course

written number

the

foregoing
have

illustrations. been used

another

could

instead

of

13.

REPEATING

TABLE.

Some
of the 9's

peculiarities depending
number. table. 9x 1= 2= The

on

the
sum

decimal
of the

tion nota-

first

is the

digits

in

9 18; 1+8
2 3
+
=

9x
9x 9x

9 9
9

3=
4=

27;
36;

7
6

9x
9
x

9= 10
=

81:
90
;

8+1=9
9 9
+

9
1 8
=

9x11=

99;

9=18;

9x12=108;

1+0+8=9 1+1+7=9

9x13=117;
etc.

The

following

are

given
:

by Lucas*

in

note

entitled

Multiplications

curieuscs
1x9 12x9 123x9

2=11 3=111 4=1111

=

1234x9+5 12345x9 123456x9 1234567x9 12345678x9

*

11111

6=111111

7=1111111
8
=

11111111

9=111111111 IV,
Thcone des Norn-

Recreations
8.

Mathcmatiqucs,
"

232-3

brcs, I,

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

9 98 987

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

88 888 8888 88888 888888 8888888 88888888

9876 98765 987654 9876543 98765432

888888888

1x8+1=9
12x8 123x8 1234x8
+

2 3 4

98

987 9876

12345x8 123456x8 1234567x8 12345678x8 123456789

x

5=98765
6 7 8 9
=

987654 9876543 98765432 987654321

12345679x8

98765432

12345679x9=111111111

to

which

may,

of

course,

be

added

12345679 12345679x27 12345679

etc.

18

222222222 333333333 \W\\\\\\

36

FEW

NUMERICAL

CURIOSITIES.*

112=121;
l + l +

1112
2 + 2 + l
=

12321;

11112
2 + 2 +

1234321;
2 + l
=

etc.

22;
+

l +

3 +

32;

3+4

3 +

l=42;
333X333

etc.

-22X22.

m_l
The the

2 +

l'

i^1-l
three

etC'1

2 +

3 +

2 +

l'

following
lowest

consecutive divisible

numbers

are

ably probthan 1
:

that

are

by
1377
and

cubes

other

1375,

1376,
of

(divisible by
A of
are

the

cubes

5, 2

respectively).
Certain

curious 37
are

property
still

of 37

and of 259 37
=

41.

multiples figures
16 and of
x x

multiples cyclically
:

when

their

permuted
=

37 ;

592

37 851

;
;

925

25
629 of

37.
and 41
:

The 962.

same

is true similar

of

185, 518
is true
=

296,

A
=

property

tiples mul-

17589

41

429;

75891

41

1851
=

58917
2238.

41x1437;

89175=41x2175;

91758

41

Numbers the of

differing
of
the

from

their

logarithms
The

only

in

position
such

decimal has been

point.
discussed
are

determination Euler and of

a

numbers Tait. be
all of
the

by

by
list

Professor that
*

Following
extended
the

three

examples

could

indefinitely.
curiosities Escott. in this section
were

Nearly
to

numerical

given t The

writer

by
;

Mr.

Monist,

1906

XVI,

625.
19

20

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

log 1.3712885742= log

237
.

.13712885742
=

5812087593

2
.

375812087593

log 3550.2601815865
Powers

3.5502601815865

having

same

digits
whose squares have the
same

Consecutive
: digits

numbers

132 142

169 196

1572
1582

24649 24964

9132 9142

833569 835396

Cubes

containing the
3453 3843
=

same

digits:
3313
=

41063625 56623
104

36264691 66923416

4063

4053
A

66430125
two

pair of
same

numbers
: digits
=

of whose

powers

are

composed

of the

322 492

1024 2401

324 494

1048576 5764801

Square
1.

numbers

containingtht digitsnot repeated

the

Containing
1 18262
=

nine

digits:*
203162
228872 230192
=

139854276 152843769 157326849 215384976 245893761 254817369 326597184 361874529 375468129 382945761 385297641
in the Mathematical

412739856 523814769 529874361 537219684 549386721 587432169 589324176 597362481 615387249 627953481 653927184 Washington,
des D.

123632 125432 146762

231782
234392

156812
159632 180722
190232

242372 242762
244412

193772 195692
196292
*

248072 250592 255722

Published
in

Magazine,

1883, completed ciens, 1897 (4:168).

C,

and

in L' Inter mediaire

Mathemati-

FEW

NUMERICAL

CURIOSITIES

21

259412 26409267 332

672935481
697435281 714653289

27273'
290342 291062 303842

743816529
8429731 56

847159236
923187456

271292
2.

735982641
the
ten

Containing
320432 322862
=

digits :f
45624s
=

1026753849 1042385796 1098524736 1237069584

1 532487609

2081549376
3074258916

55446s
687632 839192 990662

331442
351722

4728350169
7042398561

391472

9814072356

Arrangements of
If the number less than each

the

digits
be
to

123456789 9 and contains

multipliedby digits and

subtraction

all the

tegers in-

prime
the

9, namely 2, 4, 5, 7, 8,
uses

product
once.

nine

each

digit but
Each each of

term

in nine

the

following

contains

the

digits once.
987654321 123456789
864197532

To 100:

arrange

the

nine

digits additively

so

as

to

make

t L 'Intermediaire

dcs

Mathematicians,

1907

(14:135)

22

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

To 100:

arrange

the

ten

digits additively so

as

to

make

50i

80H
19*
100

49ff
100

Many
To

ways

of the

doing
ten

this also.
as

place

digits so

to

produce

each

of the

: digits

'6?_97q_0
31

13i85_s
02697
34182 05697
'

485 485
X

62 31

970"
-1

97062 48531 107469

41832 05976 25496

=

35823"
23184
_
~

03187 57429
_ ~

95742 10638 the

ten

05796 Lucas* also

zero

06381

gives examples
not

where the first

digits are
a

used, the

occupying
numbers noticed

place in

number,

for all of the ten

above

except 6, which

possible. is im-

It will be above The for nine

that, in the
twice. form
a

example given

3, the

digit 3

occurs

digitsarranged
/

to

perfect cube:
125 438976

8__=
~

2_\3

8_
~

/ 2

_/5\3
\76/

32461759

\ 319/

24137569 512 438976

\ 289/ /8X3

\76,
to

The

ten

digitsarranged
9261 804357

form
/91^3

perfect cube

\93/

Thcoric

dcs

N ombres,

p. 40.

FEW

NUMERICAL

CURIOSITIES.

23

The of
?r:

ten

digitsplaced

to

give

an

approximate

value

--fJlS-*MW"+
Fourier's
method the

of

division*

by
9.

number Increase

of the each that

two

digits of
of E. the

which

units

digit is

visor di-

by 1, and
g., 43268^-29. 1492

increase the

the

dividend

used

at

step step.

operation by

quotient figure ordinary

for

The

29)43268
29 142

29)43268
1492

116
266

261
58 58
is shown the left for need the be

arrangement
form
at

at

comparison.
written in

The rier's Fou-

the

right
To
as

is all that

method. of in the the divisor

perform
30; 4"3,
add
reason

operation, one
; write

thinks the
=

(43-=-30,) 1
it to the 43
;

quotient
; etc.

and

44

30

14 ;

14-f-3, 4
E.
g.,
at

The second

underlying
we

it is

easilyseen.
common we

the

step

have, by the
method the
same

method,
142
+

142-4x29.
-

By
The

Fourier's of minuend

have

30.

addition both

number subtrahend

(the quotient figure) to

does
not

and

affect

the

remainder. method 30
as

In the
one

customary

for the

foregoing example
in

practicallyuses
*

divisor

determining

the

Fourier,

p.

187.

24

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

quotient
In Fourier's

figure

(thinking
method this

at

the is

second extended

step,
to

14^-3,
the short

4).
whole sion. divi-

operation

and

the

work

is

reduced

to

mere

So

also

in

dividing
not

by

19,
to

39,
divisors be

49,

etc.

The

method

is,
to

of those

course,

limited in in 9. It

of used in

two

places, dividing
the divisor

nor

ending ending

may

by

number

8,
the

etc.

by

increasing
used for
at

by
2,
the first 3

2,
etc.

etc, times

and the of

also

dividend

each

step
step.

by
But

quotient
the method

figure
lies

that in

advantage
stated. "The

chiefly

the

case

method and

is hailed

rediscovered

every

little
"

while

by

some

one

as

great

discovery.

NINE.

Curious
tricks

properties
with

of

the

number and

nine, and

ical numer-

it,
them

are

given
Dr. Of

explained
Brooks,
in

by
his

many

writers

; among

Edward all such is the

losophy Phi-

of
the and
as

Arithmetic.

properties, perhaps
check
on

most

practical application
out

division
check

multiplication by casting
it
to

nines, the
come

Hindu

is

called. inverted there debit has side of

Next numbers. been of

might
In inversion
one

the

bookkeeper's ing, book-keepwritten in the It the trial

can

clue

double-entry

if in the

(e.g., $4.83
and

account,
no

$4.38

credit balance also made. be

side

another)
be in "off" what

and

other

mistake,
of nine.

will
seen

by

multiple
the

columns

transposition

was

Recently
another

suggested,
of

and the but

of

no

practical interest,
number,"

is

property
like the

"magic
at

easily
curious:
;

plained, ex-

rest,
of any the nine
or

first

glance
number

vert inthe verted in-

the difference

figures
between

three-place original
; and

divide the

number
may

and read

number the
over

by

you

quotient
the

forward.
that

backward. in the first

More-

845 548

figure

occurs

quotient
and last
:

is the

difference
of the
c

between
number the

the
taken.

9)297
33

figures
Let
a,

Explanation
tens,
units

b,

be

hundreds,
of
+

ures fignumber. number Then inverted

respectively
the is number is 10"
+

any

three-place
+

100a
a.

10b

c,

and

the

100c

25

26

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

(100a + lQ{"+c)-(10Gc+10b
9

a)

99

(a-c)
9

The both

product

of 1 1 and

any
may

one-place number
be read either
"

will have
way.

figures alike, and

known
on are

Better all

the the

following three
by 9,
sum

all old

and

depending
after the the

principle,that
of
a

the

remainder,
same as

after

dividing any

number

is the its

the 9.

remainder 1. Find

dividing the
difference
number made from
me,

digits by
of

betweeen

number

two

figures and
conceal of the the

by inverting the figures,

but tell
me one

numbers

figure
is
other an-

difference.

I will tell you

whether
so,

there what
every

figure (This
can

in the

difference, and, if
be
one

it is.
tator spec-

scarcely
that the
a

repeated merely
from of three

without subtracts

noticing
figure of
2. Write

the

given

difference number
me

9.)
or

more erase

places, divide
one

by 9,
zero,

and

tell

the

remainder;
will the

figure,not
and tell
me

divide remainder.

the

resulting number
I tell you

by 9,
the

the

figure
the

erased the

(which
second,
then the

is, of
or

course,

first remainder

minus

if the first +9
a

first is not
-

greater

than

second,
I

the

second).
with the
a

3. Write will the

to

number fill in

missing figure, and

necessary
to

immediately
number written. the
=

figure by
9.

make

exactly
Write

divisible

(Suppose
; for

728
excess

57

be

7 in the
after be

space

the

from 9-2 the

given
This with

number
may
a

casting out
shall
a

9's is

2, and
to

7.) by

varied that

by undertaking
make the

fill

space

figure
and

number

divisible
*

nine
from

leaving
I, 22

remainder.* specified

Adapted

Hooper,

FAMILIAR

TRICKS
ARITHMETIC.

BASED

ON

LITERAL

Besides other

the

tricks

with

the

number

9, there
most,

are

many but
not

well-known

arithmetical
on

diversions,
the Arabic in this

all, of

them,
used.
numerous,

depending
Those
can

notation section you

of
are

bers num-

illustrated be "made and

cially spe-

while
an

wait"

by

any

one

with of

little

ingenuity
(or,
set
more

elementary
of literal

edge knowlmetic) arithment mo-

algebra
and,
when

properly,
are

forth,
in and

transparent
notation.
no

the

they amusing supply

be from of
as

are

expressed
children,
is

literal it is The The

was

They
that three
are

are

to

wonder

the may taken

them

perennial.
types.
which them

following
first
two

given
Dr.

fairly good
book,
of

Hooper's quotation

published
in the order

in
to

1774.
serve pre-

Verbatim
the in
terms

is

made

flavor of

of

quaintness.
arithmetic is

Only by
on

explanation
writer.
to

literal

the any

present

1. A him
that After double whole the let him

person
number. the it and

privately

fixing

number,

tell'

person

has 4
to

fixed that let

on

number,
then add
sum

bid

him the

add the

sum', him the you last fixed the

multiply
12, and
of the

by

5 ; to

product
10. and the that

ply multi-

amount

by
320,
cut

From tell
two

whole
from number

deduct if you

remainder,
the

which,
that

off be

figures,
on.

remains

will

he

27

28

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Let member
n,

represent
of the

any

number

selected.

The reduces

first
to

following equality readily

the trick. -rl00
a

and

the

identityexplains

{[(2rc+4)5 + 12]l0-320;
2. number stand. Let number
sum;

".

Three

dice each

being

thrown and

on

table,

to

tell the

of
the of then add

of them,
who
next

the

order

in which

they
the that the let

person that

has his the

thrown left hand,

amount

the and

dice add

double

to to

multiply
the be

by
middle

5, and

product
the add there that dice Let
on

number

of

the

die ; then that the the of

whole the be

multiplied by
of the third

10, and
die. the

to

product
total number three let

number subtracted

From

250, and
answer on

figures of points
of the

remains
as

will stand

to

the

the

they
x,

the the order.

table. numbers Then

y, three in

represent
dice in

points

shown

the

instructions,

expressed

symbols, give [(2"r+ 5)5

+

:y]10+
we

xr-250.
have

Removing

signs

of

grouping,
lOO.r
+

lOy

s,

the

number

represented by 'the
the number for of the 2

three

digits x, y,
in which

in

order.

3. "Take
were

month for
;

you

born

(1

January,
add month and born

February, etc.),
add your
age

double
years;

it ; add subtract your years

multiply by 50
115.
and in The

in

365;
age
"

resulting number
E. g.,
a

indicates 19 would

years."
August

son per-

old
at

(8th month) operation,

have,

the

successive

stages of the

FAMILIAR

TRICKS.

29

8,
819

16,

21,
for

1050, August,
m

1069,
19

704;
for

and the the

for

the

final

number,

(8
If
we

years).
number of the

let the

represent
of years,

month,
the rule

and

y
a

number

we

can

express

as

formula:

{2m

5)50

y-

365

115,

which

simplifies

to

100m

y,

the

number and

of the the

hundreds number number

being
expressed
of years.

the

number

of last

the
two

month,

by

the

digits

being

GENERAL

TEST

OF

DIVISIBILITY.*

Let factor but

M that

represent
is
not
a

any

integer
of 10

containing
(that
is,

no

prime primes
is

factor

no

and

2).
Call

Then the

1/M
number
any

expressed
of

decimally
in the decimal 1. Then

terminate.
m.

places
except

Let

represent
of N of

prime

5, 2,
is
a

the Call 1.

reciprocal
the The M number

expressed places
obtained
as

decimally
the

circulate.

in

repetend dividing by

n.

remainder is the
same

by

any

integer,.
the.

I, by
number of I

that the

obtained last

dividing
m

represented by
is M. If the

by

(right-hand) by
M,

digits
m

number

represented
I is

those and

digits

divisible

by

M,

divisible

by

not

otherwise. 2. the The

same

remainder
as

obtained obtained

by by

dividing
the

I
sum

by
of

is the
n

that

dividing
successive

numbers

expressed
of I

by
If and

the
sum

periods by
N,

of I

digits
divisible
on

by

N.

that
not

is

divisible This 1
-

is

by

N,

otherwise. P^
to
~

depends

Fermat's when

theorem,
and number than

that

'

is

divisible

by

p
If
a

are

prime

each
and

other. contains of
a

3.
factor may

is

composite
and

prime
I

other be tested and

2, the
with

divisibility
the factors

by

it

bv

testing

separately

by
*

(1)

(2)'.
without remainder
a

Divisible
in

is

of

course

the

meaning

of

"divisible"

such

connection.

30

GENERAL

TEST

OF

DIVISIBILITY.

Thus

it is

possible
other

to

test

the

of divisibility is is

any of

teger in-

by
theoretic in the and these
case

any

integer.
actual

This

usually

only
But

interest, as
of

division

preferable.
test

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and
A

10 the
of

is easy each of

practical.

simple
cases

statement

it for
any

particular
11a of

is

found

in

almost

metic. arith-

For

test

slightly easier
test

than

the

cation special appliThat

the the
sum

general
of the

is

usually given.

is,
the the the

subtract
sum

even-numbered

digits from
from than if smaller

of

the and

odd-numbered add 11 The

to

digits (counting
the minuend the

right)

subtrahend. when The and divided

result 11
as

gives
the

same

remainder

by

original by
11 remainders

number if that
may

gives.
result be in

original number
not
same

is divisible These
as
are

is,

otherwise.
manner

used

in the
out

the
not

remainders
so

used

casting

the Test
test

nines,

but

conveniently
known
as

obtained. of the eral gen-

of divisibility by f.
in this
case

No

form

is

as

easy of

actually dividing by 7.
it may
a

From

the

point
as

of

view

theory
of direct

be

worth

noticing that, repetend,

Let
us

7's reciprocal gives

test

complementary
of

the

general

admits the 6 A

variety

form.*

consider, however,
the

application.
test

Since

repetend
is of
as

has

places, the
number

for

bility divisi-

by 7
if the
sum

follows: the of
e.

is divisible the

by 7
cessive suc-

numbers 6

represented by
each is divisible

periods
not

figures

by 7,

and

otherwise

g.,

Given
*

the

number
Brooks's 7.

26,436,080,216,581
Philosophy of Arithmetic
is devoted

to

chapter of divisibilityby

32

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

216581 436080 26

7)652687
93241 No

remainder;

therefore

the

given

number

sible is divi-

by 7.
Test Since

of divisibility by J,
7x
If 11
x

and

JJ at the
the

same

time.*

13

1001, divide

given

number
or

by
13,

1001.
the

the

remainder is

is divisible
not

by 7, 11, digit
a

given

number

also, and

otherwise. each from the

To third 1001 method

divide

by

1001, subtract
An this clear

digit following.
will
mav

inspection of simple
an

division holds.

by
The

show

why

rule

be made

by

example, 4,728,350,169

---1001.
4728350169

472^626543
3

Quotient, 4723626
The
x

remainder,
4

543

third the 2.

digit before
8-4 4

the

being
the for

0 4.

(understood), Similarly
is have for here

write

difference, 4, beneath
=

and

(which 8).
We

illustration
next

written

beneath

the

should
to

3-7.

changes 'phis

the 4 just found

3, and
=

puts 6 under

the7 original 3
/
ber the third

(that is, 83-47

a

36).
the

5-2,

0-3

(always subtracting from

to digit

digitof

numoriginal

the left in the

difference,or lower,

number) ,1-6,
we

etc.

Making
as

the corrections The number is the

mentally
sented repre-

have

the the

number

written.

by
*

last three
to

543, digits,
by Mr.
it is
so

remainder
writes
:

This

was
never

given
seen

the
not

author

Escott, who

"I have
be

it published, but

simple that it would

surprising if it had

been/'

GENERAL

TEST

OF

DIVISIBILITY.

33

after number the be

dividing

the

given by
a

number the other

by

1001,

and

the is

represented quotient.
With

digits,
this

4723626,
method
can

little without alone

practice, making
is needed

applied

rapidly 543,
be

and which

erasures.

The the of in

remainder,
also

for the

test, the the

may

obtained

by
of the

subtracting
three of

sum

even-numbered

periods
number A from

figures
the

each odd-numbered the

original periods.
thus is is

sum

rapid

method but

of

obtaining
the way

remainder above

easily
convenient.

acquired

illustrated

more

However

obtained,
11
or

the

remainder the is is number

is

divisible number

or

not

by

7,

13,
not.

according (Here
4728350169 543

as

given
divisible

is

divisible 13

or

not

by by replaced,
of

7,
either

11

or

therefore The of

not

divisible
is thus number

of the

them.)
purpose
at most.

original

for three

investigation,
As this
tests

by
for

places
at
once,

three

common

primes large
bers num-

it without

is

convenient factor

for

one

factoring

table.

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

ON

NUMBER.

The but is

theory

of

numbers

has

been
"*

called
"

"neglected
charm"
matician mathesaid also:

singularly
the

fascinating
ascribed nineteenth
queen
to

subject.
it

Magic

quality
of the

by

the

foremost Gauss

century
of the the

.f

"Mathematics

the of
master
some

sciences, and
crown

arithmetic

[i.e., theory
And it be he
was

numbers]
of the in

of of his

mathematics."
time.

sciences abstract
no

"While
it may is and

requires
taken
up

facility

reasoning,

with

practically
to

technical

mathematics,

easily
leads branch that
new

amenable

numerical frontier. where discoveries

exemplifications,
It there is

readily
of

to

the

perhaps
is
any

the

only

mathematics and valuable

possibility
made out withmatics. mathe-

might
with

be

an

extensive

acquaintance

technical

"%
An

interesting
theorems numbers

exercise and
to

in the

higher
established

arithmetic

is

to

investigate particular
*

properties
have

of

determine

which

their

Ball, Hist.,
most

p.

416.
theorems
are

t "The
this while

beautiful that

of

higher
discovered

arithmetic

have

peculiarity,
on

they
hand

easily
out

by
lie in

induction,

the and

other
can

their ferreted

demonstrations

exceeding
metic arithscience

obscurity
that of

be is

only
which
made
to

by

very
to

searching higher
favorite

vestigati in-

It

precisely
which

this has
not

gives
it the

magic
wherein

charm

leading

mathematicians,
it
so

mention all other

p.

its

inexhaustible

richness,
mathematics."

far

excels

parts

of

pure

(Gauss;
p.

quoted

by

Young,

155.)

X Young,

155.
34

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

ON

NUMBER.

35 which

origin in
due
to

the

nature'

of

number in

itself and which

are are

the

decimal

scale

the

numbers

expressed.
Fer mat's numbers been called last theorem. Of the
many

theorems all have

in since

discovered A

by Fermat,
well-known

nearly
the

proved.
his "last

exception
It "is to be
an

is sometimes effect
to

theorem." of
x,

that

no

integral values equation

This from been the
xn
+

y,

s n

can

found

satisfy the
than 2.

yn

zn, if has
no

is

integer greater
demonstration
to

proposition
fact that

acquired extraordinary celebrity general

is
no

of that and

it has it is

given,
It has

but

there

reason

doubt

true."*

been

proved

for

specialcases,
be

proved
Fermat

generally
asserted

if certain he had

assumptions
a

granted.
That may

that

valid

proof.
new

yet be
will be in

re-discovered found

; or,
some new

more

likely,a
method of the

proof

by

attack.

"Interest
seems

problems
hereafter other

connected

with

theory
is

of numbers
may

recently to have
that lines. "f

flagged, and
the

possibly it

be

found
on

subject
be

approached

better

Wilson's
a

theorem

may
a

stated

as

follows: This

If p is

prime,

+\p
was

1 is

multiple

of p.

well-known

proposition
*

enunciated
p. 2"7-

by Wilson,^

first

published

Ball, Recreations,

f Ball, Hist., p. 469.

little but professional mathematician, lowing folis made in histories of the subject. The items be of interest. De Morgan's They are from may Wilson Budget of Paradoxes, John (1741-1793) was p. 132-3. educated While he at "was Cambridge. an undergraduate considered in in than the algebra one University, stronger any Professor of the most ists Waring, one powerful algebraexcept of the century." senior of 1761. Wilson the wrangler was He entered the law, became judge, and attained a high repua tation.
was

X As

he

not

mention

of

him

^6

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

by Waring
Formulas that

in

his

Meditationes in 1771. numbers.

Algebraic",
"It is

and

first

proved by Lagrange

for prime
no

strated easily demoncan

rational Several

algebraic formula
remarkable which values

always
have of gave
or

give primes.
been

expressions
a x. x

found, however,
for consecutive

give
of for x2
+

large
0
+

number

primes
2x2 29
+

Legendre
-

29, which
of
x x.

gives primes
Euler 0
to

to

28,

for

values for

found

A\, which
of
x.

gives
I have
; and

primes
found 3x2
+

39, i. e., 40

values

6x2+6x+3l, giving primes

3x
+

for 29 values of

of
x.

23, giving primes for 22 values

different will

These

expressions give
them
x,
so

primes.
For
x
-

We for

can more

transform,
values of

that
not

they

give primes by

but

different
we

primes.
x

instance, in Euler's 40,

we

formula
+

if

replace

get x2

79 x

1601, which

gives primes
criterion so-called

for

80

consecutive

values

of xT A

(Escott.)
Chinese
to

for prime

numbers.
a

With
number

erence ref-

the

criterion, that
~

p is

prime

when

the

condition, that 2^
Escott makes

l
-

1 be

divisible

by

p, is satisfied, Mr.
comment
: a

the

following prime

esting inter-

"This

is

well-known but
to

property
it is

of
not

numbers

(Fermat's Theorem)
attention
was

sufficient.
a

My
in
a

drawn des
me

the

problem by of
to

question
led
to

L'Intermediaire
little article As and the

Mathematiciens,
in the

which

by

Messenger
which is

Mathematics. condition it

smallest is not

number

satisfies the

which

prime

341, and

verify

by
the of

ordinary Theory
2:H0the 1
test

arithmetic of

of (not having the resources would Numbers) require the division it is

by 341,
bv
a

probable

that the

Chinese

obtained

mere

induction."

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

ON

NUMBER.

37

Are number?

there

more

than

one

set
answer

of prime factors of
no

Most is correct But

to

text-books if when

; and

this
are

swer ansidered. con-

only
the

arithmetic

numbers of number the

conception
numbers,
into E. factored
to

is

tended ex-

include
can

complex
be

proposition,
factors
=

that

number
one

prime
g., 26

in
=

only

wav,

ceases

hold.

2x13

(5+V-l)(5-V-l).
Asymptotic
"laws
as

laws.
which

This

happily

chosen

name

scribes decuracy ac-

approximate
concerned best-known of of of the the the

more

closely to
here.

the

numbers

become
names

* larger."

Legendre
of the

is among

One of
on

most

celebrated middle

original researches
last century,
was

Dirichlet, in the
this branch of

the the of

theory
concept
the

numbers. from the the metic arith-

Growth

of
of

of number,
ratios and

integers
fractions
as versus

Greeks,

through

rational nized recog-

Diophantus,
in the

irrationals

numbers

sixteenth

century,

negative
and

positive numbers
and

fully grasped by proceeded

and the without in
recent

Girard

Descartes, imaginary and

Euler
new

complex by Argand, Wessel,

times
to

Gauss, f has
of numbers

theories

of irrationals

establishingof
it

the

continuity

borrowing
The the taken

from

space.J
Some for of results the

of permutation problems.
of
n

las formunumber
r

number

permutations,
dissimilar

and

combinations, of
are

things

at

time

given
may

in be

every

higher algebra.
into
one

The

most

important
nVr

condensed

equality:

n{n-l)
*

(n-2)

.(;,-r+l)

T-^=

"Cr

\r
"

\n
"

Ball, Hist., p. 464.

admirable
summary.

t See
Hist,

p.

94. p.

See

Cajori's

of Math.,

372.

38

SCRAP-COOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

There
set

are

3,979,614,965,760

ways
set

of

arranging
zero

of

28

dominoes in the
no a

(i. e.,
line, with
of

from

double

to

double

six)
that the
many

like numbers

in contact.t
to

"Suppose
small than how the

letters of the them

alphabet
take
square

be
more

wrote

so

one

shall of
a

up

space
:

hundredth
square

part

inch

to

find all Dr.

yards
of the that
as

it would 24

require to require
earth in the
to

write

permutations
computes
times
as

letters in that

size. "J
a

Hooper
18620 the

"it would
that 24 of the

surface write all

large
of

permutations
has been

the

letters

size

above

mentioned." Fear

expressed
should of

that

if the

epidemic
combinations become

of

organizing
and We

societies

persist,the might
I.O.O.F.,

permutations
have

initial letters

hausted. ex-

F.A.A.M.,

K.M.B.,

K.P., A.B.A.,
more

I.O.G.T., W.C.T.U.,
A.B.S., A.C.M.S.,
than and which
are same a

Y.M.C.A.,
An

Y.W.C.A.,
almanac in New
names

etc., etc.
as

hundred

"prominent
of is known societies But
to

York

City/*
there the
can

its list is exclusive

the
cases

fraternal

organizations,of Already
names

number of
two

be vast.

having

with this

initial letters. be avoided.

to

by judiciouschoice
calculation in every 3
or

long
entire

Hooper's
be

supposed
4 letters.

the

alphabet

employed
the A

combination. And

Societies
a or

usually employ only 2,

repeat,
A.A.A. from that
as

letter may of the

in the

title of the

A.L.A.

The above.

present
The
two at
a

problem
number

is therefore of

different

tions permutatwo

of 26
not

letters taken

time, the
three
Annali
at
a

being
;

necessarilydissimilar,
p. 30,

is 262

time, 263

t Ball, Recreations, Milan, Nov. 1871. t Hooper,

I, 59.

citing Reiss,

di matcmatica.

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

ON

NUMBER.

39

etc.

As

there

is

occasionallya society known

known 26"

by
have

one

letter and

occasionallyone
+

by five,
=

we

261 This total

262

26:! + 264

12,356,630.
is

of

possible permutations By lengthening

have the
to

easily beyond
of societies total
can

immediate

needs.
seems

names

(as
be made

already begun)
Since the
two

the when

much

larger,
were

time

er's Hoopbeen societies be

calculations added reaches well

to to

made,
When

letters number

have of

the about

alphabet.
the

the

twelve
a

million

mark,

it would of the

agitate for
these of

further

extension
may

bet. alphaon

With the for the

one possibilities

be

assured,
is
no cause

authority
immediate

exact

science, that there

The author

alarm. of

hastens

to

allay

apprehensions Many
the
to

prospective organizers.
would of
not

Tables. without

computations
of tables. Some

be
are

possible
ments monu-

aid

them

the

patientapplicationof
are a

their makers. The

Once time
one

made,
saved item table.
extent

they
to

permanent
who in
to
uses

possession.
the table the of

the

computer
account

is the value

taken It

into is

judging
been

of and

difficult work that

appreciate
done

the in

variety
of

of the For

has
an

constructing
Professor tannic Bri-

tables.

this purpose article "Tables"

examination in the

Glaisher's
a

Encyclopedia
of tabs book

is instructive. that

Anything
is tabs
at

facilitates the

use

of tables

important.
"

Spacing, marginal
all such
of

(in-cuts), jecting proa

devices the book

economize
;

little time

each

handling
is
use no

and

in the

aggregate
collections the
for

this economy
of

trifle. in

Among
of

American mathematics

tables

for of

elementary

best

example

convenience

arrangement

ready

40

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

reference and

Taylor's Five-place mic LogarithTrigonometric Tables (1905). Dietrichkeit's

und
Antilo

is doubtless

Siebenstellige Logarithmen (1903)

When
can

garithmen they
made
to

is

model

of convenience.
to

logarithms readily
purpose,

many

places by
means

are

needed,
tables

be the

calculated such
as

of

for 24

Gray's

for

carrying
which

them

places (London, 1876).

Factor tables into, the have been

printed
any

enable

one

to
as

resolve far
as

prime

factors

composite
were

number

10th

million. "Prof.

They
D.
now

computed
Lehmer,
work
on

by
the

different

calculators. of

N.
at

of

University
tables which

California, is
will extend
to

factor When

the

12th

million. the

completed they
tables
as

will be

published by
D. C.

Carnegie
to

stitution In-

Washington,

According
factors calculated in the

Petzval,
numbers

giving the
as

smallest have

prime
been

of

far

100,000,000
remained in
.

by Kulik,

but

have

manuscript
far 20

possession of
des Diviseurs is very
pact, com-

the Vienna des N ombres

Academy.
goes
as

.Lebesgue'sTable
as

115500

and

occupying only
Some
of 346
w

pages."
The

(Escott.)
of the and. feats of value
e

long
707

numbers. decimal

computation
Shanks* famous

to

places by
are

to

places by Boorman,f
of of the

of

lation. calcu-

"Paradoxes

calculation value of
a

sometimes
new

appear In

as

lustrati il-

method.

1863,

Mr. Clare

G.

Suffield,M.A., and

Mr.

J.

R.

Lunn,

M.A., of
divided

College and

of

St.

John's College, Cambridge,

10000.
.
.

published the whole quotient of of 7699, throughout the whole

*

by

one

of

the

recurring

See

page

124.

f Mathematical

Magazine,

1:204.

MISCELLANEOUS

NOTES

ON

NUMBER.

41

periods, having
of Mr.

7698

digits.

This

was

done

tration in illussion."* divi-

Suffield's

method

of

synthetic

Exceptions
on

have

been

found he
was

to

Fermat's careful
to

theorem
say

binary
not

powers-

(which
The
+

he

had of

proved).
form 2zn if
x

theorem
are

is, that
Euler

all numbers

the

prime.
formula

showed,

in

1732,
which it has

that
=

"

5,

the

gives 4,294,967,297,
the last

641

6,700,417. "During
that the

thirtyyears
are posite com-

been when

shown

resultingnumbers
thousands of added
n

n-6,

9, 11, 12, 18, 23, 36, and

contain these
now

38; the
millions 2?n
n
=

two

last numbers

many

of which value

of is

digits."f composite, J.
C.

To
must

values be

for the

73.
that
+

"Dr.

Morehead

has

proved
the 24

this year number

[1907]
275 is
to
"

this number This the

is divisible

by

prime

1.

last number

contains number

digits and
up
were

probably
the
ent.":]: pres-

largest prime
If the

discovered

number notation
to

2273+ 1 itself
without the number many

written and if

in it

the
were

ordinary
desired those be
on

exponents,
in

print
page,

figures the
like

size this

of

this

how

volumes make
a

would millions Hozv

required? They
of times may
a as

would the

librarymany Congress. (1)

From

large as

Library
in the

of

particular number analysis

"

arise ?

purely
the

mathematical of the

investigationof
the the
method

properties
in

numbers,

as

in

illustrations

just given,
*

of investigation
"Suffield's

properties of
was

De

Morgan,
Fourier
many

p. 292.

'new'

ered discovhas been

by
as
a

in the

early
a

rediscovered
new

times

part of the since. It was

years
ago

century in the

and

published, apparently
Mathematical

Gazette

discovery, (Escott.) Recreations,

few

i Ball,

p. 37.

Mr.

Escott.

42

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

some

ideally diagonal

constructed the side of

magnitude,
a

as

the in

ratio

of

the

to

square,

or

any

tigation inves-

involving
from
measurement

only
of

mathematical actual

elements;

(2)
etc.
:

magnitude,
when
a

time

(3)
or
a

by

arbitrary
makes

invention,

as

text-book

writer

teacher

examples

or

(4)

by

combinations

of

these. Those of in

class

(3)

are

generally
of numbers

used

to

develop

skill

the

manipulation

from

classes

(1)

and

(2).
Numbers from of the
source

(2),
section.

measurement,

are

the

subject

next

NUMBERS

ARISING

FROM

MEASUREMENT.

There

is

no

such

thing
mass,

as

an

exact
or

measurement

of

distance,
It is "The week

capacity,
a

time,

any

such

quantity.

only

question

of

degree
can

of

accuracy.
to
measure
a

best within
on

time-pieces
one

be

trusted
"*

part
155

in

756,000.
show the the In lines is

The

equations
of accuracy Bureau of of be

of

standards attained of in

page
two

degree
International

instances Measures.
two

by

Weights
distance the
or

and

the
on

measure

length

(the

between range in five of

bar
to
measure

platinum0.2
of
are

iridium)
million,
it is
one

error

shown In the But

in
mass

one

million. million. their of under

in

five famous

hundred for is

these made

urements meas-

precision, prime
the is

in and

cases

in

which

accuracy effected such technical be fair

importance,
most

the
ditions. con-

comparisons
No In
a

favorable in of for. in
most
a

accuracy

attained

work. per
cent

certain
to

school,
of

two-tenths
error

is held in

tolerance The artisans

"exact
measurement

work"

chemical

analysis. by ordinary

accuracy in their

attained

work

is

of

.somewhat
Now of in

lower
a

degree. expressing figures

the
one

number

measurement

the

ber num-

significant
Hence

indicates of
to assert

the

degree

of

curacy. ac-

number
were

significant
that the

digits
distance

is

limited.

If

any

Prof.

William

Harkness, Report
for

"Art

of
p.

Weighing
616.

and

ing," Measur-

Smithsonian

1888,
43

44

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

of

Neptune

from

the be

sun

is

2,788,820,653 miles,
A

the

statement

would

immediately rejected.
can

distance

of billions be measured four number

of miles
to
or

not,

by

any

means

now

known,
that and What the that
tronomers as-

the

mile.

We
must

should be

be

sure

last this

five is not

figures
to

unknown

be

taken the

seriously.
is

do miles. The
to

state

is that

distance

2,788,800,000

metrology expand
numbers

of

the
the

future limits of

will doubtless

be

able

extend
to

gradually
the

precision,and
of numbers.

fore thereBut

significant parts
hold. from the

the

principle will always arising

but few

The

measurements

of

daily life have

The the

significant figures.
is another illustration of

following paragraph
indexes is

principle.
as

Decimals
The but .42 wish the
cm, to

of degree of
that .42
=

accuracy
=

of

ure. meas-

child scientist and

taught
scientist

.420
a

.4200.

True;
is
cm,

who

reports that
who

certain it
as

distance

the

reports
to

.420

convey,

and

do

convey, the

their
we

readers

ent differthat dredth huncm

impressions.
the distance of less than is .420 than
cm

From .42 that

cm

first

understand the than

we

is
cm;
cm.

correct

to
more

nearest

is, it is
the

.415
learn

and that it

.425
to

From
nearest

second

the

thousandth

; that

is, more decimals,

.4195

and

less than in the

.4205'.

Compare

the

including0.00100,
meter,
Exact which
an

equation
is

of the U.

S. standard

p.

155.
measurement
ever an

ideal.

It
is

is

the

limit

improving metrology
The

approaching degree
of is answered

forever
accuracy

nearer.

question always
And this

is of

of

measure.

question

NUMBERS

ARISING

FROM

MEASUREMENT.

45
the result is

by

the

number

of decimal

places in which
The

expressed.
Some

applications. why
for very notation that
a

foregoing principle
very

plains ex-

large and
star to
no

small

numbers

the

index

is sufficient ; in certain is 5

which
x

it is said, for from the 13

example,
earth.

1013 miles

This

is easier there is

write need

than
to

5 followed
and

by

ciphers, and
such
serves
a

enumerate
a

read

number.
to

Similarly 10
such of
a a

with

negative exponent
as

write

decimal
wave

fraction of

is used any of

to

express

the

length

light or

the

minute The

measurements

of

microscopy.
also
not

principle explains
for four

why

table

of

rithms logayond bein the

;

ordinary
or

use

need

tabulate
or

numbers

five
use

places (four
the technical of numbers

five

places

to "arguments/'

term to

of table makers
or

only
to
use

the

logarithms
common

10,000,

100,000,

the them

phraseology).
more

tends Interpolation ex-

to

one

place
one

with

fair accuracy, needs the

and

for

ordinary computation
of
a

rarely
five of If any the

rithm logain
are

number

of

more
a

than method

significant digits. approximation

of the
can

It

explains also why

so

is multiplication furnished

desirable.

data be

by
at

measurement,
best.

result VII
on

only
plained ex-

approximate
on

Example
a case

page To

64,

page
to

62, is
six
; to

in

point.
would

compute
time.

that Worse
to
an

product
than

decimal show

places
such
a

waste

that

result would

pretend
decimal decimal

accuracy that the

not

attained, by conveying the impression

is known
to to

circumference in fact

six
two

places

when

it is known

but

places/1'
* seen

Even

the

second

by taking for

place is in doubt, as may multiplicand first 74.276,then 74.284.

decimal

be

46

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

In the

certain

village

the for .01981 divisor

tax

rate,
the for contains is

found

by
the

dividing
total
sessed as-

total

appropriation
valuation,
was

year

by
year

the

1906.

As factor

always
but To 2 how and

(unless 5)
many

the the

no

prime

quotient
should be cents"

an

interminate decimal far

decimal. be carried?

places
it "correct should

the carried when

Theoretically
a

enough
used In
to

to

give

product
tax

to

compute
case

the decimal

of is

the

highest enough
As of this
a

taxpayer.
for all of

this

the

accurate

assessments

not

exceeding
several For of in

$1000.
excess

matter

fact,

there

were

amount.

an

understanding
it is

of

the that

common

applications
the of learner the ciate appre-

arithmetic the

important
considerations
he

elementary
least that

theory
"To how

of

error

at

habitually
result be

ask

himself,
as

many

places

may

my

regarded

accurate

?"

COMPOUND

INTEREST.

The

enormous

results
"

obtained
as

by
wide

computing divergence
from
a

pound com-

interest these
or

as

well results
terms

the obtained and from

tween be-

any many

geometric
found in amples" "ex-

progression
actual life
"

of
may

the the

results

be

seen

following

At

3% $1

(the
put
to

prevailing
at

rate

at

present

in

savings
of the
now

banks)
Christian
amount

interest

at

the

beginning
would of

era

be

compounded
which

annually by
the
use

to to

$(1.03)1906,
be, in round
The but
at

logarithms

is

found

numbers,
amount

$3,000,000,000,000,of

000,000,000,000.
time and
rate

$1

for would

the be

same

simple

interest

only

$58.18.

If

the

Indians first

hadrit

spent
of
New the money

the

$24.

In

1626

Peter

Minuit,
Manhattan The
rate

governor Island from

on

Netherland,
Indians for in

purchased
about
new

$24.
tries, coun-

of

interest

is higher
as

and Within
state

gradually
the

decreases

wealth the

accumulates.
rate

present
fallen from
rate

generation 7%
of
to

legal
Assume 1626
to

in for

the plicity sim-

has
a

6%.
from had

uniform that that

rate

7%

the

present,
at

and

suppose
at

the

Indians

put

their in had

$24
New added

terest in-

(banking
for

facilities !) and

York the

being

always

taken

granted
47

48

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

interest

to

the

principal
after 280

yearly. years?

What

would

be

the

amount

now,

24xl.07280=

more

than The of

4,042,000,000.
latest
tax assessment

available
for This the is the

at

the of

time hattan Manbe

writing
as

gives

the

realty

borough
estimated actual

$3,820,754,181.
the actual than of the

to

78%
little The be than

of

value,

making

value

more

$4,898,400,000.
the Indians' money assessed The would valuation Indians could

amount

therefore
but less have

more

than the back from actual

present
valuation. of the

bought
;

most

property

now,

with
the

ments improvemoral The of rise

which and of the has but

one

might
it
at

point
interest!

saving
in the

money value it

putting
real
estate

of

Manhattan,
than

enal phenompace

as

is,
of

little

more

kept

with But

the New

growth
York the

money values would

at

7%
are

compound
now

interest.

realty
Indians

growing purchase
soon!

more

idly: rap-

better

DECIMAL

SEPARATRIXES.

The the

term

separafrix
and

in

the

sense

of of
a

mark

between written He used used

a

integral
was

fractional used

parts

number 1631. had

decimally,
the mark in
a

by
the

Oughtred
purpose.
or

in

for circle order

Stevin
each

figure
indicate

over

under decimal have

decimal Of

place
the four may

to

the

of

that

place.
been

ous variare

other in
common

separatrixes
use

that if

used,
below

to-day,

(2)

and

(3)

be

counted 1. dollars ratrix 1613. This is A

separately:
vertical in the

line:

e.g.,

that
etc.

separating
As work
a

cents

from
sepa-

ledgers,
line

bills

temporary

appears

in the line

by

Richard

Witt, 1617.
civilized

Napier
a

used
common

in

his

Rabdologia,
in every

very

separatrix

country
2. decimal Pitiscus The

to-day. period. point

is

Fink,
found in

citing
the

Cantor,

says

that tables

the of

trigonometric Napier, period

a or

(in Germany) speaks

of

1612. the of
at

in

the

logia, RabdoHis obsolete

using
is

comma.

usage,

however,
he
uses

mostly

notation

now

(but
has

the been

comma

least

once).
form of

The the

period
decimal

always
in The

the

prevailing

point
3.

America. Greek colon the

(dot point

above in

the this

line).

Newton
"to vent preused

advocated it from

placing being

position
the

confounded

with

period

49

50

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

as so

mark

of in
comma.

punctuation1' (Brooks). England

The
now.

It is

commonly
of its

written 4. The

first known is said

to

instance in the
next

use

as

decimal of

separatrix
which

be

Italian

nometry trigoof it.

Pitiscus, 1608.
may

Perhaps
dated of the

by Kepler,
use

1616, from

be table

German in

Briggs English
comma

used

it in his writers

logarithms

1624r and
comma.

early English
usage is the continent
usage

generally employed
to

the

changed
customary
of
as

the of

Greek the

colon;
decimal

but

the
on

form

point

the

Europe.
to

The uniform
one

decimal the

point

is

not ;

absolutely
but, in general,
in

in

any

of

countries 1

named

expects
of 1
.

to

see

25/100 written
1-25
in

decimally England,

the

form in
mere

25

in

America,
or

and

1,25
A be

Germany,
space
as

France
to
common

Italy.
the

indicate in
a

separation
of

may

also

mentioned The vertical should

print. decimals)
one

line

(for
A.

column

and of

the the of

space

doubtless G.

persist, and
Miller,
comma

form

"point."
who Illinois,used

Prof.

of

the
as

University
the

argues the

for the

being

symbol

by

much

largest
it is very

number is

of

mathematicians,
politan cosmo-

remarks

:* "As
and

mathematics

pre-eminently
that its national
as

eternal world line

important
All

symbols

should

be this

symbols.
should
be

distinctions

along

obliterated

rapidly

as

possible."
of Elementary Symbols Mathematics," and Mathematics, May, 1907. Where the decimal the separation of long point is a comma numbers into periods of three (or six) figures for convenience of reading is effected by spacing. of the School Science
*

"On

Some

PRESENT

TRENDS

IN

ARITHMETIC.

"History
Such Freeman. arithmetic

is past is the In
or

politics, apothegm
case

and of
a

politics
the

is present

tory/' his-

famous and
an

historian

the the and

of

science of

art,

like is fact of it is
more

teaching
method is the in the

arithmetic,

history
The

past
that

method,
our

is present

history.
make the

generation
and of

helping teaching
other
reason

to

history
"

arithmetic also

of

arithmetic that

as

making

history
is
"

matters

attract

public
some

attention of is is to the
a

for in

considering
A has

now

present

trends

arithmetic. what
a

present
been Lord
to

trend what

pointer
be,
since

pointing
the
we

from is

science

continuum.
to

Bolingbroke
to

said the

that
to

study
make the in

history
most

know the
or

how future.
ent pres-

act

in is

future,
we

of

That

why
in
to

study
so

history
as

the

making,
for
us,

trends,
the

far those

it is trends.

possible

living

in

midst,

see

Very

noticeable of

among

them

is

the

gradual
10
is

malization deci-

arithmetic.

Counting
the If
we

by
10 been
we

prehistoric being
at

in

nearly

all

parts

of

world,
had

fingers

the the

evident

explanation.
of arithmetical
race

present

beginning
the
a

history,
advice would the

might
as

have

given
of

primitive
radix
to

valuable ! It
to

to

the been of of 12

choice tune opporover

of call from

notation attention the

then

have

advantage

10 Or if

arising

greater

factorability
5i

12.

52

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

the

pioneers
of 2 Sam. would such

of

arithmetic 21
:

had

been

like
on a

the each

Gath

giant they only

20, with
have

six ringers used 12

as

hand,
ing Lackwith metic arithbeen
a

doubtless

radix.
nature

counsel, and

being equipped by
as

10
on

fingers to
a

use

counters,

they
thus

started has

decimal in

basis. the

History
time, where
units fixed

since

steady

progress

direction of the

chosen the

(except
defied

in details

like the

table

surable incommen-

ratio
even

between

by
to not

nature

the

French

Revolution).
notation "was

The the

Arabic
or

brought
did

perfection in
become
.

fifth in

sixth

century,"* but
till the sixteenth Roman

mon com-

Europe
the the

century.
numerals the

It is not

quite
used

universal
on

yet, the
of

being
titles of and

still
ereigns, sov-

dials numbers in

timepieces, in
of book where numerals

chapters
an are

sions, subdivieffect
more

and,

general,
Arabic

archaic
so

is

sought.
convenient these in the The

But

the

much Roman

that

they
The

are

superseding
has been

the

in
even

places.
last ten extension
was

change

noticeable

or

fifteen years. of the in the Arabic latter

system part
the

to

include the

tions frac-

made But

of

sixteenth
nience conve-

century.
of and
may

notwithstanding
in be

superior
times "common

decimal

fractions, they spread but

slowly ;
that

it is be

only
to

comparatively
more common

recent

they
tions." frac-

said

than

The Within what The

we

next

step
next

was

logarithms
"

step taken

in 1614.
to

the

ten

years

they
base"

were

accomodated

should dawn well of

call "the the

10.

nineteenth in the

century

found

decimal
a

coinage
*

started

United
p.

States, and

gen-

Cajori, Hist, of

Eicm.

Math.,

154.

PRESENT

TRENDS

IN

ARITHMETIC.

53
under in

eral France The

movement

toward

decimalization with of the the metric

over

way

contemporaneous

revolution. political

subsequent spread
continent world has of the been

system
many

over

most

of the of

Europe
the

and
means

other

parts

of

teaching
value
more

decimal

fractions. The
movement

is still
are

on.

The

and
every

tance imporyear.

of decimals And much remains fractions Three and

now

recognized
decimalized.
not

to
are

be

In

stock

tations, quo-

yet
still to

expressed decimally. adopt decimal, weights England

has still to has of arithmetic

great nations
measures

have

in

popular
slow

use,

and

adopt
the

decimal

coinage.
a

The

history of
well-marked

been, in large part,

decimal who idea.
are

but

growth
wide

Those

working
and
measures

for
"

world
as a

decimal in
as a

coinage, weights
school-room,
boon
"

time-saver
"

counting
owe

house

and

work-shop
well
as

that

we

to

posterity as
a

to

ourselves both
a tion cau-

may

learn and

from

such

historical
not

survey

courage. Multitudes

Caution
move

to

expect
matters

sudden

change.
a

slowly
The

in

requiring
ments move-

mental
"

readjustment.
for decimal

present
and

reform

weights making
or

measures

in and

the

United in Great the the

States, and
Britain
"

decimal
are

weights, measures
more

coins than
;

rapid progress
fractions
are

Arabic

numerals of the

decimal

made
so

and

opponents
or so

present reform
as

not

ous numer-

prejudiced
Arabic also

were

their in the

prototypes
Middle

who and
servatism con-

opposed
later.

the

notation

Ages
with
a

Caution whose

against impatience
are

arguments
of
"

drawn
any

from

the

porary tem-

inconvenience
to

making

change.

age Cour-

work

and

wait

in line with

progress.

54
In the

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

using

fractions,
constant

the

Egyptians operated

and with

Greeks the

kept

numerators

and and and Romans

inators. denoma

The
constant

Romans

Babylonians preferred performed

reduced

denominator,
The

operations
their

on

the
to

numerator.

fractions
to

the

common

denominator also
;

12, the
fractions

Babylonians
to
a

60ths.

We

reduce
we

our

common

denominator characteristic

but trends
use

choose of modern

100.

One

of

the

most

arithmetic
"

is the

rapid

growth
of the

in the decimal

of percentage The broker

another and the

development
the biologist, and
cents.

idea. the

statistician and mathematician

salesman, the manufacturer

express results in per

the

alike

These

and have

other

changes subject
from

in

the

methods

of

puters com-

brought about, though tardily, ing correspondin the

matter

changes taught place

to must to

of

arithmetic
are

as

in

the

schools. drawn

Scholastic the

puzzles
life of

giving
order

problems
one

to-day. topic
in industry

Perhaps
merit be
or a

may

venture

the

opinion that, in
curriculum,
or
a

place (3)

in the

arithmetic

useful

either

(1)

in

commerce

(2)
be

in science.

Under

(3)

may

included,
is in later have

conceivably, a topic whose

mathematical been for
not

sole, or
least two

chief, use
other

work. for

At

reasons

given

retaining a subject: (4)

But it will
one

It is that

required subjects
of this would It

examination.

be

found

on clearlyjustified

of the

grounds above'menbodies
out,

tioned

are

rarely required by examining

and such be withdrawn from

generation ;
doubtless

subjects, if pointed
any But

syllabus. (5)
on

gives superior mental

this argument of results becomes

training.
somewhat

closer

scrutiny
A
vey sur-

evanescent.

in that branch

of educational

psychology

PRESENT

TRENDS

IN

ARITHMETIC.

55
between

which
a

treats

of

the

coefficient in

of

correlation

pupil's
faith

attainments in
our

various
a

activities, weakens
certain of be
as a

one's

abilityto give
a

amount

of

by general discipline
Moreover,
that of

certain

amount

ing. specialtrainwell

can discipline

acquired
to

by

the

study
We

subjects
then,
or

that limit

serve
our

direct, useful
these:

purpose.

may,

criteria

utilityfor
for work

business in science. these of

not
our a

industrial

pursuits, and
contained
see

utility
in the
many
riculum cur-

Applying
schoolbooks of them
are

tests

to

the

topics
ago,
we

generation
of
a

that crowded the in

worthy
of
are

place

in the
to

of
we

generation.
these

Turning
less

schools,

find

that

many

topics have,
be mentioned and
a

fact, been
each count, disof of

dropped.
year.

Others such

receiving
may

attention
:

Among

"true"

partnership involving time,

payments

equation
false idea

(all three Troy

for

giving, besides,
and

business), and
root

apothecaries weight,
purposes with advanced

cube pils) pu-

(except
and the
are

certain

compound
same

proportion. topics
other in
;

At
course

time, other

the

arithmetic those

of

increasing importance
and stock economic

notably
other

involving percentage
and those

decimal and

operations,
opments devel-

relatingto
of modern

companies

activity.
social in the

School

life is
not

adjusting
in the
way

itself to

present

ditions, con-

only
and
no

topics taught, but

in which
set

lems prob-

used Good books the As what

the

the

topics are
in stocks of "Let

treated. ing involv!

longer
of
a

problems

purchase

fractional of

number

shares

Agesilaus, king
will be useful
to

Sparta, said,

boys study

men."

56

SCRAP-ROOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

The and

Greeks

studied

or theory d/oify^"*^,

of

numbers,
the ern mod-

or practicalcalculation. XoyicrTiKr),

Hence of

definition and Smith the

art

of

arithmetic, "the
As

science Prof.

numbers

of

computation."
out

David

Eugene
schools

points
much the

(in

his

Teaching
arithmetic It includes

of Elementary
of the the tion introducand

Mathematics)
includes of

"the

modern

besides

this."
the
on

pupil

to

commercial,
the

industrial

scientific life of

to-day
of

quantitive side.
is the
as

Characteristic arithmetical instruments of tables

our

time

extensive machines be

use

of and and

machines from which

(such
per
roots

adding
may

cents

read)

(of
tables

square

for

certain

scientific work, initial invention

interest of such

for

banks, etc.). The

is not
recent

appliances

; it is their

variety,
that
may

and adaptability be classed

as a

rapidly extending
present

usefulness

phenomenon.
eliminated the
may

They
for

have

not,

however,
reckoners.

necessity
have
rowed nar-

training good
the is both standard feature

They
in that

field somewhat,

but

which the

practical and
of attainment of the
men

necessary

remaining part they have set

Indeed,
is the
turn
an

higher.
the
soon

portant im-

present situation
that
must

insistent
out

demand

of business

schools
come,

ter beta

computers. stronger
four

There
on

in

school,
in

emphasis

accuracy

and

rapiditv
in

the

fundamental
on use

operationsaccuracy

Emphasis
leads
to

and

rapidity

calculation abstract

the

of
on

"examples"
the business
use an

involving
of

numbers. leads which Both

to

Emphasis
the almost the

applicationsalone "problems'
said that
'

exclusive is but been

in

compilative
necessarv.

incidental well

feature.
exam-

are

It has

PRESENT

TRENDS

IN

ARITHMETIC.

57
exercises
are

pies
the

are

to

the
on

arithmetic the

pupil
while the
to

what

are

to

learner what
no

piano,
are

problems
latter.

to

the

former

tunes

Without
no

cises, exer-

skill ; with The exercises

can

exercises
are

alone,

ment. accomplishof the

art.

for the
to

technique

The

teacher

not

afford

neglect
been

either.

The methods

last century in

or

more

has has

the age

of

special
in

teaching.
Each that

One has

succeeded
us an

another

popular
lesson
to
"

favor.

taught
a

important acquisition
are more

something pedagogy
the
to

will be science. of each

some

permanent
Few

the

of the

things
of

interestingto
methods than
to

student
trace

the

history

arithmetic

school-room

practice
to

of

to-day
science
to

its

origin
the the

in

worthy

contributor
use

the

(e.g., in

primary grades, the

"number
as
. .

of blocks Busse
;

Trapp, 1780;
tables

pictures" to preparation
and Tanck have

Von the

counting by 2's, 3's.

to

for
;

plication multiMore which

Knilling
But best the

etc.).

recently several
are a

famous

methods

appeared
trend eclectic

still advocated.

present
each
"

is toward method.

choosing
Most

of the

from

an

questions
tested. It

of

method

have

never

been

quately adesome

is, for
that of

instance, asserted

by
as

and

denied

by
at

others the end

pupils would
the with 8th the doubt school

know
year
or even

much if

arithmetic
were

they
later.

to

begin
may
can

arithmetic well tell? lead The

us

5th

History
but who arithmetic the

to

the

proposition;
in all of in

greatest
the

desideratum

teaching to-day is subject by the scientific

thorough
with be

study

methods
one

employed
benefactor

educational

psychology.
for

Some

facilities for
a

doing

this service

arithmetic

could

58

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

indeed. and

Questions
measurement

that should

are

matters

for remain

accurate

test

not

always

questions.

Meantime,

empiricism

is

unavoidable.

To

summarize of of

the

tendencies

noted of the

the

zation decimalition eliminain ernizing moddemand clination inmetic, arithgation. investi-

arithmetic,
many with the

growth
from

percentage,
school
on

topics
increased
treatment

curriculum

arithmetic

emphasis
of

others,

remaining
in

topics, computation,
in

for

more

accuracy

and
an

rapidity
method

toward

eclectic

teaching

present
This but it is believed such

empiricism
list

pending
course, true

scientific far from

is, of
to

exhaustive,

be

and

significant.
as

Lacking
for of
as

exact

information of of

that make
our

just
the

asked best And

art

the

desideratum observation

to-day,
the trends in the

may

mere

of

time. of the and the

as

to

the

great

movements

history
are

of cisive. de-

arithmetic

itself,

the

conclusions

definite

By
and with in

orienting
the

ourselves,
we

by
may

studying acquaint
and
may
are

past

noting
the

currents,
of
course.

ourselves take conditioned

direction

present
Our

forces

part

shaping
our

our

to-days by

by

yesterdays,

to-morrow

to-day.

MULTIPLICATION

AND

DIVISION

OF

MALS. DECI-

For invented Of has in I

the

multiplication
many

of

whole Pacioli

numbers

the

Italians

methods.*
one
was

(1494)
use,

gives
and

eight.

these,
survived
on

only
in

in

common

it alone Shown cake

or

commerce

and called

the

schools.

p.

64.

It

was

bericiiocolo and

(honey
scacchiera The

ginger
or

bread)

by

the

Florentines,
the Venetians. into

(chess

checker the
names

board)

by

little squares with them the

in the

partial products
which form the in
appear

fell made
p.

disuse

(and

they
II
on

appropriate)
The Treviso

leaving
arithmetic
a

familiar

64.

(1478), example
would

first

arithmetic

printed,
which of

contains about

long
as

multiplication,
on

appears
an

it

the

blackboard

American

school

to-day.
In

1585

appeared
seven

Simon
pages,

Stevin's
but the first the

immortal

La
to

Disme,

only

publication
same

expound
had used

decimal them Ill

on

fractions,
in p.
an

though
table La in of
same

author the and

or

interest

published
Disme, circles,

year shows
theses, paren-

before. Stevin's

64 (the
the IV

is

from

notation

numbers order is the

indicating
first order

decimals,

tenths

the the in
debted in-

etc.) expressed

example
now

with

decimals
*

by
facts

the
in

notation
this
section and

prevalent
the author David
on

For

the

historical
to

is

mainly
Smith,
the
two

Professor American

Cajori

Prof.

Eugene

leading

authorities

the

history

of

mathematics.
59

6o

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

America. vin's An
a

Let

us

call this arrangement

of

work

Ste-

method.

arrangement
column Adrian
not

in which

all decimal is said of

a

points
to

are

in

vertical

(see V
Romain been sake
a

below)
quarter
the of

have

been later.

used He

by
may
;

century
this

have for the

inventor
a

of

ment arrange-

but,

name,

call it Romain's

method. Romain
recent

's method

is advocated

in

few

of

the

best

advanced
common

arithmetics, but
;

Stevin's
are

is still vastly

the in

more
use.

and has
an

these four

two

the only methods

:

Romain's

slightadvantages
from
as

(1 )

person

setting down
to

example
soon

dictation the

can

begin
decimal waits
any

write

the

multiplieras
while entire
to

place
method he

of its he

point
to

is seen, the

in

Stevin's

hear

multiplier before
its last

writes

of it, in order beneath this the

have last
may

(right-hand) figure
the

stand

figure
be

of

multiplicand
as a essential non-

(though

positon
in fits

regarded
the

feature method method that

are

Stevin's

arrangement).
of

(2)

main's Ro-

more

naturally with (decimal point (3)

After
to

"Austrian"
over

of of

division

quotient
and

dividend).
it is not
as

the
count

partial products point

are

added,

necessary

off in the

in the the

product point
is

many

decimal

places as
well

there

multiplicand

and

multiplier together, product (as

that
more
as

since

decimal

in the

in the

partial
to
sults re-

products) (4)

directlybeneath
method is

in the

multiplicand. adapted
method

Romain's

readily

abridged multiplication where

are

only approximate
hand, Stevin's
:

required. On
very

the

other

has

one

decided

advantage

the

first

ten figure writits

in

each in the

partial product multiplier,so

is that

directly beneath
it is
not

figure

necessary

MULTIPLICATION

OF

DECIMALS.

(as

it is in

Romaiirs)
in
a

to

determine

the So

place

of

the is
to

decimal

point

partialproduct.
alone has the been
numerous

important

this, that
children,

Stevin's

generally taught points in

to

notwithstanding
to

favor

of Romain's. It occurred in
one

the

writer

recently to try
of both of the

combine Flemish rule :* last each

method and

the he

advantages
the the

the

methods,
Write the

hit upon

following simple multiplierunder

method of

units

figure of
of in the which

the

(right-hand) figure partialproduct (as

under decimal the

multiplicand, begin

familiar
you
are

Stevin)
all

figureby
in the
may

multiplying,and
then be Decimal
or

points
that in

products will
be the written rule

neath directly be-

multiplicand.

points
as

in

partial products
The
reason

not,

desired. VI shows

underlying

is apparent.

the arrangement In

of work. the
as

this arrangement is

placing
Stevin's is

of

the

partialproducts
and
as

automatic,
off in the

in

method,

the main's. Ro-

pointing

product
for
use

automatic,
the child the

in

It is available

by

in his first
puter com-

multiplication of
in his To column in VII
are as

decimals

and

by

skilled

abridged work. keeping

be One like decimal that drawn of the
an

assist in

orders vertical the

uses

in the

same

it is recommended and VIII

the

line shown

before

partial products
of the
in line

written.

earliest

decimal

separatrix

is in

example
it

Napier's partial
first the
the

Rabdologia
and
*

(1617).

He

draws It
author Court

through
to

the

complete products.
Since of

is

said

be

writing
29-30

this the

the

has

come

upon

same

method

in Lagrange's Lectures, multiplication of

delivered is

in

1795
One
to

(p-

invents who find that "the

Open Publishing anything in elementary mathematics

have stolen his ideas."

Co.'s

edition).

likely

ancients

62

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

example
is VII advocated

of

abridged multiplication. A
whose diameter the is 635. the

circumference

computed
to

illustrates

application of
which of diameter

method
an

here

multiplicationin
The be
to

only
a

mation approxiis found

to

is

sought.
No

circle

by
0.01
to
are

measurement
cm.

74.28
can

cm.

This the

is correct circumference

computation
of

give
to

any

higher degree
to

accuracy.

Partial determine

products
the
rect cor-

kept

three for

places in
second

order

figure
The
to

the

place
of work

in the shows

complete
what

duct. pro-

arrangement

figures
of

omit.
It should be remarked decimals numbers that
are
"

all three
"

methods like the may

of multiplication of first
or

alike

and
one

tiplication mulply multi-

whole

in that order first.

by

the

digit of
the

lowest order

in the The
was

multiplier
method of described

by
the

the

digit of highest

multiplying by by
may

highest

order
as a

first

Italian
to

arithmeticians be

dietro.

Though
so

it in

seem

working
the
more

backwards,

it is not before the

fact and

for has like

it puts

important
in VII. But

less,

practical advantage
that shown the
one

abridged multiplication,
that

in

question

is

distinct Stevin the units units the last

from writes

under

consideration. the

the of

last the

figure of
method

multiplierunder
Romain writes writes

figure

multiplicand;
here whole

under under

units ; the last. In

proposed
units

numbers,

figure is

last.
to
or

Applied
as

the

ordinary multiplicationof decimals,

the
to

in be

VI well

VIII,

method schoolroom

here
use,

proposed
classes
was

seems

to

adapted
to

possessing
in

all

the

simplicity of
school

Stevin's.
whom the

Methods method

this

normal

presented,

MULTIPLICATION

OF

DECIMALS.

63
in the

immediately preferred it, and

school for used it

grade

trainingnothing,
its advocates.

readily.
is
a

Of
success

course

this proves in the hands

are,
as

every

method The

of

changes
;

here

set

forth

however,
a

not

advocated

they

are

merely proposed
for division It

bility. possi-

The possesses

analogous
of

method

of

decimals the
cessity ne-

analogous
of 10
now

advantages.
divisor the
most

avoids dividend

multiplying the
as

and

by
the

such in

power

will make

divisor in

integral (as
and

the

method of of

perhaps
to

favor)
the

cessity ne-

counting
minus

point
in the

of! in the
to

quotient a
number

ber num-

decimal

places equal
that Like like the the

in the

the

dividend method division

divisor the

(as

in

older the

still
at

common).
;

latter, it

begins
The

once

and shows

former, its pointing off

is automatic. under the last

IX

arrangement.
is units

figure
the decimal

figure of

the divisor the

figure of
the

quotient. point.
the That

This

determines

place

of

part of the quotient which

projectsbeyond
has been
seen

divisor, is fractional.
of used multiplication division in IX is
a

If the order
as

dietro,
to

in

VIII, the

readily

be in

the the

inverse
same

operation.
order
as

The

partialproducts
in use, remainders it may below

appear

partial dividends.
methods the be viated abbredend. divithe

Like

each

of

the

by writing only
Shown If whole had the in X. "little castle" with

method

of

multiplication of multiplicand,
board,"
in the for

numbers,

multiplier above
of the "chess
now

prevailed, instead
century,
the and multiplication

fifteenth the

arrangement

proposed
would

division of decimals

have

afforded

slightlygreater advantage.

64

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

II

13

12

2 9

13

12

65
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS.

ARITHMETIC

IN

THE

RENAISSANCE.

The

invention
not

of because

printing
it made the

was

important
books
more

for

metic, arith-

only
because

accessible,
Hindu

but

also

it. spread with text-book

to

use

of

the

abic") ("Ar-

numerals The oldest is said of

to

their
on

decimal arithmetic of

notation.
to
use

these
an

merals nu-

be

that about

Avicenna,
1000 A. D.

Arabian

physician According
of

Bokhara,
Cardan who Liber instance

(firooks).
it
was

(sixteenth
introduced

century)
the numerals In in
use

nardo Leorope Eu-

Pisa his
one

into

(by
there is

Abaci,
of in

1202).
their
use

England,
a

though
of
ceptional ex-

manuscript
somewhat Then
came

1282," and

another
even

1325,

their

is

in and

the
a

fifteenth
more

century.

printed
decimal The

books notation.

general

acceptance

of

the

importance
Even

of the

this

step
with

can

hardly
all their with and had of

be

estimated. over-

Greeks,

ical mathemat-

acumen,

had

contented of

themselves numbers in the

mystic
made

and
paratively com-

philosophic

properties
little
progress

art

computation.
such
a

They

lacked
was

suitable
at

notation. close That

a

When of the Middle

was

tion nota-

adopted

the

Ages,
one

the

art

advanced the

rapidly.

advance in the

feature

of

Renaissance,
of "the choice that
age

detail

great century

intellectual from

awakening
to

marvelous of

half

1450

1500,
The

progress."
the
66

between

old

and

the

new

in

arith-

ARITHMETIC

IN

THE

RENAISSANCE.

67
illustration* of

metical

notation in the

is well first

pictured by
Two is

the

arithmetic

rita printed cyclopedia, the Margaaccountants

are

Philosophica (1503).
their voting The tables.
man,

at

The the

old Hindu looks

man

using
so

the

abacus

; the to
us.

numerals askance
at

familiar

aered reckoner
face both the is

his youthful
;

rival,
a

in whose behind have younger doubt The

hope
the

and

confidence
to

while

on

dais shall

stands

goddess
Her her

decide
are

which
on

ascendency.
candidate,
at to

eyes

fixed there be
can

the be
no

right, and
is to is

that

the

new

numerals the

the

victory.
of

background
It is
an

of

picture
of of four the

characteristically
of the

medieval. the old

apt illustration
To has
us

passing
of old

arithmetic.
one

centuries
towers

after, it
ford) Ox-

whispers (as
"the The

said

last enchantment book

of the known
as

Middle the

Age."
metic, arithmetic first arithIn this

anonymous from
ever

Treviso the

its

place long

of It

publication,is appeared
the

printed.
of

in

1478.

Italian

work

ago
was

But method

long
then

division

ern. looks modmultiplication by the galley (or "scratch")

prevalent.
Summa
say
ten

Paciolrs 1494 Hindu

di

Arithmetical

was

published
uses

in

(some

years

earlier).

It also

the

numerals.

Tonstall's

arithmetic
work book

(1522)
of

was

"the

first

tant imporDe

arithmetical

"J English authorship.

the
most

Morgan
which in
*

calls the
ever
was

"decidedly
on

classical

written

the

subject
of

in

Latin, both

purity
See

of

style and

goodness

matter."

frontispiece.
the for words the "zero"

fin Pacioli's work, found (millione) are 284.

(cero)
in

and

"million"

first time

print. Cantor,

II,

t Cajori, 'Hist, of Elem.

Math.,

p.

180.

68

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Recorde's written teaches in

celebrated

Grounde It the

of

Aries

(1540)
numerals,

was

English. by

uses

Hindu The

but is in

reckoning
form. first

counters.

exposition

dialogue
The

English
Mellis

work

on

double

entry
has
an

ing, book-keepappendix

by
on

John

(London,

1588),

arithmetic. The

Pathzvay
Dutch in The into 1596.

to

Knowledge, English
It contains has

anonymous, W.
two

translated

from London

by

P.,

was

published
which
are

in mortal. im-

lines said
to

translator In modernized Of is

been form the

be

the known

author
to

of

the

lines.

they

are

every

schoolboy.
age,

all

arithmetical the classic

doggerel
:

of

that

this

pre-eminently
hath

"Thirtie

daies

September,

Aprill,

June,

and

vember, No-

Februarie,
and

eight
one."

and

twentie

alone

all

the

rest

thirtie

On

the

subject
Books

of is
to

early
the the

arithmetics standard work. is Prof. Old Co.

De

Morgan's
An David esting intergene Eu-

Arithmetical

contribution

subject
"The "

Smith's

illustrated

article,

and in

the

New
book Text-

Arithmetic,"
Bulletin,

published
February.

by

Ginn

their

1905.-

NAPIER'S

RODS
AIDS TO

AND

OTHER CALCULATION.

MECHANICAL

No has
to

mathematical been made for

invention three

to

facilitate that
or

computation
is

centuries

comparable
bones,"
to

logarithms.
famous,
that
owe

Napier's
their the

rods,
interest

"Napier's
now

once

largely
man

the gave Mer-

fact

they
to

are

invention

of

the

who of is the

logarithms
chiston. in of his The The

the

world,

John

Napier,
of in

baron the rods

inventor's

description published

tained con-

his

Rabdologia,

1617,

year

death. rods with consist

square

of

10

strips
A

of

wood has
on

or

other each of

terial, ma-

ends. the

rod of four

its

four One the Each

lateral of the

faces rods of

multiples
on

one

of

the

digits.

has,
0,

the

faces of
two

respectively,
0, 2,

multiples
square

1, 9,
the

8;

another,
of

9,

7;

etc. two

gives
the

product being
E. the left
g.,

digits, by

the

figures
of hand

of the

product

separated Fig.
2 and the

the

onal diagright
the

square.

in

lowest

square

contains 9 the

digits 7
of the
same

2,

72

being
and 8

product
the

of of 2

(at

the

row)

(at

top

rod).
the and nine faces of the rods and
as

Fig.

represents
of

giving against

the
a

multiples
rod all

4,

3 the
to

8,

placed digits
438
to

together
be used
any

containing
in

multiplier,
"

position

multiply

by

number

say

69

yO

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

26.
the

The
tens

products

are

written
case

off, from
be added
a

the
to

rods. the

But
next
are

digitin
The

each

is to

units
to

digit; that is, the

added.

two

figures in
of

rhomboid

be

operation

multiplying438 by 26,

Fig.

i.*

after

arranging
as

the
:

rods

as

in

Figure 2,
at

would

be

somewhat

follows first

beginning
we

the
+

right hand

and

multiplying
*

by 6,

have

8, 4

8, (carrying the

From

Lucas, III, 76.

NAPIER

RODS.

71

4.

4^ 2,
first

giving

the

number

(from

left to

right)
is read
at

2628,

the

partialproduct.
from the

Similarly 876
row

of squares

the It is

right of
shifted

the
one

multiplier2. place
to

the

left in tial partwo

writing it
numbers Somewhat
use

under

the former Then

these

product.
are

added.

analogous
rods for that
to

is the

of the

division.

"It is evident
be of little the
as use

they would
one

any

who
as

knew far

table multiplication
x

9."*

Though
later
so

lished pubthan much

(and invented) logarithms,

admire,
more

which rods
were

we

the

welcomed

cordially by
Several

raries. contempoof the

out

editions

Fig.

Rabdologia
2. on

were

brought
within rude of the
a

the
more

Continent

cade. deof

"Nothing
arithmetical

shows

clearly the
the

state
teenth seven-

knowledge
than invention
a

at

beginning
welcomed

century
which
and this

the

universal
was

satisfaction

with

Napier's
as

by
rods

all classes It is from is interesting

regarded point
and of

real aid to calculation."* that

to

view

the
us.

study
other

of

the

instructive

The

Rabdologia
of rods mechanical

contains for

matter

besides

the

description
But such

multiplication and
are

division.
seded. super-

aids to calculation

soon

Dr.

Glaisher
a.

in

his

article

"Napier"

in

the

Encyclopedia

Britannic

*J2

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

It in the

is

worthy
absence

of of Arabic

note

in

this

connection,
an

however,
for

that tion calculadevices

so

facile

instrument

as

our

notation,
so

simple
as

mechanical
to

might
turies.

be The

found

serviceable which is

persist
to

for

cen

abacus,
as

familiar

almost of

every

one,

but

only

historical
a

relic,
a

piece

tive illustraaid
to

apparatus,

or

toy,
the

was

highly
and

important
Romans.

computation
to

among is the

Greeks

Similar It
to

the

abacus

Chinese
are

swan

pan.
its and
use,

is make

said

that

Oriental

accountants

able,
accuracy with

by

putations com-

rivaling by
Modern Occidentals

in

speed
on

those

formed per-

numerals
cent

paper. and the

adding complicated

machines,
and such

per

devices,

more

costly
mechanical and the

calculating
marvels machines tables of
as

instruments "electrical of

have

led

up

to

calculating
and and

machines"
which

Babbage logarithms

Scheutz,
of

latter functions

prepare

logarithmic

without

error

arithmetical and

or

typographical,
them If

computing,
for be the press.

stereotyping

ering deliv-

ready
rods the

Napier's
of of

regarded
century, of

as

exemplars they
are

of

such

products
members

nineteenth

primitive

long

line

honorable

succession.

AXIOMS

IN

ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA.

Many
with 1.
are
a

text-books list of axioms

on

the such

subject
as

introduce

equations

the

following:
or

Things equal
to

equal
each be be

to

the

same

thing

equal

things

other. added
to

2.

If If
are

equals equals equal. equals

equals,
from

the

sums

are

equal.
ders remain-

3.

subtracted

equals,

the

4.
are

If

be

multiplied

by

equals,

the

products

equal.
5.
If

equals

be

divided

by

equals,

the

quotients

are

equal.
6. The Like whole
powers,

is

greater
or

than roots,

any

of

its
are

parts.

7.

like

of

equals

equal.
the based dation founalso

These of the

time-honored

"common arithmetic. On But

notions" them it is
to

are

logical
of

is
most

reasoning
we

algebra.
their
we

desirable

that, when
of of

extend

meaning
should

the the

comparison
limitations of tations limi-

algebraic
the axioms.

numbers,

notice is
a

Generalization When have been those them.

we

characteristic
we

mathematics. that
true true

generalize,
stated
or

remove

implied.
may
or

A
may

tion proposinot
we

with

limitations For of the

be
ceed pro-

without from

illustration:
two

When
to

geometry

dimensions

geometry
understood
are

of in

three

dimensions,
geometry,

limitation,
all

always
considered

plane
while

that

figures
motion
73

cept (exsuper-

employing

the

postulate

for

74

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

position) in
removed.

the

plane
of in

of

the

paper

or

blackboard,
true

is

Some hold this

the

propositions
some

in
not.

plane
pare Coma

geometry
in

also

solid, and
two
one

do

respect the

theorems,

"Through
can

given
drawn

external
to
a

point only

perpendicular
a

be

and, "Through given line,''

one

given internal

point only
line."*
For

perpendicular
another than when

can

be
see

drawn the of
means

illustration
one

given paragraph (p.

to
a

37), "Are
of
a

there

more

set

prime

factors

number?"
; yes

No the

factor

arithmetic is extended instances of

number
to

when

meaning

of the word See also

include

complex

numbers.
p.

the We

"fallacy of accident,"

85

f.

of the axioms metic of arithmight expect that some when would need qualification tend we attempt to exthem
so
as

to

apply

to

algebraic numbers.
we

And that all

that

is what have

we

find.

But
their

do

not

find the

authors
or

notified them
too

readers
own

of
use

limitations

have

observed it is not shall

terms

in their
to

of the axioms. of in

Surely
a

much
true

expect that the axioms

science the

be
are

and

applicable in
axiom,"
it should

the

sense

which The

used

in that science.

fifth,or

"division

receive
best Without of

the the such

important qualification given

books, "divided
limitation A
on

by

the

by equals,except zero.3'
statement

the

is far "axiom"

from may
:

axiomatic.
also have
+
-

writer another
or

of the page

sixth

something Seeing
how
ever

like this
one

"+ 3 is the

whole,
+ on

sunt/'
wonders could whole

that

of its parts is
a

+2
-

7, one

the

author, in
have written than
in

text-book the
of "ax-

1 3

algebra,

iom," "The
*

is greater

any
the

its

parts."
in

Using the term perpendicular elementary geometry.

sense

customary

AXIOMS

IN

ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA.

75

In

the

seventh

axiom,
Otherwise

like

roots

of
:

equals
Like taken.'"

are

equal
roots

arithmetically.
of

worded

real

equals
When
we

are

equal,
use

like word else

signs

being
in

the

"equal"
"same"

the If
two

axioms,
numbers
same

do

we

mean

anything
same as a

than

"

are

the

third

number,

they

are

the

as

each

other,
The of
"

etc.?

defense

often
are

heard

for in axiom Besides

the

unqualified
that
"

axiom,
here Roots this that
or are

Like
means are

roots

equals
they
To

equal,
the

algebra
to

like

equal equal
and cube
to

would if

reduce
are

platitude, insipid,
must mean,

equal.
of
to any use,

being
axiom each
a

is if

sufficient inC
a

be

the

are

known
of A then for inference the and C

represent
B and
same

square

root, and known the

case

each known be
two

root, be

respectively,
D
are as

and

if

equal,
this

certainly
Now in when like

to

expressions
roots

number.

of
are

square

is

justified

only

signs
3

taken.

For

cube

roots,

if

A=B=1,

then

"

t^

t^v/
B;

"

is

cube

root

of

A,

and"

"

"

^s/"
3
are

is

cube

root

of

but

"

+
?

-\/"

and

"

-=

"

"/
Tj-

"

not

expressions
be taken and be
to to

for

the

same

number.

If

their
are

modulus

(page
to

94)
other axiom

as

their real

absolute cube Like

root

value,
1

they
absolute
roots

equal
value.

each
our

the
to

in

If it cube

made such

read,

odd

real

are

equal,
one

is

applicable
root

roots

without
has but

trouble.
one,

has
are

but

that

is

real,

and

and

they
It

equal.

is

interesting

to

notice

in

passing

that

the

two

numbers

just

used,

"

"+-"%/"
each of

and
"

"

"

3, -?-\/-"
of

are

pair

of

unequal

numbers

which

is

the

square

the

other.

DO

THE

AXIOMS

APPLY

TO

EQUATIONS?
them

Most if in

text-books

in Most
or

elementary
of the

algebra
have,

use

as

they
the

applied.
first

algebras

somewhere like this:

fifty

sixty
3*

pages,

something

4=19 member,

Subtracting

from

each

3x

15

Ax.

Dividing

by

3,
x
=

Ax.

This
on

shows

how is.

common

some

very
no

loose

thinking
has of been

this in

subject
the

For

although

mistake citation

made
as

algebraic operation,
for these

the

axioms
a

authority
divide which other As
a

steps
of
a an

opens

the

way

for
an

pupil

to

both
case

members he

equation
* or

by
to

unknown,
one

in the

drops
and

solution,
a

apply

of

axioms
matter

introduce axioms
one can

solution.
not

of for

fact, the

do

apply
the which and

directly
axioms,
is correct inout
can

to

equations:
no

(A)
and
can

follow
a

make

mistake,
;

arrive violate from

at

result

(B)

he the

the

axioms

come

right;
not

(C)

axioms,
to

their

very

nature,

apply
*

directly
teacher of

equations.
elementary carefully
to

Every
of

algebra guided)
note to

is
to

aware

of

the

tendency by x" when

the

pupils
o.

(unless
and

"divide have

through
lost
out

possible,
x
=

fail

that

they

solution

76

DO

THE

AXIOMS

APPLY

TO

EQUATIONS?
out

JJ

(A)

To

follow

axioms

and .,--1=2

come

wrong'.

(1)
x
"

Multiplying Subtracting Dividing Adding

But that

each

member .r2-"r
+

by
5
=

$f
Ax. 4

2.r-10

7 from x2-7x+\2

each
=

member,
x-3
"

Ax.

each

member

by

3,
Ax. 5

4T-4=1
4 to each

member,
.r
=

5
The
.

Ax.

2
x

5 does

not

satisfy ( 1 )
is 3.
at

only

value

of

satisfies

(1)

Misunderstanding
it is deemed tedious. solution
x
-

this

point

is

so

common

that

best

to

be

explicitat
x x
-

the

risk of being
introduces the tion solu-

The
x
=

multiplicationby
the division be when and value
;

5
-

5, and
Now

by

3 loses the that the

3.

it may section
zero,

argued,
that of
x

axioms

of

the

preceding
division

clude properly qualifiedex-

by
3

is here which shows for what The this

form

of

zero

since

is the

for

equation
that in value

(1 )
of
to

is true. with
are

Exactly
true

but the
to

this

only
raised. them

operating
x

equations
is bound and axioms

question
be

they

attempt

qualify the

adjust
to

to

necessity
to

will,if thoroughgoing, lead

of
*

of equivalency principles is

equations.*
Such,
add for To subtract

Any
as

objector
the
same

requested

study

following : expression (known or unknown) of an to both members equation, does not affect the value of x (the resulting equation is equivalent to the original). To multiply or divide both members number not by a known
or

example,

the

zero,

does

not

affect the
or

value both

of

x.

To of
x,

multiply
introduces of

divide
or

members

by

an

integral function

solution

the

loses, respectively,solutions (namely, the formed by putting the multiplier equation

equal
the

to

zero)

it

being

understood

that

the

equations

are

in

standard

form.

?8

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

carefully the principlesof equivalency

one

as

set

forth
to

in
the

of the best
on on

algebras and
one

notice
to

their relation with then

axioms

the

hand
see

and

operations
he
not

tions equapared pre-

the
say

other, and
that the

whether do

is not

to

axioms

apply directlyto
is not
on

equations.
It attack should
on

be

noted

that the

the

foregoing
not

an

the

integrityof
them where in

axioms, but
are

only
not

the

application of
If it be

they (A)

applicable.
are

objected that

the axioms
are

really
as

followed, the

reply is, that they

here

followed
to

they
them

are

naturally followed by
the authors
are

by pupils taught
as

apply

to equations, and directly

they

are

occasionally
the

followed

of

some

elementary algebras,
more

only

the

errors

here

made

glaring and

process

reduced

ad

absurdum.

(B)
In

To

violate the
to

axioms

and

come

out

right:
made

order

avoid

the

objection that
may

the

errors

by violating two only

Add
one

axioms will be

just balance (1)

not to

each

other,

axiom

violated. x-\=2

10

to

one

member deemed
a

and

the other.

This

will

doubtless of

be the

sufficiently flagrant transgression

axiom":
^" +

"addition

2
x
-

(2)
3,

Multiplying each Subtracting 2x-6 Dividing Adding

each

member
x2
+

by
-27
=

6x

2x-6

(3) (4)

Ax.

from

each

member,
Ax. 3

.r* + 4.r-21=0

member

by
.r-3

+
=

7,
0

(5)

Ax.

3 to

each

member,
x
=

Ax.

DO

THE

AXIOMS

APPLY

TO

EQUATIONS?
of been in

79

Inasmuch
error

as

3 is the

correct

root

equation (1), the

balanced

in the
or

first step must several.

at

have done

by

other, an-

by

It

was

obtaining (3)
were

and

(5), though
(C)
have The
etc.
"

both

steps the axioms

applied.
can

The

axioms,

from

their

very

nature,

not

any

direct

application to equations.
say
are

axioms the

that

"

if

equals
But value for
to

be

added

to

equals
ing solv-

results

equal.
what

the of
x

question in
are

equations is, For

Of when
to
x.

they equal?
of
x.

course

they

are was

equal
added
were

some
one

value member
some

So
not

something

and value
to to

the

other, the results

equal for
numbers,
are

of

Arithmetic, dealing with

certain
;

needs

know certain the

on
same known un-

that others

resulting

numbers

equal
the
to

but

algebra, dealing
the

with

equation,
know the of the

conditional zvhat number

equality of expressions, needs expressions represent

for what In values is true. is not in other

condition
"

words,

the
to
are

equation

(B)

above, the

jection ob-

equation (2)
are

that
as

its two much but

as

members
are

not

equal (they
of the the
same

"equal"
value

the
are

two not

members

first

equation) of
x as

that

they

equal for
; that

in the

first equation

is

(2)

is not

equivalent to (1).
of

The in
a

principlesof equivalency
few of the best The Even of the
texts

equations
are

as

given
ferred de-

not

too

difficult

for the

beginner.
till later.

proof
if

of them

may

well be

never

proved, they
would that be

would axioms

be, for the

that do
not

present

purpose,

vastly superior to
no

apply.
the

To

give

reasons

erable prefnot

to

practice of quoting

axioms

do

apply.

So

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

The

axioms

have in

their the the

place proof
axioms

in of

connection the

with of

equations equivalency.
of

namely,
To

principles
in the

apply
is be
an

directly

lution so-

equations
can

error.

Pupils
the
nature

hardly
of the of have

expected
when

to

think

clearly
are
so

about misled. tary elemenin

equation
the made is

they majority

How

the

authors

great
so

of

the

texts

can

palpable
of the
seven

mistake wonders

so

elementary algebra.

matter,

one

of

CHECKING

THE

SOLUTION

OF

AN

TION. EQUA-

The

habit their for

which

many
of

high-school
an

pupils by

have
first

of
stituting sub-

checking

solution
x

equation
of upon the

in

both like

members

given

tion, equa-

performing
until
a

operations
is

both and

members then claring dethe

numerical their work

identity

obtained,
may the be

"proved/'
in

illustrated is

by

following
:

"proof,"
Syi

which

absurdity

rent appa-

Checking
in
one

in

the of

legitimate
the
to

manner

"

by substituting
and then

member number

given

equation
form,
to

reducing

the

resulting
in
we

its

simplest

substituting
form
"

the have

other 1
+

member

and for the

are

reducing
first
not

simplest
and 1
-

y7
As

member,

V 7

for

the
a

second.
root

these

equal
is
no

numbers,
root.

5 is not

of

the

equation.

There
81

82

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

'

The

was

introduced

in but either for

squaring.
not

That

is,

satisfies

equation
of
a

(3)
in

(2)
or

or

(1).
we

By
obtain

the
an

change

sign
is

(1)
x
=

(2)

equation

that

true

5:

1+
When rational

V*+2

:
=

1+

V12-*

equations
there from
are

are

derived other the

from irrational of

irrational

by

involution,

always
in

tions, equafrom derived.

differing
which
In
a

these

sign

term,
be

the

same

rational

equations
may be found

would the

popular

algebra

equation

x+5and is
not.

Vjtr+5
=

6 the

in

the for

answer

list

printed
4 instance

in is

book, solution,

"4,
but

or

1"
-

given

this

equation.
this in that the all

1
-

is

Unfortunately
As
the

is

not

unique.
shown

fallacy

erroneous

method

above that

is

in

assuming
may To be

operations by
5
2 4
=

are

reversible,

method

caricatured
'

the 1

old

absurdity,

prove

that

\J

Subtracting Squaring

from

each,

-2/^
= =

,-.5

1!

ALGEBRAIC

FALLACIES.

A
are

humorist

maintained
a

that with

in

all

literature

there and

really only
to

few
a

jokes

many into

variations,
which
all A

proceeded
could be

give
"

classification list of

jests

placed

limited
to

type

jokes.

fellow

humorist
if the

proceeded
writer's
memory

reduce is the that

this

number

(to three,
Whereupon
a

correct).

third

representative
step
and declared

of

profession
there in
to
on are

took
none.

the

ing remain-

Whether

these

gentlemen
or

succeeded another

eliminating
an

jokes
enormous

gether alto-

in

adding

already point
and of

number,
The of of the

depends
writer
commoner

perhaps
to

the

view.
some

purposes

classify

illustrate the but of fond the

algebraic striking
certain like
to

fallacies, in

hope,
rather

not

adding

original
types,

specimen,
at
are

of

standardizing
them.

the

risk
not

blighting
of

Fallacies,
is

ghosts,
all

light.

Analysis
Of divided notice of the

perilous
or

species

of into
a

genus. Aristotle

classes,
fallacies

subclasses,
of

which few is merit that

the here.

logic, only
among
as

special variety
In
or

Prominent known it
a

these

paralogism

undistributed the is

middle. of
converse,

mathematics

masks

as

fallacy
not

employing
as

process For

that

uniquely following:*

reversible

if

it

were.

example,

the

Taken,

with

several

of W. W.

the R.

other Ball.

illustrations,
See his

from

the

fallacies Recreations

compiled
and

by

Mathematical

Essays.
83

84

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Let numbers

be
a

the and

arithmetic b ; that

mean

between

two

unequal

is, let
a

+ b

2c

(1)
2bc 2bc

Then

(a + b) (a-d)=2c(a-d)
a2
"

b2
2ac
=

2ac

"

Transposing, Adding
c2 to

a2

"

b2

"

each,

a2-2ac+c2
.'.a"c

b2-2bc+c2
b
"

(2) (3)

and

But Of

and
course

were

taken
two

unequal.
of

the but of of that

so

members

(3)
The

are

ally arithmeticsquares, the

equal
two
so

opposite quality;their
(2),
are

members

equal.
seem

fallacy here
expose

is

apparent

it would
common

superfluous to
one

it,were
For

it not another

in take

form

or

another.
used in the

example
to

the
an

absurdity
erroneous

preceding section
checking
a a

caricature
of
an

method
us

of
to

solution

equation.

Let

resort

parallel column
A

arrangement:
-

bird

is

an

animal;
animal;

Two

equal
squares;
two

numbers

have

equal
A horse is
an

These

numbers

have

equal
.".

squares;

horse The

is

bird.

.".

These

two

numbers

are

equal.

untutored
at

man

poohthe'

The

first-year high-school
derides this

poohs
to

this, because
is
a

pupil
the

whenever

conclusion
notice of

absurd, but fails

conclusion allow
the
to

is absurd, but
pass

like

fallacy on

the

would

unchalmethod

lips

the
own

politicalspeaker
party.

lenged
of

fallacious
shown

of his

checking

in the preceding

section.

In much
to

case

of indicated

square

roots
common

the

fallacy may
convention

be
as

less

apparent.
is understood

By

the

sign, +

before

V-

Considering, then.

ALGEBRAIC

FALLACIES.

85
real odd
root,

only
true

the that

even positive

root

or

the
are

it is

"like

roots

of

equals
v

equal," and
v av

ab=

But
no

if

and

are

negative, and by assuming

even,

the have

identity
the surdity ab-

longer holds,

and

it

we

V(_l)

(-1)=

V^T.

V-l

1=-1

Or

take

for

granted
The

that

x\\b

V, a
=

-7-

for all values

of

Vb
an

the

letters.
=

following is

identity, since

each

member

V"

1:

VI
Hence !

V-i

Clearing of fractions,
Or The from
a

( Vl )2= ( V"
1=-1

"fallacy of
general
rule renders and fallacy, De

accident," by
to
a

which
where

one some

argues cumstance cirverse con-

special case

the

rule

and inapplicable, third

its

Morgan's suggested
one

variety general
form of

of

the

fallacy,from

special case

to

another, all
As
a

find

exemplificationin pseudo-algebra.
but The is the
common

rule, if equals be divided

by equals, the quotients are

divisors
are

equal ;
zero.
case

not

if the

equal
the

any
to

of application method

general rule
the

this

special
of

underlying

largest number

the

fallacies. algebraic

86

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

"""

9
-

O
-

x-

x-

x-

Factoring the
and the

first member

as

the difference
a common

of squares,

second

by taking (x
+

out

factor,

x) (x-x)
x

=x(x-x)
x=x

Canceling

x-x,

(1) (2)
(3)

2x 2

1 into

Dividing by
which is true

changes identity(1)
for
x

equation (2),
0. viding Di-

only
leaves old

one

value

of x,

namely

(2) by
Take another

the

absurdity (3).

illustration:*

The

use

of

divergent
which which
one

series
assumes

furnishes

another
to

type
be

of

fallacy,in
of all series For

something only
series

true

in fact is true the harmonic

of the is

convergent.

this

purpose

perhaps oftenest employed.

+ i+|+|+|
...

Group

the

terms

thus:

/l
.

1\

/l
.

.1
.

.to

+ (~-\ terms)

Every
written
*

term

(after the
Therefore

second)
the
as

in the of the
in
a

series first number

as n

now

"}/2.

sum

terms of the

Referred to by De Morgan of forty years Athcnccum ago.

"old"

ALGEBRAIC

FALLACIES.

87 indefinitely.*
But
-

increases
The the series

without has in
no

limit finite series

as
sum

increases
; it is

divergent.
and

if

signs

this

are

alternately+

the

series

2^3
is convergent. is transparent With

4+5
the

this in mind,
:

following fallacy

enough

10*2-1-!+!-!+!-!+... "'1 H+.. .HK+I+...)

+

.[(:+!+!+...)+(!+!+
-"!+!+!+.

"")
-0

But

log 1
"

0 written in

Suppose
30

place

of

each

parenthesis.
the

and

are

both

convenient

"quantities" for
have
same

fallacymaker. By tacitly assuming

and
as

that all real numbers

are

rithms logalaws

that

they

amenable

to

the

the

logarithms

of arithmetic

numbers,

another

type

of

fallacv emerges:

(-d2=i
Since
the

logarithms
2

of

equals are
(-1)=0

equal,
=

log (-l)=logl

/.log /.log
and
*The
sum

(-l)=logl
-1
terms

=1
"l
+

of the

first 2"

!4".

88

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

The

idea

of

this type have and

is credited turned
out

to

John Bernoulli.
like these found who light dehave

Some
as

great minds

conceits

by-products,
in the
a
same

many

amateurs

occupation. tangle
may be may
to
a

To for

those their

enjoy
to

weaving
And

mathematical diversion the

friends
as

unravel, the

recommended be
weave

less. harmising promgent tan-

following
which

suggested
a

as

points
of for those
an

around

snarl:

the

angle becoming (n
the
;

discontinuous

function
are

particular values by
+

of the

angle
k does

which

resented rep-

discontinuous ^)"7r;

tions; algebraic funcare

the unit
vectors
-

fact

that

when

h, j and
law
theorems

rectangular
not

commutative well-known
true

hold, but
etry geom-

hjk

kjh
are

the
not

of

plane

that

in solid

geometry

without

fication qualiorder.

; etc.

Let In the

us

use

one

of

these if the

to

make

fallacy to
be

fraction

1/x,

denominator

diminished,

the

fraction
x
"

is increased.

When then

S, 3, 1,

1, -3, -5,
-

a
-

decreasing series, 1/5, an

series ing increas-

l/x

1/5, 1/3, 1,
term

1,
the

1/3,
second

series,
as,

by rule, each
the the
term

of it:

is greater 1/3. is

than Then

before
term

1/3 " 1/5, l"l/3,

than the 1.

-l/5""

fourth

is greater

third ; that

-1"
Neither
the fallacies sound
not

of

formal

logic nor
From

those
the

of

algebra invalidate
coin
one

reasoning.
infer that the counterfeit

terfeit coun-

does of

genuine

is valueless.
us

Scrutiny
avoid

the

may

enable

to

being

deceived

later

by

some

clever particularly
so

specimen.

Counterfeit

coins

also, if

stamped,

make

good playthings.

TWO

HIGHEST

COMMON

FACTORS.

If

asked will

for

the

H.C.F.
and

of

a2
-

x2

and

x3-a3,
a.

one

pupil right?
raise

give
Both.

a
-

x,

another

Which
that

is

It

is

only
the

in

such

case

pupils
in

the

question
two

but

example given
would

is

not

peculiar
had been

having
x2
-

H.C.F.
x3

If

the

expressions naturally
be

a2

and

-a3,

x-a

obtained,
;

and

would

probably
as

be

the

only
factor

H.C.F.

offered

but

a
-

is

much

common

and

is

of of

as

high
"

degree.
it

Perhaps
is but

it

is

taken

as

matter

course

certainly

rarely
has

stated
"

that

every

set

of

gebraic al-

expressions

two

highest opposite
is used in

common

factors,

arithmetically
As the
term

equal

but

of

quality.
a

"highest"
perhaps

technical solecism

way,

the

purist

will

pardon

the

"two

highest." Similarly,
set

of

course,.

there

are

two

L.C.M.

of

every the

of

algebraic
list for

expressions.
exercises in L.C.M.

By

going
in
an

through algebra
list of

answer

and

changing

the

signs,

one

obtains

another

swers. an-

POSITIVE

AND

NEGATIVE

NUMBERS.

To still so'

speak
common

of

arithmetical
an error
as

numbers
to

as

positive,
at not

is

need

correction
are

every

opportunity. They
are

The
are

numbers numbers

of

arithmetic

tive. posi-

without either
race.

quality.
in How than the

Negatives
individual's

not

later
or

than in

positives,
that of the be

conception
of
one

can

the

idea
or

of

two

opposites
terms

earlier and

the

other,

clearer?

The

"positive"
can

"negative"
without

being
the

correlative,
other.* An
on

neither

have

meaning

"algebraic
the

balance"

has
to

been

patented

and

put
and other

market,f
numbers,
on an

designed
also

illustrate and

positive
the of The
a

negative operations
of of this

transposition
It with in is

equation.
scale pans

composed weights.

tem sysvalue and

levers excellent

and

apparatus
is E. the in
a

ijlustrating positive
them in the
to

negative
of pan
*

numbers other.

showing weight
on

be

opposites
scale

each

g.,

positive
exerted
the

neutralizes
A

pull

the
clear
and the

beam

by

good
between
the of
an

exercise

to

develop negative
of the

thinking
arithmetic and

as

to

tion rela-

positive, equation
rise
to to

numbers

is,

to

consider

correspondence
the

positive
and the is

negative
of the
to

tions solu-

arithmetic

solutions

problem
what

that

gave

equation,

question
due. in School

primary
t By
and N.

assumptions
P, C. Donecker,

this

correspondence
Described

Chicago.
also
1905; and

Science

Mathematics.

See

"Another

Algebraic
id., Jan.

Balance,"
for 1907,

by
High

J. Lennes,
School

id., Nov.

"Content-Problems

School

Algebra,"
Review.

by

G.

W.

Meyers,

reprinted

from

90

POSITIVE

AND

NEGATIVE

NUMBERS.

9I

weight
two

of

equal
are

mass

in

the

negative
mass,
as

scale the
two

pan.

The

weights
of into

of

equal

numbers

are

equal

arithmetical scale
;

value.
pan,

When

the
a

weight
"real,"

is
or

put

either number

it

represents
+
or
-.

quality,
The
to

it becomes

either "less

unfortunate the

expression
attempt
and
to to

than

nothing"

(due

Stifel),
from and

consider

negative

numbers after

apart

positive
the absurd
name

teach
for
;

negative
negative they
became and of the

tive, posi-

"fictitious"

numbers,
so

all when

seem

enough

now

but

only
as

the

real
was

significance clearly
and
seen.

of

positive
The value
to

negative
the

opposites
from from
out

tion illustraand

debts

credits lies of in

(due
the

Hindus)
for

the the

thermometer,

aptness
and

bringing

oppositeness
the illustration
page.

positive
from

negative.
lines,
see

For
on

directed

Fig.

the It is

following appropriate
balance
use

that the

the

advertisements
from

of

the

gebraic al-

quotation

Cajori's

tory His-

of appeared

Elementary
'absurd'
had
not
or

Mathematics:

"Negative
so

numbers
as

'fictitious'
upon
a

long
or

maticians mathe-

hit

visual all

graphical
by

resentatio replines,

of
or

them
.
.

Omit
.

illustrations numbers
were

by

the

thermometer,
to

and students

negative
as

will
to

be

as

absurd

modern

they

the

early

algebraists."

VISUAL

REPRESENTATION NUMBERS.

OF

COMPLEX

If

the of

sect

OR,
be taken

one

unit
to

long

and
+

extending
1,
to

to

the be

right

O,

represent
one

then the

1
-

will of

represented

by

OL,

extending

left be
a

O.

+a

would
a

pictured
units

by
and
a

line
to

long
-a,

the

right;
and
to

units

long
This

the and rected dius a

left.

simplest
use

best-known
-o
R

of

lines

gives

geometric
of The gave
D

tion representareal numbers.

Hindus this
to

early tion interpreta-

numbers

of
;

Fig.

3-

opposite
it
does

quality
not

but

appear

to

have

been

given

by

European

until

1629,

by

Girard.*

Conceiving
in what

the

line
as

of the

unit

length

to

be

revolved

is assumed 1
-

positive
the

direction factor that

clockwise) (counterrevolves factor

may
to

be

called

from

OR

(+1) being

OL

(-1).

Then

V-l
that
en

is the

which,
*

used

twice,

produces
Nouvelle
to

result;

using
dam. Amster-

Albert

Girard,
also

Invention
the first

VAlgcbre,
recognize

Perhaps
roots

distinctly

imaginary-

of

an

equation.
92

REPRESENTATION

OF

COMPLEX

NUMBERS.

93

it of

once

as

factor

revolving

the

line

through pictures

one

the

two
-f

right angles.

Then

OU

the

number

V-l.
twice

by
as

V-l
the

of -1 Similarly,since multiplication produces +1, V-l may be considered

-

factor
to

which OD.
to

revolves
If distances the left
are

from
to
-,

OL the
+

through
right are

one

right angle
+, then

called denotes

distances

and

V-l

Fig.

4.

line b units
b units

long
the

and

extending
down.
was

up,

and The

V-l
H.

"

line

long extending imaginary

the Transactions

geometric
by
Kuhn

of interpretation in

made the

1750,
To

in

of

St.

Petersburg
b

Academy.
the number represent graphically
we

a +

(see \/~-\
a

Fig. 4), by

lay

off OA

in the and The

direction

and

units

long; AB,

b units

long
OB.

in the

direction

indicated repre-

V-l

; and

draw

directed

line OB

94

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

sents

the

complex

number

V-l.
of
a

And a^b

the

length
The made

of

OB,

a2

b2, is the

modulus such

V-l.
was

of geometric interpretation

number

by Jean
The
term

Robert

Argand,

of

Geneva, in his Essai, 1806.

was

"modulus"
in 1814.

in this connection

first used

by him,
These

geometric interpretations by
and the

Kuhn

and

gand, Artended ex-

especiallyone
method
to
a

made

by Wessel,*

who
space

representation in regarded
Hamilton
as

of

three

dimensions, may
methods Rowan

be

precursors
to

of the

beautiful

of vector

analysisgiven
in

the world and

by Sir William
under The the
name

1852

1866

"quaternions."
i
as

letter

symbol

for

the

unit Euler. and

of

imaginary

numbers,
for

V-l, was
to

suggested by
the Kuhn

It remained
the

Gauss

popularize by
terms

sign i
and

geometric
as

made interpretations The

Argand.

contrasting
the The
roots
name

"real"
an

and
were
was

"imaginary"
first used
so

applied to
Descartes.

of

equation

by

"imaginary"
seems seen

well
so,

started

that it still persists, and it has writers

likelyto
be
a

do

although
A in few

long
use

been the

to

misnomer.

terms

scalar

and

orthotomic

place

of real and The

an

imaginary.
development
of this

historical

subjectfurnishes
we

illustration
new

of the

general rule, that, as

as

advance,
what
eral genas

each
we

generalizationincludes previously known

of the the
on

specialcases subject.
a +

have form

the

The

complex
real

number,
and
of

bi, includes

special cases
*

number

the

imaginary.

If

To

the

Copenhagen
of

Academy algebra :
letters

Sciences, 1797.
usage

t It is interesting to notice the prestige of Descartes's

in

fixing the language

for

the for

first letters of the

bet alpha-

knowns,

the the

last dot

form

of exponents,

between

present factors for multiplication.

unknowns,

the

REPRESENTATION

OF

COMPLEX

NUMBERS.

95

0,

bi

is

real. of

If
a an

0,

bi

is

imaginary.
is the
sum

The of
a

common

form number and

complex
the

number

real

imaginary.*
first of his three has
a

In that
a +

1799
every

Gauss

published

proofs
form

algebraic equation equation

values forces

root

of

the

bi.
The linear of
us

to

the
=

consideration
x

of numbers satisfied
pure roots:

opposite quality: x-a

-f a

0 and

0,

by

the

and

respectively.
contrast

The real

quadratic gives imaginary

,r2-a2
=

in

with

and

x2

a2

satisfied

by"a

and

ztai.

The

complete quadratic
ax2
+

bx

0
numbers b is

has when
not

for its roots the

=

pair

of

conjugate complex
-

discriminant, b2

4ac, is negative and

0.

But

though
numbers

the is
a

recognition of imaginary
necessary consequence

and of

plex com-

simple
or

algebraic analysis,no
of them
or

complete understanding possible until

of there them. is
some

preciation apgible tan-

is

visible
us

representation complex

History's
tive, nega-

lesson

to

in this respect is

plain: positiveand
numbers
must

imaginary, and
represented
The be further in

be

ically graphmight

teaching algebra.
mentioned the addition should pan
one on

algebraicbalance
developed by imaginary
into main
a

page of be
an

90

appliance
effect of

whereby

numbers certain
to

illustrated,a
the

weight put pulling the

for

having
side, and
other

beam

arrangements
to

pulling the complex

beam

in several

directions

trate illus-

numbers.

Professor

Schubert
numerical

(p. 24)
form
to

adds which

that the

"we

have of

found

the

most
can

general
lead."

laws

arithmetic

96

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

If in the

in

football

game

we

denote

the

forces real in

exerted

direction then the

OR

(in

Fig.

3)
energy

by

positive
exerted

bers, num-

opponents'
OL,
in the

exactly negative
will forces the be

the

opposite

direction,
Forces

will line

be of

denoted

by
or

numbers. denoted in the

OU
and

OD other

by
game,

imaginary
acting
denoted

numbers;
in any other

all direction

on

field,

will

be

by

complex

numbers

of

the

eral gen-

type.*
Each is real force

represented
into and is the the
two

by

general
one

complex represented

ber num-

resolvable
number

forces,

by
as

other

by
of OA

an

imaginary,
and AB.

OB

(in
A

Fig.

4)

resultant

trigonometric
as

representation
is furnished

of the

an

imaginary
formula

ber num-

exponent

by
1 i sin

e*

cos

1
.

Illustration

from

Taylor's
of

Elements and

of

Algebra,

where numbers

the is

visual made in

representation
full.

imaginary

complex

ILLUSTRATIONS ALGEBRAIC

OF

THE

LAW

OF

SIGNS

IN

MULTIPLICATION,

A If distances
to

Geometric
the will
-.

Illustration. of
-.

to

right
be

be

called distances OR ab is

+,

then
up

tances disfrom units

the those Assume

left down

Call

O of

+,

and

Rectangle
the

has
+.

ab

area.

that

product

Fig.

5-

Suppose
to

SR
of became

to

move

to

the

left

until

it is
The

units

the

left

O,

in
zero,

the

position
and

S'R'.

base that

minished di-

passed
;
so

through
also the

value,

and The

therefore

is of

now

negative
and +b
97

rectangle.

product

-a

is -ab.

98

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Suppose
below

TR' The

to

move

downward

until
-,

it is b units has

O.

rectangle, previously
and
must
now

passed
of

through
-a

zero,

be

+.

The

product

and

-b

is +ab.

Similarly (+a) (~b)=-ab.

From
a

Definition
the

of Multiplication.
of

Multiplication is
one
same

process

performing
the

upon

of

two

given
which the

numbers is

(the multiplicand)
upon

the

operation
to

performed
number
an

primary

unit

obtain the unit

other

(the multiplier.)* integer, the

we

When

multiplier is
is that that is

arithmetical

primary
school
are

of arithmetic,

1, and
in

have

the

special case
as,

correctly defined
number
as

the

primary
as

"taking one
in another."
we

many

times

there

units

Suppose
+1
*

are

to

multiply +4

by +3.

Assuming

as

the

primary unit, the multiplieris produced by

unit
most to

In

this definition, "the

the
to

upon

primary
mean

the

be obtained multiplier may is primarily signified by the multiplier. E. g., If the multiplier is 2, this number primarily means unity taken twice, or the unit added to itself;multiplying 4 by 2 therefore means to adding 4 itself, giving the result 8. Dr. Young, in his new book, The Teaching of Mathematics, p. 227, says that as 2 is i + i2,therefore would 2X4 by this definition be 4+42, or 20; is therefore would be 4+4/4, or 2 i-f 1/1, or, as 2X4 5; etc. But it is true while that i + i2 and i-f-1/1are each equal to 2, neither of them is the primary signification of 2, or represents
2

operation which is performed stood multiplier" is to be underfundamental the operation by which from unity, or that operation which
same

obtain

the

in the

sense

of the

the

definition.

Neither

of

them,

is
of

proper

statement

of

multiplier

"within

or

It is not maintained that this that it directlyhelps a learner of such

a

the meaning definition has

in

no

law." difficulties,
the the
ing mean-

comprehending only
for

multiplication as V2XV3", but is helpful for the purpose generalization

that

that which

it is

it is

used, and
The

that
so

it is in line with
as

the

fundamental

idea

of multiplication does

far be

that is

idea

is understood. this treatment

not

definition
to
a

pretend

only tentative, and proof.

THE

LAW

OF

SIGXS.

(JO,

taking +(+1).

that That

unit

additively "three
the
to

times/' (+l)+(+l)
+3
to means;

is what

number do that

and

to

multiply +4 by it,means

+4. of

(+4)+(+4)
-4

+(+4)
(_4)
To
+

=+

12.
+

Similarly, the (-4)

+4
=

product

by
the

+3

(-4)

-12.

multiply
with
its

by

-3

The times

multiplier is
additivelv
The

result

obtained unit -3

by taking
the

three

the

primary
of +4

quality changed.
result

product

by

is therefore

obtained

by taking
-4 its

three

times

additively +4
=-12. three take

with

its

quality changed. multiply

with

(-4) + by
-3

(-4) + (-4)
is to

Similarly, to
times

additively -4
=+12.
cases,
we

quality
law of of like

changed: signs" :

(+4)+(+4)+(+4)
the four is
+

Summarizing
the
-

have factors

"the
are

product
when

when of

the unlike

quality,
A In

they

are

quality.
Lazu

more

General

Form law from

was

of

the

of Signs.
of plication, multi-

deriving the
the the

the

definition
as

primary

unit

assumed

+1.

Assume +3. The

-1

as

primary unit,
is obtained times three

and

multiply
the

+4

by
with
on

+3, multiplier,

from

primary unit, -1,

unit its the

by taking changed.
the
+

additivelythe
the
same

sign
tiplicand, mul-

Performing
+4,
we

operation
+3 The

have of 4

(-4) + (-4) + (-4)

-4

=-12.

larly, Simi=

product multiply + change =(+4)

-3 have the
:

by
-

(+4)+ (+4) + (+4)

multiplieris
the the

12.

To

by

sult re-

obtained
-

by taking
of

three

times

additivelythe unit, product

So also these of -4 four
as

1, without
4

sign ;
+

therefore

by

-3

(+4)
-

(+4) signs they

=+12.

multipliedby
cases,
we

gives
law the

12. of

Summarizing
when
-

1 is taken the

the
are

primary
of like

unit

product
when

is
are

when of

factors

quality,+

unlike

quality.

IOO

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

In the the the

we

geometric by
of
a

illustration +b
to

above,

we

first assumed the contrary,

rectangle+a sign
have -1 law each

be

+.

Assuming
is the of

subsequent product
illustration the

reversed, and
law
of

geometric
as

signs

when The that into

is taken of -1

primary
as

unit.

signs taking +1
as :

the

primary unit, and

may
are

taking
one

the

primary unit,
factors

be

combined

law

thus

If the two

alike in in

ity, qual-

the the the Or:

two

product
factors is

is like the
are

primary
in that of

unit

quality; if
unit.
like un-

opposite
to

quality,the quality of
the

product
Like

opposite
like

primary

signs give
of

(like the primary unit) ;

numbers

signs give unlike

The unit

(the unit).
still other
"

assumption
leads
to

as

primary

other

laws

other

"algebras."
Proportion.
bears the
same

Multiplication as
Since
to

by

definition

product
the

relation
to

the

multiplicand
this
a

that

multiplier bears
relation
may

the

primary unit,
in the form of
:

equality of proportion :
::

be

stated

product
or,

multiplicand

multiplier : primary

unit

primary

unit

': multiplier:

multiplicand : product.

Gradual
From

Generalization
when Pacioli

of Multiplication.
found
case

the time

it necessary of proper the

term

(and
tions fracplicand, multiplication multi-

to explain how, difficult)

in the

in

arithmetic, the product is less than

to

the

present

with

its

use

of the is
a

in It is of
a

higher mathematics,
best
was

long

evolution.

one

of the that

illustrations

of the

generalization
at

term

etymologicallyrestricted

the

beginning.

EXPONENTS.

The

definition is

of

exponent
for the the

found
case

in which
are

the

elementary
it is

algebras
the
"

sufficient in which

to

applied
tegers. in-

case

exponents
of
a

arithmetic unit for

Our

assumption
it

primary

algebra

being
numbers

what
as

is, the

distinction and

between numbers may

arithmetic
as ponents ex-

exponents

positive
Or
we

is

usually

neglected.
The is

simply
arid those

define tional fracwho

tion nota-

pos'tive

exponent.

meaning
deduced. invented

of

negative
In fact

exponents
first used

easily
and

exponents
in in the

an

exponential
and Stevin
as

(Oresme

fourteenth

century
had And

dependent inas

the
as

sixteenth)
exponents.
before Each

fractions

well

whole had

numbers been

negative
studied these
can

exponents
them be used
to

invented

Wallis of

in

the

seventeenth

century.
And modern

defined other follow tegral insigned as-

separately.
forms the of laws

mathematics

has been made for

exponents.
of

They
first their thereto. A

have

exponents
and

proved

ordinary
has been

exponents,
in of all known of

significance
Each

conformity
is defined. express
as

separate

species
of them all

exponent

unifying
in
a

.conception

might
forms

itself

definition The

covering
treatment

special
yet
to

cases.

general

exponents
Wanted:
a

is

come.

definition

of

exponent

that

shall

be

general

for

elementary

mathematics.

"

"

AN

EXPONENTIAL

EQUATION.
so

The
is to be

chain-letters, once

numerous,

are

now was

"

it

hoped

"

obsolete. the

In

the

form

that

ably probletters,
send

most

common,

first writer

sends
to

three copy number

each

numbered

1.

Each

recipientis
so on

and

three, numbered
reached.

2, and

until

SO

is

Query
were

If every

one

were

to

do
to

as

requested, and
any

it

possible to
number
woman
a

avoid

sending
be in the

person when

twice,
every
ceived re-

what
man,

of and

letter would child

reached

world

should

have

letter?

Let of the

represent
to

the

number. hundred of the

Take

the

population
Then this

earth

be

fifteen
sum

million. series

large number

is the

3, 32, 33...3*
"

(rn-l)
r-1

(3"-l)
2

|(3"-1) =1,500,000,000
3W-1
=

1,000,000,000 log

n\og

(109)

z-9'-z 18.86
=

log 3
There letters
are

not

enough
19
to

people
be

in the

world

for

the

numbered

all sent.

TWO
IN

NEGATIVE THE

CONCLUSIONS
NINETEENTH CENTURY.

REACHED

1. That
are

general by
pure

equations algebra. equations

known since

above

the

fourth

degree

insoluble The solution had half

of

of

the

third Two his

and

fourth centuries for the has

degree
and
a

been

1545.
in

later, young

Gauss,
every

thesis

doctorate,
a

proved
or

that

algebraic
He made
to

equation
the

root, 1801

real that

imaginary.* might
be of

conjecture by
the radicals fourth.

in
any

it

impossible higher
a

solve than

general
was

equation by
1824,
years

degree Norwegian,

This
was

proved
in Two

Abel,
when later with
more

whose

proof

printed
old.

he the

was

about
was

twenty-two

years
an

proof
detail.

published'

in

expanded
Thus 2. That

form,

inventive the from

effort

was

turned

in of

other Euclid and

directions.
can

"parallel postulate"
the other in
to

never

be

proved
Ever

postulates
the second
prove

axioms. the
tempt ator

since had

Ptolemy,
been made

century,
this

postulate,
In

''axiom,"
*

and

thus

place

it

among

theorems.

1826,

Of

this

proof,

published
Dec.

when

Gauss remarks
p.

was

twenty-two

years

old, proof

Professor

Maxime

Bocher
1904,

(Bulletin
note)
has
: a

of

Amer. first

Mathematical

Society,
that
every

118,

"Gauss's
root
was

(1799)

algebraic
use

equation
in of

gives
intended and

striking
as an same

example absolutely
time
most

of

the

of

intuition

what the

rigorous
critical be the should of

proof
added

by

one

greatest
the world afterward

at

the
ever

mathematical that

minds Gauss

has
gave

seen." other

It

two

proofs

theorem.
103

104

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Lobachevskv,
of and

professor
Russia,
his

and the in in and

rector

at

the

University
attempt,
a

Kasan,

proved proof

futilityof the
He
the

published

1829. which the

constructed other of and

self-consistent and axioms that be

are

geometry
assumed is

postulates
this, thus
therefore of In
to

contrary
of No till them

showing
can

this

independent
from in
was a

not

proved

them.

notice 1840.

his

searches re-

appeared Lobachevsky's
readers Bruce The work

Germany
made translation

1891

easily available by
Prof.

lish Eng-

through

George
the

Halsted.*
effort
was

previously expended
henceforth
to

in

attempting
to

impossible
of

be

turned
to

the

ment develop-

non-Euclidean of

geometry,
the

investigating the
of certain is usual
ioms, ax-

consequences
to

assuming

contrary
"As
every

w-dimensional intellectual has of

geometry.

in culty diffi-

every

marked removed

advance,
up and and
new

existing
of of

opened thought
new

fields

research,

new

tendencies and

methods
more

tion, investigaproblems

consequently
solution.

difficult

calling for
Euclid's

"f
must

High-school geometry
postulate of
of
to

simply

assume

(choose)
preferably
can

parallels, perhaps

in
not

Playfair's form
both
*

it: Two the

same

intersecting lines
line.
a

be

parallel

Austin, Texas, 1892. by the translator. work (1891), compiled Non-Euclidean Geometry
and has himself the and

It contains Dr.
a

most

interesting
also

duction intro-

Halsted

translated

written

Bibliography of (1878) of 174 titles by 81 authors, the extensively on subject, being

in America
on

Bolyai's and Hyperspace

probably
geometry

foremost allied
p.

writer

non-Euclidean

topics.

f Withers,

63-4.

THE

THREE

PARALLEL

POSTULATES

ILLUSTRATED.

In

contrast

to

Euclid's

postulate
a

(just quoted) point plane,

an

Loba-

chevsky's
number
cut
a

is, that
of
lines line
can

through
be the the
not

given
in
a

indefinite of which

drawn

none

given
is, that

in

plane, point
cut

while
no

Riemann's
line
can

late postube

through
that

drawn
we

in have

the

plane
three

will

the

given

line.

Thus

elementary simple
:

plane

geometries.
of
two

An been

excellent

illustration and

the

contrast

has lines in

devised

Let

AB

PC

be

straight

Fig.

6.

the fixed say

same

plane,
position

both
;

unlimited
PC

in

both about

directions
the

; AB

in in the

and

rotating

point

P,

positive (counter-clockwise)
toward the results
ceases

direction,
in

secting inter-

first 'Three the

one

right
are

as

shown

Figure

6. When
line in

different line

logically possible.
intersect the it will fixed

rotating
direction

to

[toward

the

right]

immediately

106

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

intersect
or

in

the

opposite
to

direction for
a

[toward
time will be

the

left],
section interof

it will

continue

rotate

before
a

takes time

place, or
which first of

else there

period

during
The second

the two these

lines intersect

in both

tions. direc-

the

possibilities gives Euclid's, Lobachevsky's, and the third Riemann's

attitude toward these three
in
a

geometry.
"The taken mind's

possibilities
way
as

successivelyillustrates
of it.

curious

the
we

essentially empirical nature

conceive
as

the

straight line
this

Logically one
the other. is
to

of these From

is just possibilties

acceptable as

point

of for

view
ferring pre-

strictlytaken
one

there

certainly no

reason

of them

another.
seems

ever, howPsychologically,
dictory, absolutely contra-

Riemann's and
as even

hypothesis
Euclid's

is not

quite

so

acceptable
these

that As
a

of

Lobachevsky."
of the relative of acceptability the that
to
on

slighttest
the drew

hypotheses
writer mentioned and asked

unsophisticated mind,
a

present

the blackboard

figure like
the three
on

above,

in

simple language
express

possibilities,
paper.
true
-one

pupils to
out

opinion
that the

slipsof is,' twenty

ten

Forty-six
one.

of said

54

voted

second it

is the

Two

they "guessed"
"felt first No
one

"thought" so, Six "thought"

two

thirteen that the

sure," and

"knew."
and

supposition is correct,
voted but
one

"felt sure"
writer in has favor had

of it.
never

for the person

third, and
express of

the

heard the
a

opinion
the Of

of had who
as

third

supposition. Some
of

pupils
these,
as

few voted

weeks in the

plane geometry.
wanted the
to

most
soon

majority
out

change
both be

it

was

pointed
two

that

second
can some

supposition implies parallelto

that
same

intersecting lines
line.

the

Undoubtedly

THE

THREE

PARALLEL

POSTULATES.

I07

of

the

more

immature
are

were

unable

to

grasp

the

idea

that
may

the be

lines

of

unlimited that

length, and
those who that

possibly it
favor idea. the Such
not

somewhat

general
not

second
a

supposition do merely
whole treated

fullygrasp
that Euclid's

test

illustrates

postulate is
is

in all its forms The

apodictic. question by
Dr. of

parallel postulates
to

mirably ad-

Withers/1'
for

whose
two

book

(p.

117)
In

the

writer

is indebted

the

paragraphs

quoted above. trigonometry. The representing the

at

familiar

figure in trigonometry
of the
as

line values of
a

tangent
the

of

an

angle
this the

the and

center

unit

circle 90"

angle
form

creases inof of

passes

through
the

is another that the

figure. And
final
at

assumption
with

intersection of

(revolving) side
an our

line
at
on

tangents
instant Euclidean it

begins
ceases

infinite distance

below

the
a

above, places

trigonometry

basis.
Parallels
seem

meet

at

infinity.Kepler's definition
offered in advanced made in
to

would

paradoxical if
is valuable in when
more

elementary geometry,
work, and
gible is intelliof limits. farther

but

enough
Let and PP' be farther be
as

the

language
;

perpendicular
to

SQ
P

let

move

the

right

while

remains

fixed; and
proaches ap-

let PTR

the the

limit distance

toward of

which

angle P'PQ
P' increases

from

with-

Euclid's Its Parallel Postulate: William *John Withers, his thesis Nature, Validity,and Place in Geometrical Systems, for the doctorate lishing at Yale, published by The Open Court PubIt includes Co., 1905. bibliography of about a 140 titles on related this and less or subjects, mentioning more closely Roberto Halsted's bibliography of 174 titles and Bonola's titles. To lists might be added ning's Manof 353 these is mentary eleNon-Euclidean which brief, Geometry (1901) and interesting.

108

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

out

limit.* is

Then attributed
as

PR
to

is

parallel
the
of sake

to

SQ.

That

is, parallelism
of secting interout withmay
at
press ex-

limiting

position

lines limit
;

the

point
the

intersection of

recedes
we

which,

for

brevity,

by

the

familiar

sentence,

''Parallels

meet

finity." in-

The
move,

three P

postulates
fixed of PT

again.
and

Now

suppose
to

PS
the

to

remaining
the limit Then

moving
as

left,

TPP' without

being
limt.

angle
is

SPP'
to

P'S

increases

parallel

SQ.

According

^S

P'

Fig.

7-

to

Euclid's

postulate
to to

PT

and

PR

are

one

straight
not;
while

line

according

Lobachevsky's

they
and
comes

are

cording ac-

Riemann's

Q Q

can

not

recede
so

to

an

infinite

distance

(but
P'

around,
there the
sense

to

speak,

through (in
no

S,
the

to

again)

and of

is

no

limiting position
of

terminology
in the Euclidean

theory
of the

limits)

and

parallel
*

term.

In

Fig.
the

the fixed

moving
line
rotates

line
toward

rotated the

until In the

after the

it

ceased

to

intersect

right.
as

present
of

tration illus-

(Fig.
recedes

7) PQ along

only

Q,

point

tion, intersec-

the

line

SP'Q.

GEOMETRIC

PUZZLES.

*"A
wide

rectangular
was

hole in

13 the

inches bottom
one

long
of of

and
a

inches The with inches

discovered had

ship.
board

ship's
which square

carpenter
to

only
and

piece
that
was

make square

repairs,

but hole

(64

inches)

while

the

contained

Fig.

8.

65
so

square
as

inches. make it

But

he

knew

how ! Or

to

cut
more

the

board

to
:

fill the

hole*

in

prosaic

form

Fig.

is

square

units
109

on

side,

area

64;

cut'

it

IIO

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

through
indicated

the

heavy
the

lines

and

rearrange and you

.

the

pieces
a

as

by

letters in

Fig. 9,

have

angle rect-

5,by 13v area

65.

Explain.

Fig.

9.

Fig.

io.

Fig.
is
a

10

explains.
Proof: the

EH

is

straight line, and

not

HG
same

straight line, but they

X be

are

parts of the

straightline.
Let

point

at

which

EH

produced

meets

GEOMETRIC

TL'ZZLES.

Ill

GJ EXJ

then

from

the

similarityof triangles EHK

:HK

and

XJ

EJ

:EK :8

XJ
But

:3=13

XJ

4.875 5.
line. the
area

GJ
a

Similarly, EFG
The of the
area

is

broken

of the

rectangle is, indeed, 65, but

EFG-H
uses

rhomboid Ball* and

is 1. this to illustrate that

to

Professor dissection

proofs by
with

superposition are

be

regarded

suspicion until supplemented by

'This well

mathematical

ing. reason-

geometrical paradox...
in

seems

to

have

been in

known

1868,

as

it

was

published

that und

year

Schlomilclrs Vol. In which

fiirMathematik Zeitschrift
162."

Physik,

13,
an

p.

article in The the

Open
four The be

Court, August
are

1907, (from
Mr. Escott that famous

preceding
not

lines

quoted),
is
so

generalizes this puzzle.

his

puzzle
of

analysis can
In

but

interest.
: we can

With

his permission

it is here

reproduced
shown the
=

Fig. 11, it is
so as

how

arrange

the

same

pieces
If C
=

to
x
=

form

three

figures,A, B,
have
A
=

and
=

C.

we

take

5,

3,

we

shall

63, B

64,

65.
us

Let

the investigate A B C
=

three
+

figures by algebra.
=

2xy (x
x2 x2
+

2xy y)
+
-

3xy y(2y-x) x2 + 2xy + y2

2x2
+

2y2

x(2x
-

y)
-

xy

C
B
*
-

B A

xy xy

y2 y2.

Recreations,

p. 49.

Fig.
112

ii,

GEOMETRIC

PUZZLES.

113

These
=

three

figures

would

be

equal

if x2

-xy-y2

0, i. e., if
x

1 + 2

a/5
and

y~
so are

the

three

figures cannot
in rational

be

made

equal
of and

if

expressed
We the

numbers. values A
x

will try to find rational difference

and B
or

y which between

will make B and

between

unity.
the

Solving
we

equation
x2
-

xy of

y2

"

1 that the y and

x

find be

by

the
as

Theory
any
two

Numbers consecutive

may

taken

numbers

in the

series

1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55,

where numbers. The values For
next

each

number

is the

sum

of

the

two

preceding commonly
" "
B

3
we
=

and

are

the

ones

given.
The A
=

these

have, 8, y
=

as

stated

above, A
" B

"

C.

pair, x
=

5 give A

C, i. e.,

170,

169, C=168.
shows
an

Fig. puzzle.
A B
=

12

interesting modification x) y2 + 2y2 + 2yz

+

of

the

4/rv +

(y + x) (2y
y
+

3xy
+
+

xz

(x (x

+ + at
x

z)

2
-

x2
+

"2

2y^ +
-f

2^i+
=

2xy
5-srjr 4- xy
C
=

2z) (2x
=

+
=

z)

2x2

2z2 A

2yB
=

When

6, j =-5",* 1
10, y
A
= =

we

have
we

144.

When

10, z 530,
B

3
=

have
=

A" 528.

B "

C, viz.,

529, C

Another

puzzle
13

is made

by constructing a
it

cardboard of the

rectangle
the other

by

11,

cutting
and

through

one

diagonals (Fig. 13) along

sliding one
common

triangle against
to

their

hypotenuse

the

Fig.
M

12.

GEOMETRIC

PUZZLES.

115
How
on

position shown
be made
up

in

Fig.

14.

Query:

can
a

Fig.

14

of square

VRXS,
area

12 units

side, area
area

144,

triangle PQR,
area

0.5, + triangle STU,

the
area

0.5,-total
143?

145

; when

of

Fig.

13

is

only
the VS side

Inspection
cross

of

the

figures,especiallyif
that " " 12. 1 VRXS is not
a

aided

by

lines, will show

square. shorter

is 12 in

long;

but but

SX

TX=11

(the
in

Fig. 13)

ST

(see

ST

Fig.' 13).

Fig. ST ST
:

13.

VP
:

=SU
=

:VU
:

11

13

ST

iy
12
x

Rectangle VRXS Triangle PQR

Fig.
14

1 1"/18 =

triangle STU rectangle+

2

1422/13 */, n/13

"

"/"

triangles
=

142V"

"As

143-

Il6

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

By

slidingthe trianglesone
the other 10 total 14 is direction
two
we

place (to
appear
to

the

first
a an

cross

line) in
14 of 13

have

angle rectarea

by

and
area

small
"

triangles with
much the and smaller

y2 each,
as

141

as

than

Fig.
more

Fig.
in the

larger. Slide
last used,

trianglesone
the

place

direction

apparent

area

Fig.
is 139. The for

14.

explanation
14. also

is of

course

similar

to

that

given
This

Fig.
that

paradox

might

be Mr.

treated Escott

by
has

an

analysis
the

resembling preceding. Very

shows

by
is A

which

treated

similar

puzzle
a

due

to

S.
area

Loyd,
64

"the B

puzzlist." Fig.
the
area

is

square in

8x8,
a

Fig.

pieces rearranged
63.

rectangle apparently

7x9,

GEOMETRIC

PUZZLES.

II7

Paradromic
sort

rings*
as

puzzle
Take
a

of

very of

different
paper,
;

is
as

made wide

follows. twice and

as

strip
this other

say
one

half end thus

a a

and

long
it to

as

page

give
The

half formed

turn

paste
in

the of

end.
to
can

ring

is used that has from

theory
one

functions
: a

illustrate be drawn

surface the

only
any

face of

line

on

paper

point

it to

any

other

point

Fig.

A.

of
or

it, whether
on

the sides

two

points
the is to the what effect

were

on

the which

same

side

opposite
made.
way

of

strip
be

from
"

the

ring
all

was

The

ring

slit

cut

lengthwise
half the

the

around,
State in

making
advance the

strip

of

present

width.
see.

will of
a

result. and

Try
a

and third

Now

predict

second

slitting.
*

The
10.

theory
See

of Ball's

these

rings

is
p.

due

to

Listing,

Topologie,

part

Recreations,

75-6.

DIVISION

OF

PLANE

INTO

REGULAR

GONS. POLY-

The

theorem
as

seems

to

have

been

pleasing to-day,

to

the
a

ancients,

it

is

to

high-school
divided into

pupils

that

plane
squares,

surface
or

can

be

equilateral
that the these

triangles,
are

regular polygons regular

hexagons,
into which

and

the

only

regular
As
a

surface

is divisible. into

hexagon

is divided

by

its radii

Fig.

15.

Fig.

16.

six into

equilateral triangles (Fig.

The

triangles,
and

the

division

of
same

the

surface
ment arrange-

hexagons

gives

the

16).
form and chosen
a

hexagonal
attention

of

the

bee's

cell The

has little had

long
worker had

tracted at-

admiration.
a

could

not

have of

better in

form Euclid It
was

if he ! The

the is
a

advantage
best

full the

course

hexagon
from

adapted

to

purpose.
118

discussed

REGULAR

POLYGONS.

II9

mathematical
last the
papers

point
he

of

view It need be

by
has
not

Maclaurin been be

in

one

of

the that

wrote.*
structure

pointed
attributed
to

outf
to

hexagonal

anical mechsure. pres-

instinct, but

may

due

solely body,
pressure

external

(The
become

cells

of

the

human

originally
from

round,
morbid

hexagonal

under

growth.)
Agricultural
trees

journals
corn

are

advising
the

the of the
tree

planting

of

(as

also instead
nearest

etc.)
of the

on

plan
Each

equilateral
is in each
as

triangle
from The its

square.

far

neighbors
in
on

in the which

Fig.
corner

16

as

Fig.

15.

circles the

indicated soil
etc.

of
tree

figure
be
as

represent
to
as

each in
so

may
are

posed sup-

draw.

The but As altitude of the

out
a

circles is
not

Fig.
much from

16

large
tween bein

in

Fig.
them.

15

there the of the

space
row

lost
to
row

distance
one

Fig.
-

16
=

the

of

the

equilateral

triangles
it
quires re-

V3
2

0.866

distance first

between

trees,

(beyond ground plan

15.
as

row)
number
out
as

only
of
on

87%
trees

as

much
on

to

set

given
set

this

is may

required
be

to

them

the

plan

of

Fig.

It

predicted
force the

that,

land

becomes and

scarce,

pressure
into
a

will

orchards,

gardens

fields

uniformly

hexagonal
Transactions E.
p.

arrangement.
for 1743.

In

Philosophical
for

f See
Animal

example

P.

Evans's

Evolutional

Ethics

and

Psychology,

205.

HOMEMADE

LEVELING

DEVICE.

The

newspapers
a

have

been

printing
useful in in is

instructions

for the in

making grades
which
a

simple
ditches

instrument
on a

laying
simlar

out

for

farm,
accuracy
are

or

work

high
of
to

degree
board
a

of

not

needed.
as

Strips
in The line

thin form of

nailed with is

together, equal

shown sides.

Fig. 17,

triangle
base the
so

vertical and
a

mid-point
is let fall is

the

marked,
vertex.
crosses

plumb
the

from

opposite
that the

When the

instrument

placed

line

mark,

Fig. 17.

the the

bar

at

the

base The

is

horizontal,
median
to

being
the base. be base

perpendicular of
an

to

plumb
is

line.

to

isosceles

triangle
of may the be

perpendicular
of the

the

From

the

lengths
"

sides found
a

triangle
"

it may far from

so

computed
the middle the

or

it the

by

trial
must

how be

of

crossbar

mark

placed
shall

that
a

when

plumb
of 1
in

line

crosses

it the

bar

indicate

grade

200,

1 in

100,

etc
120

"ROPE

STRETCHERS."

If

rope

12

units 5

long

be

marked the end the

was

off

into

three

ments seggether, to-

of and is

3, 4, and
the
rope

imits,

points triangle
used

brought
thus formed

stretched,
18).
This

right-angled

(Fig.

by

the

build-

Fig.

18.

ers

of

the
means,

pyramids.

The

Egyptian

word

for

veyor sur-

literally, "rope
use

stretcher.''

Surveyors
off chain.
some

to

this

day
of

the

same

principle, counting
in links of their

multiple

these

numbers

121

THE

THREE

FAMOUS

PROBLEMS

OF

TIQUITY. AN-

1. 2. 3. The

To To To

trisect

an

angle
the

or

arc.

''duplicate "square
trisection the of has

cube."

circle."
an

angle

is

an

ancient

problem
in
to

"but

tradition The

not

enshrined of the

its
circle

origin
is said The

mance."* ro-

squaring by
"was in

have

been
to

first

attempted
the cube

Anaxagoras.
known in

problem
times
as

duplicate
Delian Delians form is of

ancient of
a

the the
one

problem,
had the

consequence Plato
on

legend

that In

consulted

the

subject.

story,
the

which Athenians of

is related in 430

by

Philoporus,
B.

it

asserted from the

that the oracle

C,

when

suffering
consulted

plague
at

eruptive
as

typhoid
how double

fever,
could size
learned un-

Delos that the

to must

they
the To and its

stop
of his

it.

Apollo
which

replied
was

they
form

altar

in

of
more

cube.
easy,

the
a

suppliants
altar double that the
a was

nothing

seemed

new

constructed that of the

was

either old
one

having (from

each which

of it
or

edges

followed

volume

increased altar the

next to

eightfold)
the old
one.

by

cing pla-

similar

cubic
to
worse

upon, Where-

according
the fresh
as

legend,
than

the

indignant
and
to

god
informed with
a

made
a

pestilence deputation
new

before,
useless
a

that
must

it

was

trifle have

him,

his
*

altar

be

cube

and

volume

Ball, Recreations,

p.

245.

THE

THREE

PROBLEMS

OF

ANTIQUITY.

123

exactly double
to

that

of his old

one.

Suspecting
who referred

tery mysthem had hearted hardon so

the Athenians the

a

applied to Plato,
of the

geometricians,and specialstudy
historical criticism

especiallyto Euclid, who problem."*

would this Plato
on

made

It is
a

that
as

cast

doubt of born

story inherently so
circumstance Euclid Elis

credible
as

account not

a trifling

that

was

till

429

B.

C. and of
an

much

later. the it
was

Hippias
section of

invented and

quadratrix
later Greeks

for the for

tri-

angle,
the the

used devised in

the

quadrature
curves

of

circle.

Other

other and

to

effect

construction and Nicomedes such

required

(1)

(2).
these

Eratosthenes instruments
curves can

invented But ruler

ical mechannone

to

draw

curves.

of
pass com-

be

constructed
was

with

and

alone. the solution

And of the

this

the

limitation

imposed

on

problems.
to

Antiquity bequeathed
unsolved. efficient Modern has ruler

modern

times

all three with its

lems probmore

mathematics,

methods,
with

proved
and

them
compass

all

impossible
"

of

construction which have the

alone

result could ing solvbe of

moved, re-

shrewdest
"

investigator in antiquity
has shown
new

only conjectured
them if the and has devised

ways

of

limitation

of ruler and

and

compass methods

applied
the

proximatio ap-

It has
term

dissolved

problems,

if that

may
was

be
not

permitted.
until
-k

It of The

1882
was

that

the

transcendental

nature

the

number results

established all three of

are

(by Lindemann).
the

final

in

problems,
in A

with

mathematical Famous
*

demonstrations,

given

Klein's
more

Problems

of Elementary
43-4;

Geometry.
in his

Ball, Hist,

p.

nearly

the

same

Recreations,

p.

239-240.

124

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

popular
It

and

elementary
Theorems be noted
as a

discussion and that the Problems. the ratio

a

is

Rupert's

Famous

Geometrical should

number of the

w9

which

the

student
to

first meets diameter in of

circumference that appears mentary ele-

the

circle, is

number
remote

often

analysis
geometry
;

in
e.

connections g., in formulas

from the

in

calculus

of

probability.
The value of
?r

was

computed
His of in Vol.

to

707

places

of

mals deci-

by
in

William with
may
a

Shanks. discussion be found

result the

(communicated
formula he used

1873)

(Machin's)
of the

the 21.
out

Proceedings
No
to

of

the

Royal Society of London,

sort
"

other
a

problem degree
of of scopic microlated calcuracy accu-

has "an

been accuracy

worked

such

accuracy
to to

exceeding
"

the

ratio

telescopic distances. give

some

An of in the

illustration

conception
be found and

degree

of

attained Mathematical

may

Professor p.

Schubert's
140.
to

Essays
was a

Recreations,
He
to

Shanks

computer. expect
serves,

stands find
a

in contrast "solution."
no

the

who circle-squarers, of his

Most pose. pur"

computation
But
to

apparently,
deterrent of
to

useful who and

it should the

be

those

mune im-

demonstration
to

Lindemann

others

"

still The

hope
of

find

an

exact

ratio. has been the The

most

quadrature

of

the

circle

cinating fasof

mathematical been

problems.
recruited
as
a

"army they
;

circle-squarers"has
"Their efforts
to

in each
as

generation.
had

remained

futile

though (Cajori)
the have

attempted
were

jump
be

into In

rainbow"

yet they
that
zest
no

undismayed.
can

some
seems

minds,

proof
lent

solution the

found

only

to

to

search.

THE

THREE

PROBLEMS

OF

ANTIQUITY.

I25

That

these

problems
fact
a

are

of

perennial
to

interest,
them

is

tested at-

by
In

the

that little The also

contributions book Secret the

was

still in and

pear. ap-

1905
entitled

published
the of is Circle

Los the into The

Angeles Square,
any

of

in

which of C.

division

"any
considered. methods Mathematics

angle

number

equal

angles'' gives
Science

author,

J.

Willmon,
School

original
and of the

of

proximation ap-

for

May

1906

contains

"solution"

trisection

lem probently, appar-

by
to

high-school
show that

boy
the

in

Missouri,
still later

printed,
has number

problem
In is
a

fascination of that from

for

the

youthful
the

mind.

magazine
the

problem ground
of

discussed

by

another

vantage
While the

higher

mathematics. have all been

three under

problems
the

proved
still find
not
a

to

be

insolvable
made have led

condition many
more

imposed,
to

the
lution so-

attempts

through
to

centuries valuable

much

results,

only
but that
able un-

by

quickening by
made the the

interest the many in the

in and

mathematical

questions,
discoveries
voyagers and
one were

especially
have been
to

important
The

effort.

find that

northwest search
was

passage,

can

easily
in the

see

now

necessarily
continents

futile whose

but

attempt

they developed,
indeed.

discovered make the

resources,

whe.n
poor

wealth

of

the

Indies

seem

THE

CIRCLE-SQUARER'S
De

PARADOX.

Professor

Morgan,
gave

in

his

Buaget

of
the
more

Paradoxes honor of

(London,
more

1872)

circle-squarers
notice accorded in the and them.

extended than in the of of the all

individual is often

complete
The

refutation first it

Budget
where
tributions con-

appeared

instalments

Athen"um,
and and
treatment

attracted

correspondence
the

would-be the like of in

circle-squarers,
His
severest

teurs, ama-

day.
their

facetious

them
turn

drew gave
says

forth
most

criticisms,
for New the

which

interesting
means

material

Budget.
Zealander

He shall circleof is the

out

he

that the Theirs

the

coming

know squarers. many of

how

present
is of
rare
one

generation
of he the the
most

regards amusing
The book

paradoxes print,
and
so

which that

wrote.

following

quotations

from

it may

be

acceptable: pitch-and-toss
to

"Mere

has of

given
the

more

accurate

approach
reached
as

the
some

quadrature
of
my
a

circle

than The

has method usual Let

been is

by

paradoxers
. . .

follows: thin
a

Suppose
visible
seams

planked
between

floor the

of

the

kind,
there
as

with be

planks.
not
so

thin of

straight
the

rod,

or

wire,
rod,
clear

long
tossed the and

the
at
or

breadth

plank.
fall
seam.

This

being
of

up

hazard,
will

will
across

either
one

quite
Now

seams,

lay

Buffon,
That of in

after

him
run

Laplace,
the

proved
of

the the

following:
whole number
126

the in

long
which

fraction

trials

THE

CIRCLE-SOUARER

PARADOX

127
which twice of the

seam

is intersected

will rod

be

the the
a

fraction

the

length
1855

of

the the

is of of

circumference for

circle In

having
Mr.

breadth

plank
of

its diameter. made distance tions, intersecto

Ambrose
a

Smith,
rod there
on

Aberdeen,
of the

3,204 trials with

between the and decide.
7r
=

three-fifths
were

planks:
11
contacts

1,213 clear
it
was

which

difficult .this
. .

Divide A

these

contacts

equally.
made the

gives
a

3-1553.
of the

pupil

of

mine

600
seams,

trials with and

rod

3-137."
"The which

length between (P. 170-1.)*

mathematician
to

got

ir-

celebrated the

interminable calls
?r,

fraction is the

3-14159...,
ratio of the of

circumference

the It is

diameter.

But

it is thousands
up

things
without

besides.
:

constantly turning
and

in mathematics studied

and

if arithmetic
-n-

algebra
have
come

had

been in

geometry,
at

must
or

somehow,
must

though
This

what upon

stage
the

under of

what

name

have

depended
will

casualties
seen

algebraicalinvention.
it is stated that
-k

readily be
four
1

when the I

is

nothing

but

times

series

1_1
be of

i_
wonderful if
so

ad

infinitum. had but

It would
one

simple
it

series

kind

occurrence.
on

As

is, our
pears ap-

trigonometry being
as

founded stated. fluctuation

?r

the

circle,-k first
instance,
the
a

the

ratio

If, for
from

deep
had

study

of

probable

average
as as a

preceded geometry, might have emerged perfectlyindispensable in such problems

*

number

"

What

is

Ball, in his Mathematical

the adds

citing 1 13-4)
some

Messenger
that

additional

Essays (p. 261, 1873, 2 : Cambridge, of Mathematics, "in 1864 Captain Fox trials with made 1120 value the mean as precautions, and obtained
and

Recreations

7T:=3.I4I9."

128

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

the

chance
+
x

of and made than

the
a

number million

of
-x,

aces

lying between
six million

million throws "More

was
.
.

when

of

are

with

die?" ago

(P. 171.)
I had
a

thirty years
up
etc.

friend.
.

.who

thoroughly
be of ascertained
a

in all that

relates

to

mortality,
him how the it
vivors sur-

life assurance, should

One

day, explaining to
what of the chance
now

is of

large
of

number

persons
at

alive of
a

lying
of

between

given
came,

limits of number
course,

the

end

certain
7r,

time, I
which

upon
as

the the

introduction ratio of the

I could of
a

only
circle
must

describe
to
a

ference circummy

its diameter.
delusion
; what

'Oh,
can

dear circle

friend have time?'

! that
to
"

be

the of
a

do 'I

with
cannot
"

the numbers demonstrate

alive at the end it to you;

given
it is

but

demonstrated.' "The

(P. 172.)
tempts
persons
to

feelingwhich
a

this

problem
made

[exact quadrature] impossible for

to
a

is that
to

which, in
pass I
a

romance,

it

knight

castle which gave

a

belonged
lecture
to
on

giant
I

or

an

enchanter.

once was

the what

subject: a gentleman who

said

introduced
to

it

by
all I

remarked,
to

loud
me

enough
it is

be

heard

around, 'Only prove

will set "This
once

that

impossible,and
be

about

it this very

evening.'
cannot

rinderpest of geometry
seated itself in the what the

cured, when
can

it has is to who

system:
call

all that

be

done those

apply
are

learned

to prophylactics

yet sound."
two
mean

(P. 390.) proportionals is problem

of the the liminary preold

"The

finding of
to

the

famous

tion duplicascience/
tion, mo-

of the himself.
"

cube, proposed by Apollo (not Apollonius)

DTsraeli

speaks
the

of the 'six follies of

the

quadrature,
the

duplication,the

perpetual
and

philosopher's stone,

magic,

astrology.

THE

CIRCLE-SQUARER'S

PARADOX

129

He

might

as

well

have

added but

the had

trisection,
he done
so,

to

make he would in

the

mystic
still have

number been from said

seven

very mathematics such

lenient

; to

only chemistry
as

seven

follies ! Science used for

all

science,
have who

might
to

to

judge
"

convicts it there

say

got
my
mav

seven

years,

expecting
you

life,

'Thank

you,

Lord,
the

and

may

sit Literature

till outlive

they

are

over,'
Follies

Curiosities

of

the

"

of

Science!"

(P.

71.)

THE

INSTRUMENTS

THAT

ARE

LATED. POSTU-

The

use

of

two

instruments the due that For

to

is ruler Plato. compass compass

not

allowed and the

in

theoretic
"

elementary
limitation It is

geometry,
said
to

compass

be

understood

the if the

is

to

be
not

of

limited un-

opening.
as

would
used third and
to

open

far

as

we

please,
demanded

it could in with

be

effect

the the

construction

Euclid's
any
center

postulate,
any

drawing Similarly, length

Also
even

of

circle

radius. unlimited

it is understood the the marks

use

that the is the

the

ruler

is of

for that
two to

of ruler
on

second

postulate.
If and
so as

ungraduated. straight-edge
move

there
we

were

were

allowed

use

these

and
to

the
an

ruler

to

tit

figure,
to

the

problem

trisect
could

angle readily

(impossible
solved,
as

elementary
:

geometry)

be

follows Let
on

ABC

be

the

angle,

and

P,
19.)

the

two

points

the On

straight-edge.
one

(Fig.
B

arm

of

angle

lav

off

BA

PQ.

Bisect

BA,

at

M..

Draw

MK||BC,
the

and

ML

1
to

BC.
fit
at

Adjust
P lies
on

straight-edge Q
passes
on

the the Then

figure
same

so

that the

MK,

ML,

and B.

time BP

straight-edge
the

through

trisects

angle.

130

1X

STRU

MEN

TS

POSTULATED.

131 ZBPM.
NM.
rt.

Proof.
Mark X, is the N the

ZPBC
of

its alternate

mid-point
of the the

PQ,

and

draw of the the

Then
A

mid-point

hypotenuse
vertexes
=

POM,

equidistant from

of

triangle.

.-.ZBPM
Exterior

ZPMN ZBPM 2ZBPM

4-

ZBNM

ZPMN

Q
Fig.
19.

"."NM

JPQ
ZBNM iZBNM

BM

:-.ZMBN
ZPBC
-

ZBPM

JZABN

iZABG

132

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

A.
known Euclid

B.

Kempe,*
solution does is

from

whom raises

this the

form

of

the

well-

adapted,
a

question
and the he

whether

not

use

graduated
1,
to

ruler

fitting
fits side

process
AB

when,
of first

in

book

proposition
AE

4,
of

triangle proof pupil

not

ABr

side

triangle
every that found He

AEZ
"

the school does

by
is

superposition,
It may

with be

which

highEuclid in the

familiar.

replied
P is

determine

point
and in be

(as

angle

above) only
in

by
his

fitting reasoning,
must

measuring.
his

poses super-

proof.
or

Our

straight-edge
much
;

ungraduated,
or

it

grants
us

us

too

it

must

be

unlimited

it

grants

too

little.

How

to

Draw

Straight

Line,

note

(2).

THE

TRIANGLE

AND

ITS

CIRCLES.

The definitions

following
may

statement

of
:

notation

and

familiar

be

permitted
of the three

0,
concurrence

orthocenter of
center

triangle
altitudes
center

ABD,
of
mass,

the the
or

point

of

the

triangle.
centroid,
of the of three

G,
the

of

gravity,
the

of

triangle,

point

of

concurrence

medians.

C,

circnmcenter

of

the

triangle,
of
concurrence

center

of of

the the

cumscribed cirpendicular per-

circle,
bisectors

point
of the the

sides

of
center

the of

triangle.
.

1, in-center
circle,
three

of of

triangle,

the

inscribed of the

point
interior

concurrence

of the
centers

the

bisectors

angles
ex-centers,

of

triangle.
of the of escribed the and

E,
each
two

E,
E

E,
the

circles,
of

point

of

concurrence

bisectors
one

exterior

angles

of

the

triangle

interior

angle.
An
tnat

obtuse the
centers

angled
may

triangle
be

is

used

in

the and

figure
the

so

farther

apart

figure

less

crowded.
centers.

Collinearity of
and

O,

G,

and

are

collinear,

OG

twice The

GC. distance the distance from from O C

to to
a

Corollary: triangle
that

vertex

of

the

is twice

the

side

site oppo-

vertex.* independently proved line of straight a

and which

Or

this

corollary
that

may

easily
and C
133

be
are

the

proposition

O,

in

134

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

The

nine-point
of the

circle.

Let

L,

M,

be

the

points mid-

sides ;

A', B', D', the projections of the

Fig.

20.

vertexes

on

the

opposite sides; H, J, K, respectively. Then

derived
me

the

mid-points
nine

of
G

OA,
is
a

OB,

OD,

these

points
once

trisection point be

from

it,as
that

the writer had been

did

when

unacquainted

with

results

achieved

in this field.

THE

TRIANGLE

AND

ITS

CIRCLES.

I35

are

concyclic nine-pcint
The
center

and circle

the of

circle the

through triangle
circle radius

them

is

called

the

(Fig.
is the of

20). mid-point
the scribed circum-

of

the

nine-point
is half the

of

OC,

and

its radius

circle. The

discovery

of

the
to

nine-point
Euler. in

circle

has

been

roneously er-

attributed discovered nineteenth

to

Several the nineeditor

investigators
part
circle of the

it

independently
The
name

early point
of

century.
to

is said nates. An-

be

due

Terquem
Wilhelm is
now

(1842)
Feuerbach known of
a as

Nouvelles in
a

Karl of The

proved,
"Feuerbach's
is

pamphlet
theorem":

1822,

what

nine-point
circle

circle and

triangle
the

tangent
circles

to

the the

inscribed

each

of

escribed

of

triangle.
So
been many beautiful that of
a

theorems
"

about
one

the of

triangle
the

have

proved

Crelle it
"

himself
:

foremost

investigators
that
so

exclaimed
as

"It

is indeed is
so

wonderful
ible inexhausterties prop-

simple

figure
How

the many

triangle
as

in

properties.
of other

yet
not

unknown

figures
is referred

may
to

there

be!"

The

reader

Cajori's
treatises and

History
on

of

mentary Ele-

Mathematics mentioned in his

note,

and
p.

the

this

subject

259,

to

the

delightful of
the angle Triof

monograph,
and the of North Dr.

Some Its Texas

Notezvorthy by
W.

Properties
H.

Circles,
State

Bruce,

president

Normal and
some

School,
of

Denton. his theorems

Many
are

Bruce's

proofs

original.

LINKAGES

AND

STRAIGHT-LINE

MOTION.

Under B.

the
wrote to

title
a

How little

to

Draw which

Straight
is full
one

Line,

A.

Kempe

book
as

of of

theoretic the dation foun-

interest

the

geometer,
of the
run
a

it touches

postulates
We
a

science.

occasionally

pencil
one

around circle
:

coin

to

draw
other. an-

circumference,
But
not

thus is

using
a

to
we

produce
have
to
an

this

only

makeshift with when that

strument, ina

itself

circular, Now,

which
we come

draw
to

circle
a

"

the

compass. line
we

draw
us

straight

say

that

postulate

grants

the

Fig.

21.

use

of

ruler.
a

But

this

is line

demanding
"

straight edge
line
to not

for copy. itself

an

drawing
Is it

straight
to

given
an

straight

possible
which
was

construct

instrument,
line?

straight,

shall first in that

to

draw

straight by

Such
a

instrument army

invented
the time

Peaucellier,
corps. other It is

French

officer Since invented

engineer (1864)
rectilinear

"linkage."
have of been them

linkages
some

effect

motion,
But
as

simpler
be
to

than taken

Peaucellier's.
as

his

is

earliest, it may

the

type.

Preliminary

its construction,
136

however,

let

us

con-

LINKAGES

AND

STRAIGHT-LINE

MOTION.

137
end and

sider

single link
a

(Fig. 21) pivoted

at

at

one

carrying
a

pencil point
F

the
two

other. links
to

The

pencil

describes

circumference.

If

(Fig. 22)
the

be

hinged
P is

at

H,

and

fastened

plane, point

Fig.
free

25.

Fig. 26.
direction of If links
a

to

move

in any number motion.

its

path
be of odd

is indeterminate.
to

The

must

give
links

terminate debe

system

three

I38

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

fastened
a

at

both

ends,
curve

point
say
a

in the

middle Five
; but

link links

scribes decan

definite

"

loop.

give
lier's

the
was a
once

motion requisitestraight-line
a

Peaucel-

seven-link
can a

apparatus.
be made
one

Such writer

linkage
made fastened

by

any

teacher.
out

The

small

of links cut

of cardboard

and also
a

together by
times bolts. with in
a

shoemaker's the F size of and above O

eyelets ; Fig. 23) (Fig. 23)

the board, black-

larger one
boards
to

(about 30 joined
fasten

of thin
were

made and

mouldings
of class would
use.

carried
a

piece

crayon. for think The

a

This

proved
It such is the

very

to interesting to

geometry
no

lecture. of any ruler

is needless

say

that

one

appliance Fig. Fig. 23.

F 24

for

daily

class-room

practicalinstrument.
is FA and
=

diagram
FB.
are

of

the

apparatus

shown is
a

in

In all fastened Then is O

;

positionsAPBC
at

bus. rhom-

points
moves

whose in
an

distance
arc

apart is equal
circle with whose
center at

to

OC.

C A

of
arc

center

and shown

move

in P
moves

an

F.

It is to be

that

in

straightline.
Draw in
a

PP'

1 FO
a

produced.* right angle.

in common,

FCC
Hence

being
As

inscribed FP'P and

semicircle, is

FCC,

having ZF

are

similar, and
:
"

pp..
FP
"

fP FC each

FC

FC FC
A

=FP'

(1)
and

F, C and
lie in the
rhombus other.
*

P,

being

equidistant from
;

B,

same

straightline
are

and

the

diagonals
bisectors of

of the each

APBC Hence
these
as can one

perpendicular

Imagine straight line straight line

lines be

drawn,
in ! the

if

one

step
drawn

process

objects to drawing of showing that

a a

LINKAGES

AND

STRAIGHT-LINE

MOTION.

I39

FB2 PB2
.-.

FM2

MB2 MB2 MP2

MP2
FM2
-

FB2

PB2

(FM
FP-FC FC'
=

MP)(FM-MP)

(2)
FB2 FB
-

From But
as

(1)
the

and

(2),

FP'

"

PB2. and PB

linkage

moves,

FC\
FP' is

all
That

main re-

constant;

therefore of P
on

constant.

is,
same

P',

the
or

projection
in other
to

FO,
P
moves

is

always
in
a

the

point;

words,

straight line

(perpendicular
If the distance

FO).
between than of
a

the the

two

fixed of the

points,
link

and P O

O,
moves

be

made in
an

less
arc

length
with

OC,

circle

concave zero

toward
as a

(Fig. 25).
the radius limit. Then than
as

As of

OC-OF
the
arc

approaches
traced

limit,

by

increases

without

would P
traces

be

expected,
an

if OF is

be
convex

made

greater
toward O the
so arc on

OC,

arc

that

(Fig. 26).
radius small of the
a

The
arc

smaller traced may

OF-OC,

the

longer
that
an

of
an

the

by
be

P. used

It is curious
to

instrument
with side
enormous

describe

circle

radius
arc

and the

with

center

opposite

of
"

the

from

instrument.
of

The

straight line
"

the

"simplest
these
two

curve"
arcs,

maticians matheis the

lies of

between
each. many

and

limiting form Linkages subject

showed any
was

possess first

interestingproperties.
to

The
dents stu-

presented
Professor

English-speaking
Mr.
to

by

the

late
a

Sylvester.
can

Kempe
describe

"that

link-motion

be

found

given algebraic curve.,,

THE

FOUR-COLORS

THEOREM.

This

theorem,
has

known become for

any

also

as

the It

map

makers' four ing havsame

proposition,
colors
a

celebrated.
map,
no

is, that
districts the

are

sufficient

two

common

boundary
no

line
numerous

to

be

colored the

and

this

matter

how

districts,

how their

irregular
arrangement.
That

their

boundaries

or

how

complicated

four

colors

may

be

necessary

can

be trials that draw four. of

seen

from
vince con-

Fig.

27.
most

few persons
to

will it is
a

ably probquiring re-

impossible
more

map

than

To

give

mathematical
matter.

proof

it, is quite

another The been

as a

proposition
makers. It

is
was

said

to

have

long

known

to

map

mentioned

mathematical and later

to

proposition popularized
a

by
De

A.

F.

Mobius,
All

in that

1840,

by

Morgan.
is to science.

is needed it
one

give

proposition problems
that

celebrity
of this least the
one

proclaim Cay-

of

the

unsolved in

ley's remark,
unproved
was

1878,

had

remained onstrations demhad invent

a

followed within
two

by
or

at

two

published
But
one

three

years. for
some

each
to

flaw.
a new

The method the

chance of

is still open attack.

were

If

proposition by
a

not case,
140

true,

it

could
a

be

proved dis-

single special

by

producing

"map"

THE

FOUR

COLORS

THEOREM.

HI

with

five have has

districts tried

of

which this.

each

bounds

every

other.

Many
It the refers For

to

do that

been

shown would

there hold

are

surfaces The

on

which theorem

proposition
to
a

not

true.

plane

or

the

surface and

of

globe.
notes,

historical Ball's

presentation
pp.

bibliographic
or

see

Recreations,

51-3;

for

more

tended ex-

discussion,

Lucas,

IV,

168

et

seq.

PARALLELOGRAM

OF

FORCES.

One
if
a

of

the

best-known is the it to takes struck ball

to
a

principles
blow which and
a

of

physics
if

is, that
alone alone
at

ball, B,
drive drive the ball

acting
which delivered

would would
once,

A,
both

blow
are

C,

and the

blows

direction the

BD,

the

diagonal
of force drive is
two

of BA is the
re-

parallelogram
BC,
and the
to

and

just
ball

sufficient
to

D. of

BD the

the

"g
Pig
2g

sultant
q

forces. sented repre-

If

third

force,
some

by
operates
and and
so
on.

line

BE,
BA BD And

simultaneously
then is the the

with of of

those the the

represented parallelogram
three forces.

by
of

BC,
BE

diagonal
resultant

Hence
the
sum

the of the The each

resultant forces
more

of unless

forces the

is forces

always
act

less in the

than
same

direction.

nearly
the
more

their

lines does

of their

action

proach ap-

other,
sum.

nearly

resultant

approach
One have of
on a

their is

tempted

to

draw

the
an

moral,

that

social the

forces result

resultant the

and

obey
or

analogous
social

law,
energy less line.

all
a

educational
or

other

expended
than the

child,
unless

in

community,
act

being
same

sum,

all

forces

in

the

T42

QUESTION

OF

FOURTH

DIMENSION

BY

ANALOGY.

After

class

one

day

normal-school

pupil
received the

asked

the

writer

the

following
:

question,

and

ing follow-

reply
Q.
is If

the

path

of

moving
and

point
the

(no path
and of

dimension)
a

line

(one
a

dimension), (two
is
a

moving path why

of

line

is

surface

dimensions),
solid

the

moving
the

surface

(three
solid
a

dimensions),
four-dimensional

isn't

path
?

of

moving

magnitude
A: If
your

hypotheses by always
except
"slides in

were

correct, The

your of

conclusion

should

follow

analogy.
a

path path
line

moving
a

point
line

is,
is

indeed,
surface

line.

The

of

moving
in its

when

the

moves

own

dimension,
surface is

its

"

trace.

The

path
motion

of

moving
a

solid

only

when

the

is

in

third

dimension.

The

generation
the motion of
a

of

four
-

dimensional

magnitude
the solid is

by
to

solid

presupposes

that

be

moved

in

fourth

dimension.

SYMMETRY

ILLUSTRATED FOLDING.

BY

PAPER

The writer

following
'to

simple pupils
an

device
idea which

has of
no

been

found

by
with

the
a

give
and

symmetry
verbal each

certainty
unaided
a

directness

explanation pupil
to

can

approach.
calendered
or

Require
sized

take
crease

piece

of

paper, draw

fold

and

it once,
any

straighten
on one

it out half of

again,
the

rapidly
and fold

with

ink

figure
the
trace

paper,

together
and

while the with

a

ink
on

is the
to

still other the

damp.
half
crease

The of
as

original
paper
are

drawing

the
an

symmetric
Fold

respect
in
a

axis. In lie
a

Again:
one

paper

two

perpendicular
whose fold
two
so as

creases.

quadrant
in in is each each

draw
crease.

figure

end
to

points
make

one

Quickly
the other is

trace

of which of

quadrants.
with
center.

closed
to

figure
the

formed

symmetric
as

respect

intersection

the T.

creases

Sundara

Row,

in

his and
to

Geometric revised make

Exercises

in
and
structions con-

Paper Smith),*

Folding
has of beautiful

(edited
shown how

by
many
paper

Beman

of, the

plane

geometry

by
of of

folding,
of the
some

cluding in-

illustrations the

some

regular
of the

polygons higher
*

and

locating

points

on

plane
The

curves.

Chicago,

Open

Court

Publishing

Co.

M4

SYMMETRY.

I45

Illustrations
well in

of

symmetry
out

by
a

the

use

of

the

mirror

are

brought
American

in Education

brief
*

article

recently

lished pub-

Number

for

March

1907,

p.

464-5,

article

"Symmetrical

Plane

Figures,"

by

Henry

J.

Lathrop.

APPARATUS OF

TO

ILLUSTRATE

LINE

VALUES

TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS.

A lines

piece

of

apparatus
the
as

to

illustrate

trigonometric
ratios may
:

representing
somewhat
center

trigonometric
follows
disc A is

be

constructed To which the

may

(Fig.
attached rod

29)
a

of

rod

OR,

be

revolved.

tangent

is

screwed

Fig.

29.

to

the

disc T is

at

A.

Along
to

this

little

block The

bearing
block the R is

the also

letter connected

made the
two

slide

easily.
so

to

rod

OR,

that

T
a

marks block
a

section inter-

of

the

lines. rod

Similarly
BR. another
1

is moved distance is

along
from

the

tangent
the rod

At

P,
rod

unit's

on

OR,

(PM)

pivoted.

46

LINE

VALUES

OF

TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

I47

weight

at

the

lower

end

keeps
a

the

rod which the

in is

vertical made M.

position.
slide As

It

passes

through
OA is and revolved

block bears in the

to

freely
the rod

along
OR

which

letter

positive
the the OT

direction,

increasing
sine,
tangent,
secant,
OM BR

the the the OR

angle

O,

MP

represents

increasing
increasing
the

decreasing decreasing
the

cosine,
cotangent,

AT

ing increas-

decreasing

cosecant.

"SINE/'

Students
the line

in

trigonometry
or

sometimes

say:

"From of the

value,

geometric
it is named.
easy

representation,
to
see

trigonometric
and the is
secant
were

ratios
so

why

the

tangent
are

And

the

co-functions

functions the

of of

the the

complementary
name

angles.
It that it is of
a

But

what tion. ques-

origin
The

sine?"
is deems entire

good

following
;

answer

Cantor,

Fink,

and The The double used

Cajori
Greeks

but used

Cantor
the

doubtful. of half double the

a

chord

the chord

arc.

Hindus,
the for which it
arc

though (what
former

employing
we

of

call
name

sine for

in the

unit entire
a

circle);
chord,
natural

their
meant

jiva,

literally "bow-string,"
Their work the
came

designation
the Arabic

for who

chord.

to

us

through jiva
in into pointed "unographer's sten-

Arabs,

transliterated Arabic

Sanskrit written
a

dschiba. text"

being vowels)

usually
like
no

(without
dschiba

modern in the the Al

notes, and the it

having
dschaib the
means

meaning having
to

abic, Arsame

Arabic
was

word
easy

consonants,
of the former. the
a

for

latter

take

place
Bat-

But

dschaib
astronomer

"bosom."
of the the ninth

tani,
wrote

foremost book
on

century,
bodies. Latin word is

the

motion this who

was

of

heavenly
into Arabic

In

the Plato the

twelfth

century

translated the

by by

Tiburtinus,
sinus

rendered And

Latin

(bosom).

sinus, Anglicized,

"sine."
i48

GROWTH

OF

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

THE

CALCULUS.

The that the

latter

half

of

the

seventeenth of
*

century

produced
research,

powerful
differential

instrument calculus. and

mathematical
master

The

minds
to

that clear

vented in-

it, Newton

Leibnitz,
difficulties. is based
on

failed

the

subject

of

philosophical reasoning

Newton's
in the

this the

initial ratios

theorem of tities, quan-

Principia:
that

"Quantities,
any

and time

during
and
any

finite the

constantly
of that time
are

approach approach ultimately

this
ment state-

each
nearer

other,
than It

before

end

given

difference,
that
gave

equal."
nor

is its

not

surprising

neither

demonstration

universal
considered

tion. satisfacin the

The

"zeros"

whose

ratio

was

Newton
it
to

and

Leibnitz

invented

it
as

in
an

the

sense

that
of been others

they
search. re-

brought

comparative
most

perfection
Fermat
must

instrument it had
many

Like

epoch-making Cavalieri, Kepler,

toward of mathematics it. Mr. it One
to note
a

discoveries and
go
a a

shadowed. forehad into

no

been the

working
history
that discovered of

long
when the

way

back
was

find

time

there

suggestion
a

As

this

is penned Danish in

newspapers
says

bring
he
a

report

Hiberg,
in
a

scientist,

has

cently re-

palimpsest
'On the in

Constantinople,

hitherto
script, manu-

unknown

work

on

mathematics

which
and of certain

is

entitled
to

by Archimedes. is dedicated Method/ applying

geometry.
that bears of mechanics There
a

"The
to to

thenes, Eratosthe tion soluancient

to

relates

problems
method of of

is in

this

Greek
the used

manuscript a integral calculus

for the and solution Newton

modern

days,
centuries

and

resemblance strong of is capable for the

problems

reserved

being of genius
Y.

Leibnitz

eighteen

later."

(N.

une. Trib-

)
149

I50

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

method

of

fluxions
as

were

characterized of
on

by the

astute

Bishop

Berkeley
based substitute from it

"ghosts
calculus any
a

departed quantities."
the

Leibnitz
one

his for

principle that
another which

may

magnitude
of axiom."

differs This

only by
as

small. quantity infinitely Pressed for

an

is assumed he

"a

sort

explanation,

said treated

that, in comparison

with

finite
as

quantities, he
with should have

infinitelysmall
of

quantities
sand in

incomp arables, negligible"like grains

the made sea." the

parison com-

This,
a

if
mere

consistently held,
method of

calculus

proximati ap-

According
the
were were

to

the

explanations
should have But

of

both, strictly applied,

results that results ward afterdue

calculus

produced

close

approximations.
accurate.

instead, its
that this of the

absolutely
L. N. M.

Berkeley first,and
out
was

Carnot, pointed
of
errors.

to

compensation perhaps
The
not

This in
a

phase
more

subject

is

nowhere

treated

piquant style
tion demonstra-

than

in Bledsoe's method

Philosophy of
of limits the the

Mathematics.
a

permits
pure latter

rigor of
to

possible to
methods As
on

infinitesimalists.
are

ally Logicas

the

of

be

regarded
the

abridgments.
is admirable for

treated
a

by

the

best

writers

culus cal-

to-day

sound
as

philosophical basis.
well
as

It is

its

logic

for

its marvelous

efficiency.
But of the many writers
are so

dominated
use

by

the 0

thinking
to
mean

past that
"an

they

still

the

symbol

sometimes

small infinitely
zero. or

absolute
use

Clearer i
or

quantity" and thinking impels

symbol
zero.

times some-

to

the
an

of

(iota)

some

other 0

to

mean

infinitesimal, denoting by
This
distinction

only

implies

that

between

their

recipro-

PHILOSOPHY

OF

THE

CALCULUS.

I5I

cals. Wallis both

The in for the

symbol
seventeenth variable

" ,

first

used

for has

an

infinite been and

by
used for

century,

long
limit of

increasing
The revised introduced for absolute

without edition

absolute Calculus contraction

for be

infinity.
(Ginn
of infinite

Taylor's
op,
"

1898)

new

symbol

a/0,
(the
that

infinity,
of will is be
an

using

only
It
is

an

reciprocal
usage
to

infinitesimal).
universal.
the clearest of and methods

to

hoped
book concise

this

become

In
and the the used

the

just

referred
statement

perhaps
found

most

to

anywhere
calculus

inverse

problems
calculus,
calculus.

of

the well

differential of the

integral
in the

as

as

three

SOME

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

LIMITS.

Physical
to

illustrations similar of
case

of of
a

variables

are

numerous.

But The

find

constant,
of search of

is not

easy.

long
meter

history etc.)

the

determination of
a

standards for

(yard,
stants. con-

is the

history
are

physical
or

Constants limited

the

result

abstraction
constants

are

by
and

definition.
enter

Non-physical
into
most
a

are

merous, nu-

problems.
older
to

If ratio

one

person the
age
.

is of

just
the

year

than that of

another,
the 49

the
at

of

younger .01234

older,
50

successive

birthdays,
:

-u

1S

---

-...__...

In is of The
a

general
variable their

the

ratio

of

the

ages
as

of

any

two

persons
sum

approaching
.is
a

unity

limit.

The without

of limit.

ages

variable their

increasing
ages

difference

between

is

constant.

Fig.

30.

When

pupils
P which half have the

have
moves

the half

idea
way

of from

the A the

time-honored
to

point
second,
etc.,
and
a

the

first

remaining
with have

distance the

next

second,
constant

but

trouble

product
been

of

variable,

they

sometimes
:

helped yourself

by

the

following
at

"optical illustration"
30
as

Imagine
that makes
to

ing look-

Fig.
twice

through large
as

glass
it
152

everything
naked eye.

look

appears

the

SOME

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

LIMITS.

153

AP the

still "real"

seems

to

approach

AB

as

limit the

; that

is, twice
AB 3 the then
as

AP

is

approaching
your

twice

"real"

limit.
n

Now AP of
x

suppose

glass
AB AP

magnifies magnified
=

times,
same

times.

still times.

approaches
That

number
constant

is, if
x

AB,

any

AP the

that

constant

AB. look one-nth with

x

Reverse

glass, making
It

AP

one-nth of the

part

as

large
AB. the

as

at

first.

approaches
in

"real"

Putting
variable, and

this
c

symbols,
constant,

representing

the

"U"JU
Or in words: is of The the the limit ratio of of the ratio of
a

variable

to

constant

the
to

limit the Let

variable

constant.
x

represent
from A
to

the C

broken

line

(Fig.
first of

31),
4 of

composed
then of last the
etc.

parts,
16

8,

then

(the
in of

division

shown then

figure)
The

32,

polygon
x,

bounded and BC of Most this But

a
=

by
A

AB

ABC
of

What x?

the

length
to

Fig.
sons perold

31.

whom

figure

is

new

answer

off-hand,
that
x

"x

AC."

minute's
+

reflection

shows

is constant

and

AB

BC.

LAW

OF

COMMUTATION.

This and

law,

emphasized Psychology
all of

for

arithmetic

in and attention

McLellan

Dewey's
in
side

of
that is

Number,

explicitly
to

employed logical
is and is often

algebras
the

give
one

the

subject,
So of

whose it is used

importance implicitly
its

overlooked.
as

long

as

regarded neglected.
in

universal
:

application,
remember
not

import
are

An

antidote this law

to

that

there E. g.
:

regions
In the used of

which

does

apply.
of

"geometric
in does factors in

multiplication"
the but the
a

rectangular

tors vec-

quaternions,
not
reverses

commutative

property
in the

factors of

hold,

change
of the

cyclic

order Even

sign
or

product.
the
mutative com-

elementary
is

algebra
not

arithmetic,
the in

principle
Professor

valid

in

operation
his

of

volution in-

Schubert,
has
"

Mathematical
to

Essays
fact that

and

Recreations,
this limitation and

called

attention of any

the

the
"

impossibility
renders useless

changing inter-

base

exponent

high

operation

of

continued

involution.

*54

EQUATIONS
LENGTH

OF

U.

S.

STANDARDS

OF

AND

MASS.

By April kilogram yard,

All

order

approved
1893,
the

by
international

the

secretary

of

the

treasury
and

5,

prototype
fundamental

meter

are

regarded
etc.

as

standards,
of them.

the

pound
of the

being
nations

defined

in

terms

taking copies
of accuracy the of

part
the

in

the

convention

have

very The

accurate

international

dards. stan-

degree
from

of

the

comparisons
the tion rela-

be
may

seen

equations
and

expressing kilogram
20,

of

meter

no.

27

no.

of

the

United

States,
the number

to

the

international

prototypes.
of the

resents rep-

of

degrees

centigrade
last
term

scale

of

the

hydrogen
shows

thermometer.

The

in

each

equation
M

the

of range

error.

no.

27=

lm-

1.6/*
0.039
-

8.657//T
"

0.00100/*T2"0.2/*

no
.

20
=

1kg
coast

0.002 mg

mg

(U.

S.

and

geodetic

survey.)

THE

MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS.

TREATMENT

OF

This

is

one

of of

the

most

important
to

and needs

interesting
of modern

applications
civilization. observer the
"

mathematics
as

the

Just
are

data
"

gathered
or

by

an

incompetent
unless the the of
sult re-

worthless be measured

by
and

biased

observer,
from
even

bias
so

can

eliminated
from the

also
one

conclusions

obtained with value.

are

best
tistics sta-

data

by

unacquainted
be of of doubtful

principles

must

The

laws

statistics

applications permutations,
illustration of them
two

of

ical mathemat-

formulas,
and

especially
Take

of for

combinations

probability.
mathematical
:

simple
would
not

laws be

(the
so

derivation

simple)

1.
made. the

Suppose
If number the of

number
measures

of be each the the for the

measurements

have
as

been and

laid
measure

of!

abscissas,
be

times
as

occurs

sented repre-

graphically
line the drawn

corresponding points
these axis thus
measures.

ordinate,

the

through
*curve

plotted

is The

called
area

distribution this

between

line

and

of

is

the

surface

of

frequency.
If
a

quantity
of
an

one

is

measuring
number and

is due of all is of

to causes,

chance

binations com-

infinite

equal
likely
shown

in
to

amount occur,

and

independent,
of

equally
the form

the

surface

frequency
156

TREATMENT

OF

STATISTICS.

57

in

Fig. 32,
Most

the

equation
that
are

of

the

curve are

being
not

e~~**.
such

effects

measured and their but

due

to

combinations
are more
or

of less

causes,

distribution favorable

curves ditions con-

irregular;

under

they frequently approximate

be called In these the
cases

this, which

may
"

normal, "the normal

the
are

probabilityintegral.
been

tables

that

have

computed

for

this surface

of

great assistance.

2.

Every

one

knows

that,other things being equal,the

of measurements

greater the number

the the

made, the greater

probabilityof
true
one.

their average is shown

(or

other

mean)

being
the

It

mathematically

that

probability varies
of
were

as

the

square
one

root

of

the

number
cases

measures.

E.

g.,

If in in

investigation 64
25
be
cases,
more

measured,
the those first from

and

another

the

returns

from than

will investigation the second in the

trustworthy
5.
deviation
measures

ratio of 8 to

It is also other their the

measure

apparent
of in

that, if the

average

(or
from

variability)of
one

the

average

set

is greater in that

than
set

in

another,
the

average

is less the

trustworthy
varies

in which

is variability the E.

greater.

Expressed inversely as
average

mathematically,
the

trustworthiness g., in
one

variability.
of

investigation the

deviation

I58
the
or

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

measures

from the

their average
unit may

is 2

(2cm,
in of the

2 grams,

whatever

be) while
same

another
measures

vestigati in-

(involving the

number Then

etc.)the
approach
first the second

average
to

deviation
of
to

is 2.5. average

probable
in the in

accuracy

the

obtained

investigationis
as

that

of the

average
as

obtained 4.
in the
ber num-

1/2
and

is to

1/2.5,or

to

If the of both

two

investigationsdiffered
in the deviation factors in
enter to

both from

measures

the average, the tive relaE. g., graphs: para-

would confidence

as

determining
two two

be

reposed
in

in the

results.

combine

the An

examples
average
was

the

preceding
from 64 from

obtained

measures

whose

was variability

2, and

another Then |

25

ures meas-

whose
trustworthiness
of first average

was variability )

2.5.

\trustworthiness
'

/jrj
"
' -

1 2
"

nz^

1 2.5

of second

average

2:1
a

The

trustworthiness varies

of the the

mean

of

number of the

of

ures meas-

directlyas
and

square their

root

number

of

measures

inversely as

variability.
B and

The
science the
most
"

foregoing principles
"

the

of

statistical

show

some

of which

its method it is
on

its value

and the

direction readable L.

in

working.
subject
to

Perhaps
is the

treatise

the

Professor

Edward

Thorndike's and Social

Introduction
Measurements. of

Theory
and
on

of

Mental
an

It presupposes mathematics works

only

elementary knowledge
references
to
more

contains

technical

the

subject.
Professor Data"
W. S

Hall, in "Evaluation
Med.

of

metric Anthropo-

(Jour. Am.

Assn., Chicago, 1901)

TREATMENT

OF

STATISTICS.

59

showed is the

that
curve

the

curve

of

distribution in the

of

biologicdata
of
an

of the

coefficients In
a

expansion

algebraic binomial.
Guide School
to

most

interestingarticle,"A
of for

the

Equitable
and

Grading
the

Students,"

in he

Science this in
a

Mathematics

June, 1906,
of

applies
records In the 32. the

principle to
class. of

distribution

student

expansion
are

(a + ")5
their

there

are

6 terms, Their
are sum

and is and
ditions, con-

coefficients If 320 under and

1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1.
do work and

students normal

tested

graded
D, E, F

(though perhaps unusual)

marks of
are

6 different

used

"

say

A, B, C,
of these

"

the number should

pupils attaining each

rated in

standings
under would the when

approximate
students

10, 50, 100, 100, 50, 10,

were

respectively. If 3200
similar be
ten

in 6 groups the groups

conditions, the
times
as

numbers

great

"

100, 500, 1000

etc., and
than
ditions con-

approximation only
that of 320
cause

would tested.

be

relatively closer
The

were

study

of

the

deviation

from

this normal both

tion distribu-

standings

is instructive

and statistically

pedagogically.
A

rough-and-ready
cases,

statistical illustrated

method,
as

available
:

in

certain
we are

may

be in

follows number

Suppose
of words

engaged

ascertaining the
of
now7

in
an

the

vocabulary Margaret Paltz.)

"

normal-school in progress

juniors.
under normal
a

(Such

investigationis
Dr. Let

the

direction

of New

K.
us

Smith, of the
select 13th of this and
"

faculty at
page of the
tests

at

random

dictionary
ascertain the

say

the

and

by
on

appropriate
this page that

number divide page,

words number thus

the of
ex-

pupil knows,
words
on

by
a

the

number

the

obtain

convenient

l60

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

pression for
the similar pages
"

the be

part of the
.3016. divide
of Turn the words

words
to

known. page 113 known both 213

case

Suppose
and
on

quotient to

make both

tests, and

number
on

by
"

the

number After

pages, the the far

giving
result is

say found

.2391. for three the

trying
In result the

page each

pages. total

decimal
in
to

represents

reached

thus

the be

experiment.

Suppose

successive

decimals

.3016 .2391 .2742

.2688

.2562 .2610
.2628 .2631 .2642 .2638 A few decimals that thus the be obtained

may

convince

the

perimenter ex-

first

figure has "become

to

constant." the second above.

Many
If the knows

more

may the

necessary

determine

figure unless
first two

"series

converges" rapidly as
found in
to

figures be
the words

be

26, this student

plying Multi-

26%
the of

of

the

dictionary.
correct

"dictionary total" by
the student's If
a

this

coefficient, gives
to

the

extent

vocabulary,

1%
have

of the had

dictionarytotal.
determined. method has
at

higher degree

of accuracy would

been

required,a three-placecoefficient
the each

been

This

practicaladvantage

that

the

coefficient found with

the of the

step furnishes, by comparison

an

coefficients

previously obtained,
that will be

tion indica-

degree

of accuracy

attained

by

TREATMENT

OF

STATISTICS.

l6l

its

use.

The each of

labor

of

division

may

be 20 each

diminished words student is

by
other be

using, multiple
examined. certain

on

page,

only Similarly

the

first with

(or

10).
The classes

to

method of

here

described

applicable

to

measures.

MATHEMATICAL

SYMBOLS.

The
may

origin
be learned

of

most

of
any

the

symbols
of

in

common

use

from

history
recentness.
are

mathematics. Of which
-,

The

noteworthy
of

thing
the

is their oldest

our

symbols
appear in

operation

and

Widmann's Consider middle had still been many of

arithmetic the the used years another and

was

(Leipsic,
in

1489).
to

situation sixteenth

respect

symbols
radical and "

at

the

century.

The
~-,

sign
were

by
in

Rudolff,
the

( ),
=

x,

"
not

future,
for
not

had
same

yet
had
use.

appeared
been used Almost
mere

(though slightly) everything

symbol
and
-

the in

were

general
or

expressed
Yet
at

by
time solved that
a men

words both and

by
and

breviatio ab-

that been

cubic the with

ratic biquadlished. pub-

equations
It
acumen

had

methods the of

is

astonishing
to

intellectual

necessary third
or

invent

solution
not

equations
hit for
upon

of

the
a

fourth

degree
as

should of

have

device

so

simple
of their

symbols

operation

the

abridgment
The

work. of the
"

inconvenience tested

lack
say
"

of
a

symbols

may

be

easily
and of

by
it

writing
without

quadratic ordinary

equation symbols

solving algebra.
Even after
was

any

of

the

the slow.

introduction But until

of

symbols
it has

began,
moved do
a we

the with have of

process

recently
now

accelerating
a

velocity,
for each

not

only

symbol

operation
1

"

sometimes

choice

MATHEMATICAL

SYMBOLS.

163

symbols
engaged
a

but
"

most

of

the

letters

of

the

alphabet
E.
g.
:

are

for

special quantity, A,

mathematical known number, axis

uses.

finite

side of

of

triangle

opposite
b known

intercept
side axis of of

on

x"

altitude.
. .

number,

triangle
y.
. .

opposite

B,

base,

intercept
c

on

constant
. .

differential,
base of

distance...

Napierian

logarithms.

considerable

inroad

has

been

made

on

the

Greek

alphabet,
y
""

e.

g.

inclination

to

axis

of

x.

3.14159...
of

sum

terms

similarly (in

obtained.

standard
cr

deviation of

theory
is

of

measurements).
means

But There

the is

supply
no cause

alphabets
for alarm.

by

no

exhausted.

BEGINNINGS

OF

MATHEMATICS
NILE.

ON

THE

Whatever
may

the

excavations reveal
as

in
to

Babylonia
state

and

Assyria

ultimately
in those

the

of it

mathematical is established

learning"
that facts record The
case

early

civilizations,
of ancient

in and

Egypt

the

knowledge
was so

certain
as

mathematical
to

processes its

have

left

no

of truth

origin.
of the

Pythagorean

theorem
may

for

the

cial spe-

of known

the

isosceles among New the sides

right triangle using

tile

have

been Be-

widely
man

people
Plane of of
a

floors
p.

(see

and

Smith's 5
are

Geometry,

103).
was

That known

3, 4, and
and The of used Ahmes

right triangle
the

by

the

builders

pyramids
C. and based

and
on

temples.
a

papyrus 3000 B.
a

(1700
C.
or

B.

work metical arith-

perhaps

earlier)
of

contains

many

problems,
the solution of the

table

unit-fractions,
in which
one

etc.,
hau

and

simple
unknown.
must

equations, Though
be the

(heap)
feel of
sure

represents
that

may

arithmetic

oldest

member of

the

mathematical

family,
and

still the
are

beginnings

arithmetic,
When
we

algebra
curtain
men

geometry
on

all of linear

prehistoric.
human

the
see

raises

the

drama

history,
and

computing, simple
case

solving
of the

equations,

using

Pythagorean

proposition.

i64

FEW

SURPRISING OF

FACTS

IN

THE

TORY HIS-

MATHEMATICS.

That
than former That fourth of

spherical

trigonometry

was

developed by
the fact

earlier that the

plane
was

trigonometry
used in

(explained

astronomy).
of the
=.

the

solution

equations
use

of
most

the of

third the

and

degree

preceded
even

of

symbols

operation,
That

of
"

decimals been in

so

simple

and

convenient
so

should
"

not

have

invented

till after research and

much numbers

"had had

been been

attempted
so

physical

deeply
That

pondered" logarithms

(Mark
were

Napier).
invented of in before

exponents
from
nents expo"

were

used
"

the

.derivation
used

logarithms teaching
more

now

always
out

logarithms
than
a

ing be-

first later. That

pointed

by

Euler

century

the

earliest constructed

systems
for should

of the have

logarithms
sole

(Napier's,
of that Gunter tating facilimark and

Speidell's),

object

computation, (leaving others)

it for but

missed

Briggs,
have

Gellibrand,
attained
to

Vlacq,

should

theoretical purposes of

tance, impormodern

lending analytical

themselves

the

methods

(Cajori).

165

QUOTATIONS
Following
used above Let
leave

ON

MATHEMATICS.

are

some

of

the in

quotations
the

that

have of
a

been frieze
room:

at

different
blackboard
one

times in is
near

decoration

the
no

the

writer's

recitation with
on

who

unacquainted
the door that the and Plato

geometry
the said inside
to
"

here.

(This
of the

an

adaptation
over

motto

is
to

have of
acquainted un-

had

the

outside the

of

entrance

his

school is

philosophy,

Academy:
geometry

"Let
enter

no

one

who

with

here.,,)
Plato.

God
There

geometrizes
is
no

continually.
road queen
to

royal
the is the

geometry.
the the sciences. hurnan

Euclid.
Gauss. mind. nitz. Leib-

Mathematics,
Mathematics

of of

glory

Mathematics

is

the of

most
man

marvelous for the

instrument

ated cre-

by
Laisant.

the

genius

discovery

of

truth.

Mathematics

is

the

indispensable

instrument

of

all

physical
All
my

research.

Berthelot. is

physics

nothing

else

than

geometry.

cartes. Des-

There

is

nothing

so

prolific

in

utilities

as

tions. abstrac-

Faraday.
The
two

eyes

of

exact

science

are

mathematics

and

logic.
All

De

Morgan.
education which does
not
commence

scientific

166

QUOTATIONS

ON

MATHEMATICS.

167

with

mathematics

is,

of

necessity,

defective

at

its

dation. foun-

Compte.
It method is in mathematics followed
we

ought by
the

to

learn

the mind

general
in its

always
researches. science

human

positive
A

Compte.
is
a

natural

science

only

in

so

far

as

it

is

mathematical. The linked If the

Kant. the

progress,
to

improvement
of the
state.

of

mathematics

are

the Greeks

prosperity
had have loses
not

Napoleon.
sections,
WhewcU.

cultivated

conic

ler Kep-

could No

not

superseded
more

Ptolemy.
mathematics its

subject
'to

than from

by
Glaisher.

any

tempt at-

dissociate

it

history.

AUTOGRAPHS

OF

MATHEMATICIANS.

For
was

the made

photograph
the writer
an

from is indebted in

which
to

this Prof.

cut

(Fig.

33)

David of

Eugene
ical mathemat-

Smith.

x\s

explorer
a

the of

bypaths

history
therefrom,
The the

and Dr.

collector

interesting
without
to
see a a

specimens peer.*
of grange La-

Smith will of be

is, perhaps,
interested and

reader

facsimile

handwriting
and

Euler and

Johann

Bernoulli,
and others page.

Laplace

Legendre,
Hamilton,
on

Clifford and
one

Dodgof In the the

son,

and

William

Rowan

immortals,
upper

grouped
corner

together
is the

right
historian

autograph
On the
verses

of the is in

Moritz sheet faint

Cantor,

the

of
name

mathematics.
over

ping overlap; it

that, the
of

is that

J. J. Sylvester,

late

professor

Johns

Hopkins

University.
One may who feel tries that he
to

decipher
indeed

some

of the
not

these Mazes
as a

documents of class matics. Mathenoted

is

"In
are

"f
for and the

Mathematicians
or

elegance

the
are

legibility
not

of

their
as

chirography,
models of of
one

these

examples
But of

submitted the

penmanship.
of the builders

each the

bears

sign
structure

manual of

proud

modern

mathematics.
*

Several

handsome Dr.

sets
are

edited

by

Smith,

of portraits published by The

of

mathematicians,

Open

Court

lishing Pub-

Company.
t This
The
section first March

printed
"

in

series

bearing

that

title, in

Open

Court,

July,
168

1907.

AUTOGRAPHS

OF

MATHEMATICIANS.

169

bio

BRIDGES

AND UNICURSAL

ISLES,

FIGURE

TRACING,

SIGNATURES,
LABYRINTHS.

This results these

section of the

presents

few of

of

the

more

elementary
methods
to

application

mathematical

interesting puzzle

questions.*

Fig. 34-

The

city

of

Konigsberg
has
at

is that the
arose

near

the
an

mouth island

of

the

Pregel

river, which
The

point
seven

called

Kneiphof.
in
*

situation A

of

bridges
as

is shown it
the ad

Fig.
For

34.

discussion

to

whether
of

is

more

extended

discussion,
Euler's

and

for

proofs

rems theoGeo-

here

stated,
Situs Per

see

Solutio

Problcmatis
zur

metriam

tine ntis, Listing's

170

Vorstudicn

Topologie,

BRIDGES

AND

ISLES,

LABYRINTHS

ETC.

171

possibleto
without famous

cross

all the
any
was

bridges
a

in

singlepromenade
time.

crossing
memoir of St.

bridge
in

second
to

Euler's
of this

presented
the

the in

Academy
answer

Sciences

Petersburg
to

1736

to

question. Rather,
him the occasion and number

Konigsberg
the of shrink

problem

furnished of any

solve

general problem
isles and
to

combination the isles to

more

bridges.
the

Conceive
may
to
a

points,and
with
a

lem prob-

be

stated
as

conveniently
of

reference

diagram

the

problem

tracing

given figure

Fig- 35without

removing
any

the

pencil from
; or,

the

paper

and

out with.do
so

retracing
with
are one

part
to

if not hozv
a

possible to
many such

stroke,

determine is

strokes

necessary.

Fig. 35
the

diagrammatic Kneiphof
from

tation represenat

of

Fig. 34,
of be

isle

being

the

point
The
a

K. number lines

proceeding
the order

any

point

of

figure may

called

of that

point. Every

Ball's Mathematical

Mathematiques,
last two

Recreations and tions RecreaEssays, Lucas's and the references given in notes by the
To these
two

writers

named.

the

present

writer

is

especially indebted.

172

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

point
odd of

will

therefore E. g., the

even. now
as

be

of there

either
are

an

even

order from
; the

or

an

order.

lines is odd

point
order

A of

Fig. 36,
E is Enler

order The

of the

point

point by

well-known stated
as

conclusions follows
:

reached

may

be

Fig. 36.

Fig.
In
a

37-

Fig. 38.
with
no

closed the the

figure (one figure is

closed

free odd
not.

point
order

or

"loose
even,

end")
whether
a

number

of points of
unicursal
or

is

E. g..

Fig. 36,
of odd

multicnrsal

figure, has point

four points
is

order. A be

figure of
traced

which

every

of

even

order

can

by

one

stroke

startingfrom, any

point of

the

BRIDGES

AND

ISLES,

LABYRINTHS

ETC.

173

figure. E.g., Fig. 3/,

the

Pythagorean commonly
used
on

magic pentagon, symbol of gram school, and Fig. 38, a "magic hexathe called the shield of David have and
no

quently fre-

synagogues" (Carus),
each is therefore
two

points
be

of A

odd

order

unicursal. odd order those

can

figure with by
has
one

only

points of
one

traced E. g.,

stroke

by starting at points
of odd
one

of

points.
Z ; it
at

Fig.

39 but

(taken originally from

two

Listing's To polo
and

gie)
may either

order, A
stroke

therefore of these

be
two

traced

by

beginning
at

points

and

ending

the

other.

Fig.

39-

One Lucas

may

make

game like
a

of

it

by drawing
but in
on

figure, as
scale
on

suggests,

Fig. 39,
small

larger
the

cardboard,
each the

placing
to

counter

middle

of

line that

joins two
determine
counters

neighboring points,and
the
course

setting
in
moving re-

problem

to

follow

all the

successively (simply tracing

each
counter
as

continuously
an

and

removing
of

it is

passed,
have

objective
traced).
A

method

recording
tzvo

which

lines

been

figure
odd order
to

with

more

than

points of
more

odd
two

order

is multicnrsal.
of

E. g.. and

Fig. 40

has
more

than
one

points
or

requires
it.

than

course,

stroke,

traverse

174
The of

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

last two

theorems

just
number

stated

are

special cases
odd
are

Listing's:
Let Zn

represent

the

of points of
then
n

order;
sary neces-

strokes and

sufficient

to

trace

the 39

figure.
2

E.

g., of

Fig.
odd

with

points

order, requires

one

Fig.
has
.

stroke;
40.

Fig. 40,
a

senting repreof four

fragment requires
of

masonry, strokes. Return

points
the

of

odd

order

and

now

to to

Konigsberg problem
diagram
of odd in

Fig.
seen

34.

By

reference
are

the

Fig. 35
and

it is

that

there

four
cross

points
every strolls.

order.
once

Hence but

it is not
once

possible to taking
An consideration describe of
we an

bridge

out with-

two

interestingapplication
of n-gon of the number its and the

of of

these

theorems
necessary

is the
to

strokes As

diagonals.
are

the
even

points
order,
from every lines

intersection need
to

diagonals only
the

all of

consider

vertexes.

Since
a

each other from 'if

n

vertex

there the

is

line to of

vertex,
each is

number is n-l.

vertex

Hence,
is of
can even

odd,

every

point

order, and
traced

the

entire

figure

be
any

unicursally beginning
e.g.,

at

point;
with
n
-

Fig. 41,
If

a n

pentagon
is even, is of odd

its 1 is

diagonals.
of be

Fig.
order is

odd, every

vertex

order, the number

n,

points

of odd in less

and

the

figure

can

not

described

BRIDGES

AND

ISLES,

LABYRINTHS

ETC.

175

than

n/2
two

courses

e.

g.,

Fig. 36,
A

quires quadrilateral,re-

strokes.

Unicursal
is of

signatures.
respect
to
to

signature (or
the
same

other
as are

ing) writother
pen

course

subject to
the the

laws of the

figures with
must

number Since with

times terminal of be

the

be

put

paper.

point starting
counted
two. to

could
without
as a

have

been

connected
pen,

the

point
may

the lifting

the

signature
no

closed number

figure if
of The dot

it has of
an

free order

end

but be
a

these found

The be

points
over

odd

will of

even.

i, the

cross

t,

or

any

Fig.

42.

Fig.

43.

other

mark

leaving
There that
are

a are

free
so

point, makes
many
names

the
not
more

signature requiring
unicursal

multicursal.

separate strokes

one

would

expect
De

signatures than
shown but with
most

actually found.
in the

Morgan's

(as

in

the of

cut

preceding section)
there Of the shown
were

is one; made
to

the

signatures
each.

several

strokes of

signatures
is not
one

the is
as

Declaration

Independence
;

there

that looks / that

unicursal strictly if the often end have of the been

though
h and

that of Th the

Jefferson of the in

beginning

might
case

completely joined, and

I76
his
course

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

signature
of the

would pen. of

have

been

written

in

single

Fig. 42, sign

manual traced without

formed of

two

crescents, said
to

is "the have of

so-called

Mohammed,
sand

been

inally orig-

in the the

by

the

point
the

his scime.tar
or tracing re-

taking
any

scimetar

off

ground
can

part of the
at

figure," which point

of the The horns order.

easily be
it of
tains con-

done

beginning
no

any

figure,as
mother of

point
suggests

of

odd

the

writer

that, if the

Mohammed's

Fig.

44.

crescents
can

be be of

omitted,
traced

figure (Fig. 43)

There strokes
two

is left which
are

not

unicursally.
;

then

four

points
to

odd. order
the

hence

are

requisite
shown in

describe

figure.
as

Labyrinths Fig.
are

such

the in

very

simple
London
one. so

one

44

(published

1706
to

by

and In
easy

Wise)
some

familiar, as
more

drawings,
in the

.every it is not

of

the

complicated mazes
way,
even

to

thread entire

one's

drawing,

where

the

BRIDGES

AND

ISLES,

LABYRINTHS

ETC.

77

maze

is in
or

sight,while
conceal the
one

in the

actual

labyrinth,where
but the

walls is

hedges
at

everything
the
a

path

one

taking
The

moment,
needs

is greatly difficulty of

creased in-

and

rule

procedure.
are

mathematical

principles involved figures;

to

the

same

as

for

tracing
two

other
are

but

in

their in the it

application
conditions
not
are

several of the
a

differences

be

noticed

problems. figure;
as are

A the the

labyrinth,as
entrance

stands, is
center

closed

for also

and

the blind

free the odd

ends,
maze

ends These

of any
are

alleys that points

of
not to

may

contain. There in
a

therefore other

of

order.

are

usually
But
to

points
can

odd
be
so.

order.

Hence

single trip
is,
the the from

the

maze

completely
The

traversed. here

it is not go

required
the the
entrance

do
to

problem
the

the

center, the

shorter rules of

route

found do
not

better.

over, More-

game

forbid

retracing
that
a trance, en-

one's

course.

It is

readily seen
over

(as

first

suggested by Euler)
the it
maze

by going
closed

each

line

twice where
as one

becomes
at

figure,terminating including the

center

begins,

the

point
even

in the

course,

and every
over

containing only points labyrinth can

every be
"

of

order.

Hence

completely
once some

traversed

by going
It is
the

path

twice
to

in each
means

direction. of

only
routes

necessary

have

marking
to

already

taken

(and

their
way.

direction)
This and is

avoid

the

of losing possibility
course one

one's
no

duplication
so

of the entire
a

permits
does

failure need in But

may
to

general anything
it the is

method the

that

not

know
to
a

about

particular labyrinth confidently.

had,
a

order if be

traverse

successfully and labyrinth can

shorter. be

plan
found

of that

course

178

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Theseus,
of the

as

he threaded would
mazes

the Cretan have

as

Minotaur,

labyrinthin quest matical regarded Euler's matheless the romantic

outer

theory
the there
to

of

much
at

than
; but

silken
are

cord

with

Ariadne
a

end

occasions the "a

where

modern

finds the
not

it necessary

"go by
was

book."

Doubtless
maze,

labyrinth
a

of

Daedalus

mighty
one

but
most

without

plan.""
It is

Fig. 45 presents though by no means

described in the
as

of the among

famous
most

labyrinths, (article

the

puzzling.

Eneyclop"dia
follows:

Britannica

"Labyrinth")

Fig.

45-

"The

maze

in the
to

gardens
be
one

at

Hampton
the finest

Court

ace Palin

is considered

of

examples
of the that

England.
of
maze

It

was

planted
there
on

in the it has

early part
been time and

reign
a

William had

III, though
existed the

supposed
of

since

the

Henry

VIII.
and

It is constructed
was,
we

hedge
have

alley system,
out, and
the
a

believe, originally planted with

of the

hornbeam,
been
placed re-

but

many

plants

died
so

by hollies,yews,
mixed.
and the The
extent

etc.,
about

that half

vegetation is
in

walks of
acre.

are

mile
a

length,
over
a

ground 'occupied
The
center

is

little
two

quarter

of

an

contains

large

BRIDGES

AND

ISLES,

LABYRINTHS

ETC.

79

trees,

with

seat

beneath

each. the from

The hand

key

to

reach

this in round

resting
contact

place
with

is the

to

keep hedge

right
first

continuously
last,

to

going

all

the

stops."

THE

NUMBER

OF

THE

BEAST.

"Here
him
count

is

wisdom. the number

:

He of

that the

hath
beast is Six ancient

understanding,
; for

let
ber num-

it is the and

of and

man

and

his

number

hundred

sixty
read

six." hundred No wonder

to

(Margin,
and that
a

"Some

authorities 13:18.
a

Six

sixteen/')
these of words

Revelation have been who such

powerful

incentive

class

interpreters especially
hidden in which
to

delight
as

in
a

apocalyptic Pythagorean
There
were

literature,

have numbers.

regard
centuries

for

meaning
no

in

satisfactory
At about the and

pretation intersame

was

generally Benary,
number In

known.

time,
connected

in

1835,
the

Fritzsche,
666
with

Hitzig

Reuss

"Emperor
notation
-) =

(Csesar)
of the
^
=

Neron,"
the

pn:iDp.
letter 50. final

the
D

number
=

brews He-

100,

60,

200,

3=50,
666.

200,

1=6,

*]
=

These letter the

numbers from the

added
name

give

ting Omitit the peror "Emginal mar-

the

(making
is

Nero") reading.
is that the
;

number The

represented
present
is the the writer's

616,

casual intended Nero number

opinion
in the the

foregoing
that of had the
to

meaning
fear of of the

passage

and

after

passed,

knowledge
faded,
It the and

meaning
be

gradually
afterward.
after of
to

rediscovered
that

long
about
a

is, however,

strange,
of the

only

century

writing
with

Apocalypse
was

the

connection

the Ire-

number

Nero

apparently

unknown

180

THE

NUMBER

OF

THE

BEAST.

l8l

naeus.

He
number. the
was

made

several

conjectures
and and
a

of

words

to

fit

the In

later made

Middle
to

Ages

afterward, the
individual little

ber num-

fit heresies found that

heretics. could
ber num-

Protestants discover and

a

in turn similar

ingenuity
the of

correspondence
for of
name

between
or names

symbols exchange
When the

the these

papacy

popes.
tinued. con-

So

the

expressions
in

of

regard

is taken

Greek, the number

every letter is

is
a

expressed
numeral and I have

in Greek when

numerals, where
Latin is

; but

used, only M, D, C, L, X,

numerical

values. FILII DEI +1+500 Luther's

+1
=

VICARIVS 5 +1+100 This and

a

+1 similar
most

+5 derivation famous

+1+50+1 from these

666
are

name

perhaps
De from that He Greek these He

the

of book
names, to

performances.
David

Morgan
which have he been 18

cites

by

Rev.

Thorn,*
etc.

quotes
shown

mottoes significant

spell out
the Latin the many
sources

the and

number 38 from Some

666. the of

gives
and
were

such

from those in

omits made

from

Hebrew. in

jest,but
from other

grim
than

earnest.

also

gives
number the

few

the

book

mentioned. The
to

of claim

such

is interpretations

so

great

as

destroy
the

of any. the

"We
fits the

can

not

infer much
a

from

fact that almost

to

key

lock, if it is
A certain

lock

in which

any

key

will turn." cabalistic

to

interest

still attaches

all such

hermeneutics, and
us, but

they

are

not

without

their lesson the

Names

it is not it
comes

the
to

lesson
*

intended
Number

by
and De

interpreter. When

The

I,

Svo, 1848. See

of the Apocalyptic Beasts, part Morgan's Budget of Paradoxes, p. 402-3

82

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

the Church

use

of

such

interpretations
another,
one

by
would De

one

branch

of less the

the reverent ir-

against
the

prefer
that the the

as

suggestion
of the and three half

of

Morgan,
is that of

true

explanation
are

sixes dozen

interpreters
other."

"six

of

one

MAGIC

SQUARES.

"A
of is 1

magic

square like
a

is
a

one

divided

into
in

any each numbers of

number which from

a

equal placed
up
to
a

squares,
one

chess-board,
of the consecutive number
sum

of

series of that

the
manner

square

of those
two

cells in the

in
same

side,
row

in such
or

the

of the

column

and

in

each

of

diagonals

is

stant/'. con-

(Encyclopedia
The of
term

Britannica.)
to

is often
not

extended

include

an

assemblage
all other
quirements re-

numbers

consecutive this definition.

but

meeting
If every

of magic
or

number
q,

in

square

be

multiplied

by

any
or

number,

integral
such law

fractional,

arithmetical,
is

real and
are

imaginary,
distributive

an

assemblage

formed,
its
sums

by

the

of each

multiplication
q

times

those

in the

inal origX

i i

square. One of
way

(DelaLoubere's)
any

constructing
square 1. In is
as

ber odd-num:
r

follows the

assigning

tive consecu-

numbers,

proceed
up 6

in and in

an

oblique
the

direction

to

right

(see 4, 5,

Fig.

p;g- ^

46).
2.
square,

When
write of the

this that column

would number
or

carry in
row,
as

number cell
at

out

of

the

the

the
case

opposite
of the

end

shown of

in

canceled

figures

in

the

margin
183

Fig. 46.

184

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

3. When number in
a

the cell

applicationof
cell beneath
to

rule

would the
one new

place
ber, num-

already occupied, write

the 3 and the

instead, in the

last

filled.

(The
4

cell above

right of

being occupied,

is written 4. Treat

beneath the

3.)
square

marginal apply

marked

as

an

cupied oc-

cell,and
5.
column. This

rule

3.

Begin by putting
rule will fill any
row

1 in the

top cell of the middle

square column.
some

having
of is the
an

an

odd

number

of cells in each The

and

investigationof
squares For

properties of

the

simple
have he the

just

described after and the the

one

sion. interestingdiver-

example,
constructed himself

5-square and
is familiar
to

7-square
the

been

with
a

rule,
for

may
sum

set

problem
in each that is the

find

formula
or

of the numbers square.

to

row,

column

diagonal
lower

of any left

Noticing
upper
to

diagonal from
of

corner

right

composed
if we left

consecutive
for the
sum

numbers, it will be easy

of that series for the number number
we

write the formula

can

(the requiredsum)
in the lower
or
we

find

ula the form-

corner.

Since

the

of cells in each

row

column

of. the
that

squares number

are

considering general
have it is
seen

is

odd,

represent
an

by
Our
=

the

formula is
a

for

odd

number,
If
a

2w+l.
taken
etc.

square,
we

then,
a

(2/H-l) -square.
if
"
=

be

1,

3-square ;

2,

5-square;
number

Now lower in the

by inspection that n(2n+l)+l,

to

the

in the numbers

left cell is

the
+

succeeding
2,
have This the

diagonal being n(2n+l)

this series

etc. "(2fH-i)+3,
we

Summing
tabulated of
a

2/2+1 terms,

the

quired re-

formula,
as

(2n+l) (2n2+2n+l).

might

be

follows

(including 1

as

limiting case

magic square) :

MAGIC

SQUARES.

185

Following
68 80 92 104 116 7 19 31 43 81 93

is the

11-square
120 1112 24 36 48 60 1 13 25

94 106 118 9 21 33 34 46 58 70 82

107 119 10 22 23 35 47 59 71

105
117 8 20 32 44

37
49 61 73 85 97 109 121

.72
84 96 108

45
57 69

55 56

83 95

l86

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

There which the and

as

are

also

"geometrical magic
of the numbers If
an a

squares,"
row,

in

product diagonal
the

in every number

umn col-

is the

same.

be

selected square

base used

and
as

numbers

in

ordinary magic
to

be

exponents
form
a

by

which

affect

ing it,the resultthe first law the

bers numas

powers of

geometric
Take

square 2
as

(by

exponents).

E.g.,

base square The

and

in the

(Fig. 46)

exponents.

resultinggeometrical magic square (Fig.47)

the

has

215

for

product
line.

of

the

numbers The in

in each

theory

of

magic
with

squares

general, including
squares,

ber even-num-

squares

tional addiding incluidea

to

Fig.

.properties, etc., and

47-

the

extension

of the

cubes, is given in the article "Magic

Squares"
some

in the

Encyclopedia
of their

Britannica, together with

See also Ball's

account

history.

Recreations ;
the of

Lucas's res Car-

Recreations, vol. 4, Cinquieme

Recreation, "Les
and

magiques
article, "A

de

Fermat"

comprehensive Squares,"
p.

Mathematical

Study
Monist

Magic
for

by

L.

S. Frierson, in The

April, 1907,

272-293.
The oldest dates

manuscript
from named the

on

magic
or

squares

still preserved It is
graved en-

fourth

fifth century.

by

Greek
on

Moscopulus.
stone
are

Magic
to

squares
as

metal

or

said
to

be

worn

mans talis-

in

some

parts of India
the
most

this of

day.
the

(Britaiinica.) ophers philosperfecting

model

Among
who the of

prominent
amused
squares

modern

have of

themselves is

by

theory

magic

Franklin, "the

practicalwisdom."

MAGIC

SQUARES.

187
is the

Domino

magic
of

squares.
squares

A with
set

pleasingdiversion
dominoes. This forth

forming
of the

magic

phase
;

subject has
them The

been

by
Mr.

several coin

writers

among squares.

Ball,* who

also
are

mentions

magic
re-

following

by

Escott, who

Fig. 48.
marks I

Fig. know
two

49.

"I do

not

how
are

many

solutions

there

are.

give

five

[of

which
a

reproduced here], which

In each of these

I found squares

after the
sum

few

trials.

magic

is the If

greatest possible,19.
we

subtract from

every

ber num-

6, we
where

get magic
the
sum

squares the

is

least

possible,5."
h exagon

Magic
Sum
=

s.

of any
sum

side of triangle of
vertexes
=

of either
vertexes
=

triangle sum
of
convex

of

gon hexaof 26. 'There

are

sum

of vertexes
=

any

parallelogram

only

six solutions,

of which
*

this is one."
p.

(Fig. 50.)

Recreations,
Mr. in

165-6.
says:

f From

Escott, who
the

"The

first
to

1895. and

second

is due

edge, appeared in KnowlS. Mr. Lloyd."

l88

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Place

the

numbers

1 that

to

19 the

on

the

sides

of

the side

lateral equiis the

triangles
same.

so

sum

on

every

a3
A

1-9

a3

\\

i o

fj-

jg

ie

12

V
[
1-3

1-6"44

4-A"
1-3"

-V
9-

/IO

*?

J 5

ii

9^8

io

Fig.

5i.

Fig.

52.

The is 22.

sum

on

the

sides it is 23.

of If

the

triangles
subtract solutions

in each

Fig.
of

51
the the

In numbers

Fig.

52
from

we

above

20,
38

we

have

where

sums

are

respectively

and

37,

THE

SQUARE
Teachers Note

OF

GOTHAM.

(From

Book,

by

permission.)

The

wise
once

men

of

Gotham,
the

famous

for

their of the

eccentric
a

blunders,

undertook their into and In 9 24

management
in The the

school of
pied occua

they
square

arranged
divided the

establishment
rooms.

form

playground
rooms

center,
in each.

scholars of the

around of

it,

3 it

being
was

spite
the

strictness
were

discipline,
habit of

suspected

that

boys

in

the

Fig.

53-

Fig.

54-

playing
watch.
on

truant, To
assure

and

it

was

determined that the all

rooms,

to

set

strict
were

themselves

the and
went

boys

the

premises,
or

they
a

visited Four visited all

was

found

in the 9

each,
wise in each
came

in
soon

row.

boys
the

then
rooms,

out,
and

and

men

after

finding boys
; and

row,

thought

right. by
four

The

four

then the in

back,

accompanied
on

strangers

Gothamites,
each
row,

their

third
no

round,

finding
of
were

still had

entertained Then 4
more

suspicion
"churns"

what

taken

place.

admitted,

189

I90

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

but fourth

the

wise

men,

on

examining
9 in each

the

establishment and

time,

still that

found their

row,

so

came

to

an

opinion

previous

suspicions

had

been

unfounded.

Figures

53-56

show

how

all

this

was

possible,

as

they

Fig.

55-

Fig.

56.

represent

the

contents

of

each the had

room

at

the

four of

ferent difthe

visits; watch;
when the and

Fig. 54,
when

53,

at

commencement

Fig.

four

gone another had

out;
four

Fig.
had them.

55,
turned re-

four,

accompanied 56,
when
four

by

Fig.

more

joined

MATHEMATICAL

GAME-PUZZLE.

"Place

15

checkers either

on

the

table.
; then

You your

are

to

draw
is to draw him
to

(take
draw

away

1, 2
or

or

3)
his

opponent
; then to
you

(take
;

1,
your

at

option)
You
are

again
take

then last
:

opponent.

force

the

one." When be your

Solution
there Since
must at
or

opponent
checker
are

makes left
to

his for him

last
to

draw,
take. either 1 draw
next not
or

just
draw
can,

one

every

you

limited last the

removing
leave

1, 2
and either
to

3,

you

by
find You leave
next

your
on

draw,

just
that your he
can

if,

only
2, 3
last

if, you
or

board

before after that

4.

must,
the
to

therefore,
board the that last you
so

the

draw,
his the

but 4.

leave, after
5 is

draw,
must

either leave if

2, 3
at

clearly

number takes

that

time;

since

if he after

1, he
next next

leaves

4;

2, 3;
you

if

3, 2.
must

Similarly,
leave
must

your your
2.

preceding preceding,

draw 13
;

9 ; after first draw

that he

is, yon
makes,
number

Then

after

each

draw

that and the

you that

draw
he has

the

difference

between

4
takes

just drazvn,
takes

(if

he take

1, you

follow

by

taking
take and make

3 ; if he Four

2, you
the
may
sum

2 ; if he the

takes

3, you
number

1).
the the

being
that of
two

of

smallest you draws

can

largest
sum

be

drawn,

always
ponent's op-

consecutive you
can

(your
make

and any other

yours)

4, and

not

always

it

number.

Following

would

be

more

general

problem:

Let

191

192

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

your checkers

opponent

place
you

on

the choose

board who

any shall leave

number first the he draw

of

leaving
2
or

to

(1,
checker

3 for

as

before).
Solution: number first.

Required
If of Then the the

to

last

him. is draw in that that he and

number form the

places
choose

on

the he the

board shall board

4n+

1,
number

that

keep making
there the it is board

left

on

form

by
until

his but

draw

yours If that is of

4,

until number draw

0;
that first

is,

one

left. of that

the

places
reduce

on

is

not

form;,
that The the

to

number

form,

and

proceed

as

before. further be taken

problem
number

might
that may

be

generalized
at
a

by

ing vary-

draw.

PUZZLE

OF

THE

CAMELS.

There his will

to

was

once

an

Arab his eldest

who

had

three

sons.

In of of
one-

he his

bequeathed
sons,

property,
son

consisting
have one-half

camels,

the
son

to

them,
ninth.
not not

the The divisible be

second Arab

one-third,
died

and 17 As

the

youngest
a

leaving
2,
3
or

camels,
the
was

number could in
sultation. con-

by
a

either

9. sheik

camels called

divided,

neighboring

He

loaned

them

camel,

so

that

-they

had

18

to

vide. di-

The The The Total

first second third

son

took took

1/2 1/3
. .

9 6

took

'*/"

_2
17

They
the It camel

had

divided that had be numbers

equitably,
been noted loaned that

and
to

were

able

to

return

them.
=

should The

l/2 + .*/s .+ 1/9

are

-"not 17/18,
ratio
as

unity.
7,", Y"
This inheritance

9, 6, 2

in

the

same

V..
is

probably problem

an

imitation
may p.

of be

the found
or

old in his

Roman

which

Cajori's History

History

of

Mathematics,

79-80,
p.

in

of Elementary

Mathematics,

41.

193

FEW

MORE

OLD-TIMERS.

A wanted
measures

man

had
to

eight
it three
so

gallons
as

of

wine
one-half.
a

in

keg.
He had

He
no

divide but
a

to

get

gallon
How

keg,
did

five

gallon
it?

keg

and

seven

gallon keg

keg.
is

he

divide

(The

five

gallon

unnecessary.)

Only

one

dimension
to
see

on

Wall

street.

Broker

termined (detime when go I

the
a

bright
rise, they

side)
went

"Every
down
; and

bought
1 sold

stocks

for

them,

they

went

up.

Luckily

they

can't

sidewise."

The each 2 for

apple
for sale.

women.

Two the would hers

at

apple
had

women

had hers
at

30
the

apples
rate

If she

first

sold
received 1

of the

1 cent, had 10

have 3 for

15
she

cents.

If

other received But

a*

sold

cent,
have and

would

have
cents.

cents.

Both all thus

would

had the What

25 60

they
5
for 2

put

them

together
getting
24

sold

apples
became

cents,
cent?

cents.

of

the

other

G.

D.

with
as

same

remainder.

Given
to

three find
same

(or more)
greatest

integers, integral
Solution of the

27, 48, 90;

that will the G.

required
leave

their

divisor
:

the

remainder. from each is G. C. the D.

Subtract The

smallest D.
=

number the

others. divisor.

C.

of

differences
=

required

48-27

21;

90-27

63;

194

FEW

MORE

OLD

TIMERS.

I95

of

21

and

63

is 21. is
a

If

the

given
of 6

numbers in each
case.

be

divided

by 21,

there

remainder

"15
the
same

Christians

and in
a

15 Turks,
terrible of

being

at

sea

in

one

and claring de-

ship
a

storm,
the
rest to

and
one

the half

pilot
of be

necessity
into the

casting
that the

those saved should

;

persons

sea,

might
cast

they
be
set

all

agreed, by

that

the

persons
manner,

be

away

out

lot after in

this
a

viz., the
form like of ninth 30 the
a

30

persons and

should then and be

be

placed
to

round
at

ring,

beginning
proceeding
cast

count

one

passengers, should there 30

mained re-

circularly,
sea,

every the

person

into

the

until

of

persons those

only 15.
should upon the be

The

question is,how
that and the
not

persons fall

placed,
15
Turks

lot
upon

might
any

infallibly
the

of

15

tians." Chris-

The

early history Cajori

p.

of

this

problem

is

given

by

fessor Pro-

in

his who 4

History
also

of Elementary
quotes
mnemonic then

matics, Matheverses

221-2,
solution:
etc.

giving
2

the

Christians,

Turks,

then

Christians,
The
or

solution
counters

is

really
in
a

found
or

by arranging
in
a row

30 be

bers num-

ring,

to

read

in
of

circular the
are

order.

Count

according
every the ninth

to

the
one

conditions "T" until

problem,
marked,
same

marking
then mark has of

15

remaining
in take

15

"C."
forms.

The

problem
other and of classes

appeared
persons sometimes

other the

Sometimes
the Christians

places
tenth

of

Turks,
every

every

one

is lost

instead

ninth.

FEW

CATCH

QUESTIONS.
divided other number

What without

number
a

can

be

by

every

remainder?

"Four-

fourths This

exceeds

three-fourths will

by

what
a

tional fracpany. com-

part?"

question

usually

divide

Can

fraction
be

whose

numerator to
a

is

less

than

its

nominator de-

equal
its

fraction

whose If

numerator

is

greater

than

denominator?

not,

how

can

-3=
+ 6

+5
-10-

In

the

proportion
+

6:-3

::-10 than

: +

5 either is to
mean

is not has is
to

either

extreme

greater
old

?
as

What

become less"?

of

the

rule, "greater

less

greater

Where

is 1 .-.2

the mile

fallacy
square square

in
=

the 1

following?
mile miles

square square

miles

-2

(Axiom:

If

equals
Or A

be in

multiplied
this l/2
.-.

by
is of

equals,
from
=

etc.)
:

(which
full A

Rebiere)
a

glass

water

glass glass

y2 empty
empty

glass

full

(Axiom:

If

equals

be

multiplied.)
196

SEVEN-COUNTERS

GAME.

Required eight place

spots
a

to

place

seven

counters to
set

on

seven

of rule
:

the To is

in

conformity
one

the
out

following
from
a

counter, and
counter

must

spot
to

that the

unoccupied
where the

move

along
is
to

straight

line

spot

be

placed.

The the that

game

writer
was

remembers

seeing
new.

this

as

child is
so

when
easy
lution so-

probably
no

The then.
one

solution A in

it offered is
seen

difficulty
almost
a

puzzle
a

whose
or

by

any

minute
to
see

two

is

hardly

worth Recreations "The

name,

and

one

wonders and Seven

it in

Lucas's the Lucas title

mathematiques
Game the game,
197

dignified
and

by

American that

of

Eight."

explains

invented

by

Knowlton,

I98

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

of

Buffalo,

N.

Y.,

was

published,
at

in

1883,
to

by

an

ican Amerwho

journal
should in the Lucas's

offering
within
a

first

prize
the

the

person

send,
fewest

fixed

time,

solution

expressed

words. of the solution

statement

is,

Take

always of
4,
1 parture. delowing folthe

for

point

of

destination for

the

preceding
from the

point point
at

Starting,
the 4 4 the line

example,
and

4"1,
the the

placing
spot
of

counter

spot
reach be

must

be

second line of

arrival.

As

one

can

only
second

by

7-4, departure

the

spot
;

will
the

necessarily
seven moves

point

etc.,

being
4-1,
Lucas* other

7-4,

2-7,
the with

5-2,
game

8-5,

3-8,
somewhat less

6-3.

generalizes
amusements

and

adds "the

counters,

trivial

than

American

game."

Vol.
in

3, the

sixth
text

recreation,
are

from

which

the

figure

and

tion descrip-

taken.

TO

DETERMINE

DIRECTION

BY

WATCH.

Those

who

are

familiar take made it

with
for

this

very that
a

elementary
every of
one

operation
knows school heard method. informed it.

usually Inquiry

granted
in

recently
the could
not

class but
or

normal few had the well

at

students of it The persons it. the

sun.

revealed
not
one

fact

that

and

explain

state

writer
to

has

infrequently surprise
and

known

express

pleasure

hearing
With
to

face Then

of

the the XII hour

watch

up,

point

the

hour the E. the

hand ent presg.,

at

the hour

point

midway
the is held

between south. toward

mark when

and the the may

is toward hand

4 II

o'clock,
is Or toward the

sun,

south. be stated the XII is thus

:

rule

With hour

the and

point
XII E. line the

that held

is

midway
the

between
sun,

present
toward the
to
sun

toward 4 the line. The hour The o'clock

center

the

south. the is

g., from

at

hold of

II the

toward face

; then

the

mark

XII

south

reason

is and

apparent.
XII mark hand makes in
to

At
are

12

o'clock all toward in the

the

sun,

the

hand
sun

the the hour the due

the
same

south. tion, direc-

and the

hour hand
sun

revolve the Hence the

but in 12 The

complete
the watch and rule.

revolution

hours,
errors

24.

holding
of the

horizontal
to

stead indiffer-

of

in

the

plane

ecliptic,

the

199

200

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

ence

between for Ball* the mentions

standard

time which the

and this

solar rule is

time,
is

are

gible negliput.
W. H. ing Beknown

purpose

to

usually by
1883."

that

"rule

given

Richards,
so

Military simple
and

Topography,
convenient,
it

London,
was

probably

earlier. Professor southern the which and the

Ball

also

gives
"If the the between

(p.

356)
watch

the is

rule held the of

for

the that

hemisphere: figure
bisects XII the XII

so

points angle
will

to

sun,

then
the hour

direction the

day

figure

point

due

north."

Recreations,

p.

355.

MATHEMATICAL

ADVICE
COMMITTEE.

TO

BUILDING

It

will

be

remembered Lewis
was

that

the
wrote

man

who,

under Adventures

the

pseudonym
in
Wonderland

Carroll,

Alice's Charles
at
a
new

really
in

Rev.

Lutwidge
To
a

Dodgson,

lecturer committee
some

mathematics
to erect

Oxford. school
to at

building
he gave

about advice that who of

building
the the erations. delibMock
sea,
as

added have

gaiety laughed
life
same

Children Turtle's

description
to

his

school the

in humor

the

given

Alice,
to

will
the

recognize building

in

these

suggestions
"It
accurate to
a

committee: for students in

to

is

often

impossible

carry

on

mathematical

calculations
to

close

contiguity
and

one

another,
to

owing

their

mutual

interference

tendency
processes

general require

conversation. different who

rooms

Consequently
in found which
to
occur

these

repressib ir-

conversationists,
in every branch fixed. "It the funds "A.
common

are

of

society, might

be

carefully

and

manently per-

may

be

sufficient

for

the

present

to

enumerate
as

following

requisites
:

; others

might

be

added

the

permitted
A
very
measure.

large
To
common

room

for
a

calculating
one

greatest
be
tached at-

this

small
;

might

for be

least

multiple

this, however,

might

dispensed
"B.
A

with. of open

piece

ground
201

for

keeping

roots

and

202

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

practising keep
apt
to

their

extraction;

it

would

be their

advisable

to

square

roots

by
others. for

themselves,

as

corners

ate

damage
A This
room

"C.

reducing
be

fractions with

to

their for

lowest

terms.

should

provided
when which lantern in found.

cellar

ing keep-

the

lowest A

terms,

"D.
fitted

large
with
a

room,

might
for the the

be

darkened of

and

up

magic

purpose of off

hibiting ex-

circulating
"E.
A
narrow

decimals

act

circulation.
and

strip
for

of

ground, practically
purpose of

railed

fully care-

leveled,
lines
meet
or

testing
;

whether it should

parallel
reach,
so

not

for

this

to
"

use

the

expressive

language

Euclid,

'ever

far.'

THE

GOLDEN

AGE

OF

MATHEMATICS.

"The

eighteenth
scientific."

century
Mathematics Gauss

was

philosophic,
"

the queen

teenth nineof

itself it
"

"the the

the method "The of

sciences,"
of laws all of No

as

phrased

is

necessary exclaimed:

exact nature

investigation.
are

Kepler

but

the

mathematical that in the

extent

thoughts
nineteenth and ety vari-

God."

wonder,
its

therefore,

century
of One

surpassed
mathematical reads
now

predecessors
invention and

application.
of
or

of

"the is its the rise

recent
no

renaissance
new

matics." mathe-

Strictly,
of

there

birth

awakening long
progress, been it has

mathematics,

for

productivity
of

has

continuous.
must

Being
with
the of

index of

scientific

rise
so

civilization.

That

rise

been
one

rapid
be

late in
as

that,

speaking
the

comparatively,
present great

may

justified

characterizing
a

mathematical "The

activity
committee

renaissance.

appointed
of

by

the

Royal

Society

to

report

on

catalogue
that
more

periodical
than

literature memoirs
on

mated, estipure

in mathematics Poets

1900,
were

1500

now

issued age of

annually."*
the the
race

put
have

the
seen

golden
that of
age

in

the

past.
recent

Prophets
marvelous

it is in mathematics

future. has
or

The been the

growth golden
Professor

said immediate

to

place
future.
*

its

in

the

present

James
455. the

Pierpont,f

after

summing

up

Ball,
Address

Hist.,

p.

before

department
203

of

mathematics

of

the

Inter-

204

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

the

mathematical
exclaimed:

achievements

of stand

the

nineteenth the of threshold

tury, cen-

"We
look into

who back the

on

of

new

century

can

on

an

era

unparalleled bright
fields of rich matics mathe-

progress.

Looking
greets
invite
our

future all sides

an

equally
fruitful

prospect
research

eyes

on

our

labor this is

and the

promise golden

easy

and of

returns.

Surely
I"

age

And

this

golden
or

age

must

last

as

long
seek and

as

men.

rogate intermatics "Mathe-

nature

value

precision cosmopolitan

or

truth.

is

preeminently

eternal."

national
1904,
on

Congress
"The

of

Arts of

and Mathematics

Science,
in 11:3:

St.
the 159.

Louis,
Nineteenth

Sept.

20,

History
Am.
Mathem.

tury," Cen-

Bull.

Society,

THE

MOVEMENT

TO MORE

MAKE

MATHEMATICS CONCRETE.

TEACHING

With
come
a

the
movement

increased for
many

mathematical

production teaching.
world-wide The
ment move-

has petus im-

improved
lands. "The

is in which this The

we

felt the

in

teaching
are

of the

mathematics,
recent

in
of

the
a

midst leader

of in

stand,"
*

words

department.
movement

is, in
a

large

part,

for between

more

concrete

teaching

"

for

closer

correlation and

the the

matical mathematics matheuse

subjects
and the

themselves natural

between for

sciences,
the

extensive of
more

of

graphical

representation,
to

introduction interests and

to

lems proba

pertaining larger
expense
use

pupils'
and

experiences,
intuition years, and
at

of of

induction

appeal
in the

the the the

rigorous
of
to

proof
more

earlier

postponement
constant

the

abstract useful

topics,

aim of the

show
more

the

applications. things
that
are

Some
are

conservative teacher
some

urged
years.

what the

every

good
hand,

has of the

been
more

doing
radical and is

for

On

other

tions suggesbe doned. aban-

will

doubtless

prove
movement

impractical
as a

Still
and full of

the

whole

healthful

promise.
American
t

Among
*

publications
assistant

that

are

taking

part

Dr.

J. W.
the and

A. in

Young,
the

of

mathematics

University
section
of

of the professor pedagogy in of address Chicago, an the Nov. Central

30,

before
Science

mathematical Mathematics

Association

of

Teachers,
205

1906.

206

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

in it may and

be

mentioned
which

the is
pure

Mathematics,
of of the

magazine School for doing much

and

Science
the
relation cor-

elementary
Central

applied mathematics,
the and ings Proceedmatics MatheDr. of Science

the

Reports
of the

various Association

committees,

Teachers

and

similar

organizations, and
Mathematics. "The be

Young's
The mathematics and
most

new

book, The
School
as a

Teaching of
says,

Public

Journal tonic

position of
is the

mental

would

strengthened,"
of nature

quotes Fourier, "The

fruitful
movement
source

deeper study
mathematical the

of
to

study."
through
attracted
gineering en-

The

teach and

calculus has

problems
attention.

the

like

wide

Some

of

the

applications of
to

the

rudiments

of

scriptive de-

geometry

drawing (mechanical, perspective

in works
on

etc.) are
The have
were

not

far to seek

drawing.

to elementary science applicationsof geometry been It would be well if there given in outline.

available E. chalk g.,

lists of the

common

applicationsin

the

trades. The

(in the carpenter'strade) : straight(etymologically, the old statement, "The Illustrating

to
a

line

mark

stretched) straight points.

"

line. is

line

the

shortest

distance

between

two

level Putting the spirit

on a

in two whether

non-parallelpositions
the surface
two

plane
"A

surface

to

see

is horizontal.

plane

is determined

by

intersecting

straightlines.,,
Etc.

Perhaps
induced is not

most

teachers

of
some

geometry
such

have

made,
the in

or

pupils to make,
aware

list ; but

writer

that

any

extensive the

compilation is

print.

Fairly complete

lists of

applicationsof algebra

TO

MAKE

TEACHING

MORE

CONCRETE.

207

to

the natural above.

new

sciences

may

be found

in the

publications
the be
an

named The

industrial of
our

arithmetic time. drawn of There

is

one

of

tional educametic arith-

features with life. Normal The

should from

problems
1905

largely
the

agricultural
Illinois State fied classi-

catalog

Northern
a

School, De
of child Dr. in

Kalb, contains
activities
A.

valuable

outline number. Method

more

involving and
in need the the than

illustrating
his of

Charles

McMurry,
data

Special
"much

Arithmetic,

mentions

abundant

statistical

arithmetics

contain."
If
we

could the

have

these of

things
a

as

teaching material, teaching

matics mathe-

without

affliction

fad

for

entirely through
would be
a

its

practical applications,it
for correlation
two

boon

indeed. the
movement

While
mathematics should

rejoicingin
and be the
not

of

other
:

sciences, these

points
not

overlooked

1. The the

sciences

commonly
sciences.
as

called The

natural field of

are

only observational
is
as

applied
field The

mathematics
or

broad

the

field of definite knowledge

investigation. Some
of note

parts

of

this

are

speciallyworthy
the
to

in this connection. treated of

tistical sta-

sciences, the social sciences

ically, mathematscience in educational

applicationof
and

the such the

methods
.as

exact

social measurements

those of

obtained

psychology
health, economic

study
etc.
"

population, public
are

problems They
offer

these achieve of The the

sciences

aiming

at

accuracy. law.

seek
some

to

expression
best tunities oppor-

in natural of in the marked

They

applied
that

mathematics. has

recent

growth
Nor

sciences than

of this group of the

been, if possible, more

sciences.
are

physical

208

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

they

less characteristic it has been section said

of that

the the be
was

spiritof
extended

our

time.

deed Inthe
say,

quotation beginning
so as

preceding
"The

should

to

eighteenth century
and scientific, the statistical sciences mathematical and lore

philosophic, the
is to be
a

teenth nine-

twentieth call for which

sociologies' acquaintance regarded

not

The with
as

broad

is sometimes certain social

abstract

impracticalby
curricula.* The who

critics of current sciences

are

mathematical studied

by

those

are

pursuing elementary proposed

in
use

matical mathe-

courses.

It is not should be

that

elementary
instead thereto.

mathematics of But with the

correlated

with

them

physical sciences, or
be
no

addition in the aim

it should is

remembered
means

that

physical
which

sciences makes

by

the

only place
be

ultimate

mathematics beautiful The

practical.
has its in mathematics and the
we

2. The elsewhere. business

as

p!*ose of

ordinary

intercourse
to

of

correspondence might
to

held

be

most

practicaluse
be poor Mathematics

which without has

language
the its

is put, but of the

should

indeed
too

literature of its

imagination.
creative and

triumphs
form has

agination, imcesses pro-

its beautiful

theorems,

proofs
them

whose
*

perfectionof
that the
the he entire of of had

made

classic.
cature, carinounced anords rec-

It is true
as

in

statistical sciences story of the German

tabulated
returns

are

exposed
the

to

statistician who

that of that
to

from
year year

marriage
had

the

country
men

for

the

and
was

discovered

exactly equal women same period of time! It is true that statisticians have results (rarely) computed that might have been deduced priori. It is true also that a of the results of statistical science have not some proved to be But these returns. things practical or yielded material inestimable might be said also of the natural sciences, whose is everywhere value social sciences matically matherecognized. The developed are to be one of the controlling factors in
the number married in the

the

number

married

that

civilization.

TO

MAKE

TEACHING

MORE

CONCRETE.

209

He in

must

be

"practical"
! be but

man

who

can

see

no

poetry

mathematics Let mathematics be the

correlated let the in

with

physical
be of the

science understood broadest

let and

it

concrete

movement

subject

taught

the

light

educational

philosophy.

THE

MATHEMATICAL EXERCISE
IN

RECITATION PUBLIC SPEAKING.*

AS

AN
*

The in
to

value

of the

translating vocabulary

from

foreign

language,
the of mind ing, draw-

broadening
move

by

compelling
of

in

unfrequented
the

paths

thought;
of
exact

in

quickening
and

appreciation
; of

relations, sciences,
is all been in

proportion developing
to

perspective
of

the

natural this
"

independence
student of of

thought
often studies hears for these in
a

iar familtold

the

oratory;
these
one

has for of

he
one

the his

value

pursuing
But
as a

entering
ical mathemat-

profession.
recitation

rarely

the

preparation
with

public
studies

speaking.
their

Yet

mathematics and has

shares another

vantages, adthan

higher

degree

either Most healthful attention

away

of

them. readers will agree in and that

a

prime

requisite
is drawn
upon

for the

experience
of from In in the

public
hearers and other

speaking
alike be

that

speaker
the

wholly
his
so

speaker
no

concentrated class-room where the the

thought.
easy
as

perhaps

is close of

this
ing, reason-

mathematical, demonstration,
from

the

rigorous

tracing

sary neces-

conclusions and who other

secures

given
mental of his

hypotheses,
power of

commands the student In what

the

entire and do

is

explaining,

classmates. feel
so

circumstances

students

instinctively
ican Amer-

Article

by

the for

writer

in

New

York

Education,

now

Education,

January,

1899

AN

EXERCISE

IN

PUBLIC

SPEAKING.

211

that In

manner

counts

for

so

little and

mind

for is

so

much

what

other
easy,

circumstances,

therefore,
so

simple,
and
mere so

unaffected,

graceful

manner

naturally
that
are

healthfully
affectation
to

cultivated?
or

Mannerisms of- bad

the

result and
are

literary

habits while

recede those and

the

background
that

finally disappear, expression

of

peculiarities
are

the its

personality

inseparable
the student

from

activity continually
presents,
to
an

develop,
audience

where of his

frequently
peers,
a

intellectual

connected

train

of

ing. reason-

How
view !

interesting
I do
not

is

recitation
more

from
two

this

point

of

recall
an

than
manner. a

pupils
both
was

reciting
this

mathematics

in

affected of the her

was

In who

cases

passed

away.

One
with lost that

these,
work

lady

previously early part

class took that

acquainted
of up the
a

done

during
when work
to

the the

term,

mannerisms advance powers. of

subject
out

her, and

called The clear The ways and

her

higher
use

continual stimulates effect of of

diagrams
power

to

make of
on

the

meaning

the

student's

illustration. the
orator

mathematical is apparent from wish and doors his that

"

study
the known
our

in of

his

thinking

cultivation facts. institutions of

clear

vigorous
One
could of

deduction almost the

for

the

teaching
would
over no one

science their
to

the the school with

art motto

public
that

speaking
Plato had "Let here."

put
the who

over

entrance

of

philosophy:
enter

is

unacquainted

geometry

THE

NATURE

OF

MATHEMATICAL

SONING* REA-

Why
of its

is

mathematics

"the limitations.

exact

science"? Mathematics

Because
concerns

self-imposed
not

itself,
in

with

any but

problem
with
the

of

the

nature

of

things
of the nite defito
are

themselves,
between

simpler Starting

problems
from certain seeks

relations

things.
the

assumptions,
arrive

mathematician
at

only
that

by

legitimate
if the

processes data is shall if

are

conclusions
;
as

surely
So of
to

right

right

in that

geometry.
the result data is in

the his

arithmetician

concerned be he that
correct

only

computation
correct;

assuming
a

the
he

be

though
concerned shall

is

also

teacher,
of the

that
set

capacity
for his

the

data
to

problems

pupils
or

correspond
conditions

actual the with

commercial,

industrial Mathematics of Of
most

scientific is
one or

of

present
the of
a a

day.

usually
a

occupied
of the

tion considerasituation. of the

only
many

few

phases only

the

conditions and the

are

involved,
most

few

important
other variables the

available
as
"

are

considered. Take
as

All

treated

constants.

for

illustration in B. of the

"cistern
of Heron

problem,
of very in

which

it 2d the
can

occurs

writings
must
:

Alexandria

(c.
on

cent.
score

C.)
age

be

deemed the time

respectable
which each

given
of

pipe
treatment

fill

vanced
and
new

section

teachers of

institutes.

For the

of referred

old
to

definitions
Maxime

mathematics,
"The
Bull. Am.

reader

is

Prof. Methods

Bocher's

Fundamental Math.

Conceptions
Soc,
11:3:115-135.

and

of

Mathematics,"

NATURE

OF

MATHEMATICAL

REASONING.

213 which
to

cistern

separately,required the together.

fills while
to

time
the

in flow

they
stant. con-

will fillit

This

assumes

be

Other
one

statements

of

the

problem,
the
rate

in

which the is full is

pipe

another
constant
or

empties, presuppose
whether cistern of
as a

outflow
or

also

be
;

nearly empty
as an

at rate

least and

the

outflow
constant.

taken Or the

average

treated is

"days-work problem" (which

only

the cistern
man

in which each : given the time problem disguised) do a piece of work can required the separately, in which the
men

time that

they
work

will do
at

it
same

together. .This
rate

assumes

the

whether

alone labor

or

gether. to-

Some
how violent the "If do A
an

persons

who

have this

employed
is,and
work them
are

know
to

assumption
the do

prepared boy
5

defend says, B
can

positionof
can

thoughtless school
in

who

piece of

days

which

in 3

together,"as
deemed up
to

days, it will take against the answer

among for

days working days,

Or,
which
to
:

1%

is

orthodox

arithmeticians.
an

move

the differential calculus which

illustration

"The

differentials of variables
are

change non-uniformly
increments the if of the

what the

would

be

their

corresponding
considered uniform with

at

corresponding
and variable."*

values

change
to

each
same

became

continued

respect

Mathematics
some mass

resembles

fine art in that each

some

abstracts the ment elenot

one

pertinentthing,or things
of and The grass,
out
as

few

things,from
on

of

concentrates

attention

the
us,

selected. every
serve

landscape painter
but

gives

blade
to

only

those of the

elements
scene.

that

bring
valuable

the

meaning
then

With
result be in tained obThe

mathematics
a

also

with

fine art, this may any that could

more

product
into
p. 8.

by taking
*

account

every

element.

Taylor's Calculus,

214

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

portrait painted by the artist

the

does
any

not
one

exactly
moment

duce reproof his

subject as
may

he
a

was

at

life,yet it
than of
one or

be

truer

representation of
So and dramas
truest

the

man one

all of his

photographs.
"The

it is with the
are

Shakespeare's
were never

historical

annals

which that

its "source/'

things

things
,

happened."
is
a

Mathematics of chalk mark the

science exist but

a

of

the
as

ideal. mental aid

to

The

tudes magnia

geometry

only

creations,
the mind

being

physical
of
a

in

holding
The

conception
is of

geometric
is

line. the stract ab-

concrete
can

necessity complex; only

This
"

be of

simple.
The

why
in

mathematics

is the
to

simplest
mastery

all studies

simplest
same

proportion
of mastery

the

attained.

standard

being
it is

applied, physics
more

is much As
we

simpler

than

biology:

mathematical. relations become

rise in the scale mathematically, in astronomy

we

simple, until
to

find
nature

the
to

nearest
a

approach

conformity by physical
law, and
"God
we
see a

single
Plato's

mathematical

meaning

in

dictum,

geometrizes thought
to

tinually." con-

Mathematics When

is is

thinking God's
statement.

after be

him.

anything
of

understood, it is found
The

tible suscep-

mathematical

vocabulary
centuries

of

mathematics universe."

"is the ultimate The

as

vocabulary
for among many the

of the material been ies bod-

planets had
"wanderers"
come

recognized
; much ;

heavenly
their of law
sun
:

had

to

be

known made
a

about series the the

ments move-

Tycho
of in the

Brahe Mars
an

had
;

careful

observations

Kepler

stated with

Every
at
one

planet moves
focus, and

orbit elliptical
vector

radius

generates
was

equal

areas was

in

equal

times.

When

the motion

understood, it

NATURE

OF

MATHEMATICAL

REASONING.

215 Gravitation
When the ulary" vocabattracts

expressed
waited
statement
:

in the for

language
a

of mathematics.
to state

long

Newton
was

its law.

came,

it

in terms
matter
a

of "the ultimate in the universe

of Every particle with particle

every
masses,

other and
any

force the
say

as varying directly

the

inversely as
other science
"

square

of

the
"

distances. becomes
as

When definite

psychology

in its

results,those

results After

will be

stated

in

as

mathematical determine sensations and the of

language.
measure

many

experiments
of the stimulus

to

of

the

increase when

successive creases, inthe T.

the

same

kind

after tireless effort in the

as
a

applicationof
unit, Prof.
G.

"just perceptible increment"

Fechner of that

Leipsic announced
the
4

in varies

1860, in his Psychoas

physik,
the

sensation

the been

logarithm
the

of

stimulus.

Fechner's

law

has

not

established

by subsequent investigations ; but

of definiteness
or

it

was

expression
was

in

thinking,whether
it illustrates

that

thinking
as

correct

not,
of

and

mathematics

the

language
of

precision.
the science of the

Mathematics,
means

ideal, becomes
and

the

understanding investigating,
world of of the the real. The From

making
is
pressed ex-

known

the

complex
one

in terms mathematics substitutions

a

simple.
as

point of

view

may

be defined

the science for

more

of successive

of

simpler concepts
or

complex
to

"

problem

in arithmetic and

algebra
to

shown

depend
mental fundashown

on

previous problems operations, the depend

of
a

require only
of

the

theorems and

geometry

to

on

the

definitions

axioms, the unknown

from the

parts

triangle computed
It is true of that

known,

the the

and simplifications

far-reaching generalizationsof
we

calculus, etc.
substitutions

often in

have other

successive sciences

simpler concepts

'2l6

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

(e.g.,
to

the

reduction the

type

forms;
of

reasoning logical simplifications culminating in the

we

of the

forms

of

formulas the

chemistry; etc.) but

to

naturally apply
of any ence sciIn this view

adjective mathematical
in which this method

those

phases

predominates. rigor of
for

also it is is itself
was

seen

why
Greeks

mathematical standard.

demonstration

an

advancing
a

"Archimedean

proof"

to

the

synonym

unquestionable
is stated in A

onstration. dem-

If

relation

between

variables is
a a

matical matheformula ative indic-

symbols, the
translated mode Mathematics into words is

statement

formula.

becomes
a

principleif imperative
the

the mode.

used,

rule

if the in

is "ultimate" the aid of

generalityof
it transcends mind.

its
perience ex-

reasoning. By
and for the

symbols
power number

imaging
the
to

of the of

It determines, of
a

example,
sides

diagonals
substitution

polygon
the
never

of

1000

be

498500

by

in
one a

easily deduced
has occasion and could

formula
to not

n(n-3)/2,
a a

although
mental

draw make

representation
distinct

of

1000-gon
of If there all differ

picture
"these
and
?r

its 498500
are

diagonals.
other
one can

inhabited
another
not

planets,doubtless
in

from
one

language,
a

customs

laws."
is not

But

imagine
or e

world

in which
to

equal

to

3.14159+, symbols
few

not

equal

2.71828+,

though
very In

all the

for

number

might

easily be
prise enter-

different.
recent

years

"astronomers," with
on

an

that would have discussed with could those be which the

reflect credit in the

an

advertisingbureau, plans
for cating communi-

newspapers of

inhabitants for be such

common

Mars.

What

symbols Obviously

used
must

communication?
to

rational

beings

every-

NATURE

OF

MATHEMATICAL

REASONING.

2.1J

equilateral
where.

triangle

many

kilometers
was arc

on

side
out

and
an

Accordingly
it with should
on

it

proposed

to

lay
our

illuminate

powerful reply
with

lights.
triangle,

If
we

Martian could then

sies courte-

neighbors
test

them

other would

polygons.
for of
some

Apparently
time have

the
to

exchanged
to

be

fined con-

the

amenities is

geometry.
response the earth
to

Civilization
the its it."

humanity's
means

the
"

first

"

not

last,

or

by

any

greatest
and have

command dominion is is
over

of

Maker,
And of

"Subdue
the the aim world

the of

applied

mathematics

"the

mastery

quantitatively."
Hence

"Science

only
an

quantitative
index The chief and the of the

knowledge."
advance of the of

mathematics

is

civilization. have of furnished pure ics mathematof it ; yet in

even

applications
incentive the best
to

mathematics

the

investigation
in the the

illustrations
must

teaching
abstract and
no

mathematician
of his the need in

keep
its

science
must

advance

for

application,
that both and
as

push
of view any

inquiry
practical

directions

offer from from

prospect

application,
truth's
sake

the
a

point truly

of far-

of

truth

for

sighted
"If the

utilitarian

viewpoint
not

well.
conic

Whewell

said,

Greeks
not

had

cultivated

sections,
Behind
a

ler Kepthe

could
artisan behind is the

have

superseded
"behind
a

Ptolemy."
the chemist It
so

chemist,

physicist,
Michael

physicist
who

mathematician."
"There is

was

Faraday
utilities
as

said,

nothing

prolific

in

abstractions."

ALICE

IN

THE

WONDERLAND

OF

MATICS. MATHE-

Years and

after

Alice

had

her the

"Adventures

in

land" Wonderdescribed

"Through
Carroll/'
of she

Looking-glass,"
to

by
young

"Lewis
woman

went

college.
convictions.
she in
was

She

was

strong
and her

religious

As often

she plexed perto

studied

science
to

philosophy,
conclusions
to

reduce
or

different which

lines would

system,
the faith

at

least

find of
more

some

analogy
fundamental

make of

coexistence of science
many
more a

the

conceptions
These mind

and

thinkable. learned

questions
than

have
but

puzzled
never one

more

hers,

earnest.
a

Alice
elected

developed
courses

fondness The

for

mathematics in
space,

and

in

it.
on

professor

that and

ment departAlice

had had
a

lectured
E. A.

^-dimensional

read Romance been The

Abbott's

charming
Dimensions,
to

little

book,

Flatland;
which

of Many
recommended

by by
to
was
an

Square,

had

her
was

instructor. be
a a

big daisy-chain

which

feature

of

the

approaching
of in conversation her
a

class-day
among
one
warm

exercises the students.

as

frequent
was

topic

It
went

uppermost
to

mind

day
and

she settled

her in
an

room

after chair

hearty
rest

luncheon and think.

down

easy

to

"Why
a

!"

she

said, half
that hot and

aloud,

"I I

was

about

to
on

make the

daisy-chain
of the

day
went
218

when
to

fell

asleep
"

bank

brook

Wonderland

so

long

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

219

ago. be fun

That
to

was

when
such up
a

was

little girl. Wouldn't now?

If I and
were a

it

have curl

dream this

child

again,
this So
upon

I'd

in

big
"

chair

go

to

sleep
phrase
roundings surwas

minute.

'Let's

pretend.'
the
a

saying, and
faded

with

magic

of this favorite

her, she fell into

out

pleasant revery.
consciousness, and

Present Alice

of

in Wonderland.

"What
"I wonder

long daisy-chainthis
if I'll
ever come

is!" end

thought Alice.
of it.

to

the

Maybe
know.

it hasn't

any

end.

Circles

haven't
end the of
a

ends, you
rainbow.

Perhaps
I'm

it's like off

finding the
one

Maybe
of
a

going
then

along

of

infinite branches

curve."

Just
to
a

she

saw

an

arbor-covered into for

path leading off

it led her into

one room
"

side.
a

She

turned

it; and
a

throne-room,
Alice of

there this

fairy or
must

goddess
be did
one

sat

in the

state.

thought
classical

being

of know

divinities which
one.

mythology,
the throne
"

but she

not

Approaching
simply said,
not

bowed that

very

low

and

Goddess"
and
to

; whereat

personage Alice."

turned It did

graciously
seem

said,
Alice

"Welcome,
that such
a

strange
name.

being
"Oh "You
court at

should
you

know

her

"Would
!

like to answered go with will

go

through Wonderland?" eagerly.

I will send said the the attendant.
as a

yes,"
should

Alice
an

who jester,
same

act

guide,"
Alice

fairy,
tell

the

time

waving
dressed

wand.
"

Immediately
how
"

there

appeared
in the He

could of the
one

not courts

courtier

fashion
on

of

the old the

English kings.
her "Your

dropped

knee
to

before

fairy; then, rising quickly, bowed

as,

dressing Alice, ad-

Majesty."

220

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

It seemed but Miss Here

name

pleasant to

be treated "You

with

such

deference,
; I
am

she
"

promptly answered,
"

mistake

only
The

the
means

fairy interrupted: "Call

her

'Alice.'

'princess/
may

"

"And

you

call

me

'Phool.' with I
am
a

"

said

the

courtier

"only
"How
she

you

will
can

please spellit spell it

when

ph"
only speaking it?"

asked. the

''Think

ph"
answered of Alice rather with

"Very well,"
who
ever

doubtfully,"but ph?"
"I
am an

heard he

spelling 'fool' broadly

I
as

Then

smiled

he

replied:
to

anti-spelling-reformer.
in words in

desire that
one

preserve

the

ph

place
and said

of

so

may

recognize phool always

their

foreign origin
"Y-e-s,"
from?"

derivation."
what does
come

Alice, "but

Again
"You So
he had the

the

fairy interrupted. Though

to

cious, gra-

she

seemed the

prefer brevity
wand." it to the

and

directness.

will need

magic

saying, she
the

handed the

jester. The
And the

moment

wand,
were

fairyvanished.
in the

girl and
other wand.
to

courtier
were

alone

wonderful
were

world, and

they

not

strangers.
"Phool."
of that

They
And he

callingeach
the

"Alice"

and

held and

magic
seemed
were or

One
in
a

flourish

wand,

they
There

be

wholly

different

country.
but
no

many
;

beings, having length,

or,

breadth in
were

thickness
two

rather, they
and line. "Oh ! I know about

were

very
so.

thin

these

sions, dimen-

uniformly

They

moving

only

in

one

!" exclaimed

Alice, "This

is Lineland.

I read

it."

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

221

"Yes," thought
Alice "It show

said

Phool

"if you

hadn't
shown the

read

about

it

or

about looked

it,I couldn't

have

it to

you."
"To

questioningly at
power, what you

wand

in his hand. said.

has you

marvelous in this
; to

indeed," he
you have you had

way

that is

magic
could wand

show

what

thought about, never thought

A little twitch

of, would
Alice of the

be""
not set

catch them could

the

last word.
at
a a

down

different view

point
of of

in the

line, where
Alice the He had thrust

they
her

get
across

better the

lineland.
one

hand

line in front

of it.

inhabitants.
was

He
at

stopped
the
in his

short.

She

withdrew

amazed

apparition: a body
world
to

(or point)
as

suddenly appeared
Alice could
never
was

and
see

suddenly
a

vanished. lander "He she

interested

how

line-

be

imprisoned
to

between
one

two

points. obstacles,"

thinks

go

around

of the

said. line of is his

out

"The thinks

world,"
of the

said world

Phool.
to

"One

never
an

going

get around

obstacle." "If him I could

a

communicate second dimension?"

with

him, could

I teach

about has

"He

no

apperceiving mass,"
said he

said

Phool

ically. lacon-

"Very
no mass.

good,"
Then

Alice, laughing; "surely he

can

has

get

out

of

his

narrow

world

only by accident?"
"Accident!"

repeated Phool, affecting surprise, "I

were a

thought "But,"
Isn't

you

philosopher."
"I
am

"No," replied Alice,

said what

only
are
a

college girl."
lover You of

Phool,

"you

wisdom.
see

that for

'philosopher'means?

I'm

stickler

etymologies."

222

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

"All
But

right/'said Alice,
me

"I
can

am

a ever

philosopher then.
appreciate space

tell

how

that

being
few for
a

outside

of his world."

"He Alice
that into

might
stood
was

evolve

dimensions."

puzzled
he

minute, though she knew

a

Phool his

jesting. beings
act
us

Then

serious

look

came

face, and

continued:
can

"One-dimensional

learn of another

sion dimentheir

only by
world. So
But

the let

of

some

being
of

from
a

without

see

something
the

broader

world."
were

saying,he
where
no

waved

wand,
had

and

they
and

in

country
but

the

inhabitants

length

breadth,

appreciable thickness.
was

Alice
out.

delighted. "This
after
were a

is

Flatland," she
said, "I

cried the

Then

Flatlanders Phool Alice about Phool

thought regular geometric figures."

at

minute

she

laughed
it.

this with

so saw

much

enjoyment
very

that

laughed

too,

though she
"You
are

nothing

funny

explained :
all

are

thinking of
and
classes while

the

Flatland
acuteness

where is
is
a a

lawyers
of

square,

where

characteristic mark
we a

of the lower That

a

obtuseness
very

nobility. spell that

would,

indeed, be
This

flat; but
land with

with

capitalF.

is flat-

small

Alice

fell to and

f" studying the

how

life of the
must

two-dimension
seem

people
She

thinking
that

the world

to

them.

reasoned

polygons,
seen
an

circles and
as

all other

plane
that

figuresare they
may
can

always
not
see

by

them

line-segments ;
infer it ; that
any

angle, but
within
a

can

they
other

be

imprisoned
; and

or quadrilateral

plane figure if
may
were

it has

closed if
a

perimeter

which

they being
ap-

not to

cross cross

that

three-dimensional

their

world

(surface) they

could

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

223 made
to

preciateonly
so

the

section appear

of him
to

by

that

surface,

that he

would

them powers curious

be two-dimensional of motion.
more.

but

possessing
was

miraculous

Alice
see

pleased, but
dimensional the

to

see

"Let's

other

worlds,"
at

she

said.

"Well,
the wand

three-dimensional

world,
same

you're
now

in

all the

time," said
a

Phool,

the the

time "and

moving

little and
me

changing
to
wave

scene,

if you

will show
a

how

this wand be in that

around

through

fourth

dimension,

we'll

world

way." straight-

"Oh

! I

can't,"said
can

Alice.

"Neither "Can

I," said he.

anybody?"
say

"They
see
a a

that of
a

in

four-dimensional box you

space into the into

one'

can

the fourth

inside

closed

by looking
could
see

it from inside of

dimension in
a

just as
not
our

rectangle
; that
a

flatland knot
can

by looking
be tied world

down in that from

as

it from
; and

above that

space
a we

being coming
seem

to

such all
our

world could and

would
see

to

us

three-dimensional,
be be
us a

of him section
to

would would
us
"

section what say

"

made call
a

by

space, He he
more

that
appear

we
as

solid. And

would would
so

let

human.
less

be

not

less human

than

we,

nor

real,but
The

if 'real' has who the

crosses

degrees
the be

of

comparison.
world one-dimensional powers. of
a

flatlander appears
to

linelander's like the

(line)
So also

native

to

beings, but
the solid
a

possessed
flatland: lander his three
or

of the

miraculous cross-section that The

to

in

him

is all that
a

flatof

is,and
self. dimensions
a room

is

only

section, only
a

phase
to

real

of ability appear all and

being
were

of

more

than
enter

disappear, as

leave

when

doors

shut, might

224

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

make
more

him

seem

to

us

like

ghost,
we

but

he

would

be

real and He

substantial and Alice

than took

are."
to

paused,

occasion
reason

remark
to

: see a

"That

is all obtained

by

; I

want

four-dimensional

world."
that it

Then,
her "But show
would
us

fearing
to

might
known

not

seem

courteous

to

guide
I

appear
to

disappointed, she
have that the

added: wand

ought

couldn't

anything
be
no

we

limit

to

"Would
as

unlimited infinite
to
me

might wish to see ; for then there our intelligence." the same mean thing intelligence
?" intelligence like
a

absolutely
"That
sounds it

Phool

asked. said Alice.

conundrum/'

"Is

play
goes

on

words?"

"There Hello!
Alice with
was

Calculus," said
and

Phool.

"Fll ask

him.

"

Cal."
looked
saw
a

dignified
He turned

old when

gentleman
his
name

flowing white
called.

beard.

While
in
a

Calculus
tone
to

was

approaching them,
"He'll
a

Phool
an

said eager

low

Alice: This

enjoy having
carnival and for
was

pupil
When

like you. that

will be

Calculus."
made turned
quainted ac-

worthy
the

joined
of

them

with Alice
and

topic

conversation, he
so

to

began
of Handle

instruction
caution: with

vigorously that

Phool

said, by way
"Lass! Alice
not

care."

did
as

not

like the

implication that
as

girl could
But she then seemed fore. be-

stand

much

mathematics
is

any

one.

she

thought, "That
to

only

joke," and
heard

vaguely
"If variable

remember

having
said

it somewhere

you

mean,"

Calculus, "to
without

ask

whether
same

that

increases

limit is the

thing

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

225
is is

as

absolute

the infinity, without

answer

clearly always

No.

A
to

variable
zero

increasing
to

limit For
.

nearer

than

absolute
it with

infinity
the

of simplicity of uniform
we are

tration, illus-

compare

the variable variable

change, long
it

time, and
doubles
may
zero

suppose

considering
how

every been

second.

Then,

no

matter

have than

increasing at
"

this rate, it is still nearer

infinity. explain/' said

continued It is Alice. its value
one

"Please

"Well,"
any
moment.

Calculus, "consider

at

only

half what what

it will be be

second seconds it is is finite in-

hence,

and

only quarter
it will
nearer

it will

two

hence, when
is
nozv

still be
zero

increasing.
under every, than

Therefore what

much

than

infinity. But
moment. to

true true

of its value of is
any,

at

the

moment

consideration An

and

therefore
nearer

of
zero

always
the

to

infinity."
one

"Is
say

that

reason," asked
without

Alice, "why
of

must

'increases
a

limit' instead

'approaches
not to

as infinity

limit'?" Calculus
a

"Certainly," said
as infinity

"a

variable often

can

proach apbe

limit.

Students

have

reminded Alice

of this." had
was
an

uncomfortable
too

feeling

that

the

versation con-

growing

personal, and
increase in

gladly

turned

it into "I
see

more

speculative channels
that
one
seems

by remarking:
wisdom

could

forever,

though
"What

that do
"
"

miraculous."
mean

you

by miraculous?"
and hesitated. with

asked

Phool.

"Wiry "People
able "I
to

began Alice, begin

not
a
an

who
an

answer

'Why'
Alice.

are

rarely

give

answer," said Phool.

be

fear

I shall

able," said
look
at

"An

mologist" etysay

(this with

sly

Phool) "might

226

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

it

means

'wonderful'
about

; and

that But
an

is what

I meant
one

when call law."

curve

speaking
that

infinites. which is

usually

would natural
see

miraculous
must

exception lady
Phool.
over

to to

"We

take

the young
to

the

tracing,"said
"Do
you

Calculus he

"Yes, indeed!"

replied. Then, turning

said

to

Alice,

enjoy fireworks?"

"Yes, thank
dark." "No?" we'll have "Fireworks
But
at

you,"

Alice, "but

I can't

stav

till

said them

Phool, with
very in

an

interrogation. "Well,
asked.
a

soon."
she made clear for
was

daytime?"
Phool

that it

moment
was

flourish with

with
no moon

the

wand,
or

and

night
"

night
the
not

star.

It seemed

so

natural Alice

magic
very asked

wand

to
prised sur-

accomplish things
at
even

that

much
:

this transformation.
say

She
me curve

"Did

you

you Phool. may

were

to

show

tracing?"
attend the

"Yes,"
races,

said you this

"Perhaps enjoy seeing

the
to
enormous was a came

you

don't traces/' had where

but

the three

During
and what A

conversation
now

been there

ing, walkwas

they

place
in

appeared

to

be

an

electric switchboard.

beautiful As

young

woman

charge.
said
to

they approached, Lytic.

You
are

Calculus

Alice, "That
her,
I presume."

is Ana

acquainted

with

"The remember
meet

name

sounds
to

familiar," said Alice, "but

ever
seen

I don't like
to

have

her.

should

her."

On

being presented,Alice greeted

as

her

new

ance acquainta

'Miss
manner:

Lytic';

but

that

person

said, in
I

very

gracious

"Nobody

ever

addresses

me

in that

way.

am

al-

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

227

ways

called

'Ana call

Lytic/ except
me

by college
I know
presume
me

students.

They
shorten In clause cheeks

usually
my
name

'Ana because

Lyt.' they
self
was

they
so

thus the Alice

warm.

well.', last Her

at

spite of
made felt very

speaker's winning
somewhat She
:
-

manner,

the

conscious.

relieved

when,

that

moment,
"This

Calculus young

said

lady

would

like

to

see

some

of

your

work/'
"Some talkative Calculus
curve

pyrotechnic
Phool. continued:
a

curve

tracing," interrupted
let have

the

"Please

us

an

algebraic
the world
a

with

conjugate point."
touched
a

Ana of

Lytic
of

button, and
to

across

darkness

(as

it seemed

Alice) by
rays
a

there luminous of

flashed

sheet It

light, dividing
but each
are

space
two

plane.
dicular perpen-

quickly faded,
to

left faint of

light

other,
the
axes

but

apparently permanent.

"These

coordinates," explained Ana

Lytic.
Then what
a

she looked

pressed
like
a

another She
ray

button,
watched of

and it

Alice
come

saw

meteor.
cross

from been side

great

distance,
one

the and

light that
on

had

called
as

of
as

the it had the

axes, come,

go

off

the* other in the She

a

rapidly

always moving
sheet of of

plane

indicated of
a

by

vanished instead
a

light. path
the

thought
luminous

comet

; but

having merely
of

tail,it left in its wake

permanent

light. Ana girls stood

away

Lytic

had

come

close

to

Alice, and
curve
as

two

looking
across

at

the darkness

brilliant
as

that the
eye

stretched could reach.

the

far

"Isn't

it beautiful

!" exclaimed

Alice. paper what she

saw

Any

attempt

to

represent

on

228

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

must

be

poor

and

inadequate. Figure 58
exclaimed:

is such

an

attempt.

Suddenly

she

"What
a
.

is that ooint

point

of

?" indicating by gesture light in the figure by P. shown as

bright

situated

a-

Fig. 58.

''That "But Alice.

is

point

of the from

curve," said Ana

all the
rest

Lytic. it,"objected

it is away

of

Going
Alice
on

over

to not

her
see

apparatus
what
"

and

taking something
to

"

could in

Ana

Lytic began surely

be

write
a

what,

the

darkness, might

called

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

229 of the
were

blackboard. of of

The
on

characters

were

usual

size

writing light and

sne

school could
wrote:

boards, but

they

characters

be

plainly read

in the

night.

This

is what

r"=(.r-2)2(.r-3).
Stepping back,
the she said: "That is the

equation

of

curve."

Alice

expressed
her in line of

her

admiration
its

at

seeing the
across

tion equa-

before world
a

and

graph

stretching
geometry
the

the

light.
coordinate could be
so

"I

never

imagined
said. is

beautiful,"she
"This

throwing
about

light

on

subject

for

you," Lytic

said Phool.
"The
to

point

which

you

asked," said Ana

see

Alice, "is the point (2,0). You

that

it satisfies

the

equation.
now

It is

point
that
axes

of

the of

graph."
length
were

Alice off
on

noticed

units

marked brilliant

the of

dimly light.
she

seen

more by slightly

points
of the

Thus

she

easily read
that ; but from had
to

the

coordinates

point.
said, "I
be
see

"Yes,"
that

it

seems

strange

it should

off away

the been be

rest."

"Yes," said Calculus, who

time.

listeningall

the

"One

expects the
message
to

curve

continuous. scientific

tinuity Con-

is the This
as

of

modern that law

a
"

thought.
If all

point
you

seems

break
term

to

be

'miraculous,'
ago. visible

defined

the

few have

minutes
some

observed
we

instances
are

but

one

nection, con-

inclined As

to

call that that

one
seems

miraculous wonderful would

and

the is

rest

natural.

only

which be

unusual, the miraculous

an

in mathematics

only
"I

isolated case."

thank

you,"

said

Alice

warmly.

"That

is the

23O

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

way

should
case a

like is

to

have
to

been
me.

able

to

say

it.

An that

isolated there is

perplexing reign
said there the

I like to

think

universal

of

law."
is
an

"Evidently"
is obvious for the that

Phool, "here
are

exception.
the

It
as,

several is not

alternatives, such
on

example, graph
Alice's
has

that
an

point
and

graph,
at

that

isolated

point, and
Phool

so

forth"
this.

Calculus, Ana
To

Lytic

all

laughed

inquiry, Phool
say
reason,
we

"We
can't
so

often

explained: when or 'evidently' 'obviously'

and
we

we

give

conclude of have

list with

'and

forth' Alice

when felt the

not

can't think

another been

item."
aimed
at

remark used

might
had

her. this in
a

Still she had

either of these made

expressions in
the remark foibles

conversation, and

Phool
were

general
entire
resent

way

as

if he
race.

the satirizing if she

of the
to

human

Moreover,

felt inclined from it

an a

it

as

an

impertinent
treated the

criticism that
as

stituted self-con-

teacher, she

remembered it

was

only
said

the

jestof
"Tell

and jester
me

merely

interruption.
she
to

about

isolated

point,"
way,

Calculus.
He

proceeded
For of
x

in

teacher-like

which

seemed

appropriate
Calculus. other value An

in him. x-2m less than this

equation, y
would

0.

For

any

3, what

y be?

Alice.

imaginary.
And what is the

Calculus.
of Alice.
or
an

geometric representation given by

and the

imaginary
A line whose value

number?

length
that

is

absolute,
tion direc-

arithmetic,
is

of the

imaginary
which

whose

perpendicular to
Good.

represents positives

and

negatives.
Then
"

Calculus.

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

231 the

Alice I
see

(bounding with delightat

see

Oh! discovery).
the

! I

! There

must

be

points of

graph

side out-

of the Calculus.

plane.
Yes, there
are

imaginary branches, good enough

to

and you

perhaps
now.

Ana

Lytic

will be

show

Y
v

\
\

\s
\
%

w
X1
"y

,--\

TfcO

lc
I

Q'w
Fig.
59-

The be the The

on

dotted

900 about XX' QPQ, if revolved in position plane perpendicular to "imaginary part" of the graph.
in that dot-and-dash line
paper

line

as

maining axis, re-

paper,

would

SRPRS of the the the the

two

represents

the

projection
At R
one

the

plane

of

the

"complex
at

parts."
point
paper,

P S

each branch each

branch branch

is in the

plane

of

paper,

each of the

is about

0.7 from is 1.5 from

plane each plane, etc.

side

at

232

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

That

young

lady
and

touched

something
brilliant

on

her

magic
it

switchboard,
across

another The the

curve

stretched

the

heavens.
to

plane

determined

by

was

perpendicular
dotted what line Alice I in

plane previously
represents
in

shown.
a

(The
way

Fig. 59
exclaimed

prosaic point
the

saw.)
Alice. in

"O,
isolated.

see!" It which axes." is

"That
this

is not

the
as

point
real
as

which

'imaginary' plane
of

branch,
the
two

is

any,

pierces
of

"Now,"
real
were

said
for
x

Calculus,
and real

"if

instead

substituting
for y, you for y of
x,

values
to

solving the equation

numbers obtain numbers for for y and each
as

substitute in

solve of

you real The

would,
and
curve

general, complex
in

value

one

two

the

values

x.

through

all the the

to

points with
of you the But shall

complex
axes nor

scissas abin
a

is neither

plane
in

plane perpendicular (The

When

it. line

see."
these

dot-and-dash

Fig.

59

represents

branches.)
Ana

Lytic
these

made

the proper
of the

connection
curve

at

the

switchboard,
out

branches

also

stood

in lines of Alice
was more

light.
deeply
moved in her
me

than

ever. as

There she said

was :

note

of

deep satisfaction
troubled
to

voice

"The is
a

point that
common

because branches natural

of of

its isolation the

point

several is
more

curve."

"The

supernatural
Phool.

than

anything special things

is out of

else," said
"The
case

miraculous," thought Alice,

a

"is

only

of

higher
are

law.

We

fail to with

understand which

because
our

they

connected

that

plane."

ALICE

IN

WONDERLAND.

233

She curve."
"Yet said

added

aloud:

"This

should

call

the

miracle

there

is

nothing "Any

exceptional
curve

about with

this
a

curve,"

Calculus. has similar Calculus

not

algebraic

conjugate

point
Then could

properties."
said

something
and Ana

to

Ana
was

Lytic

Alice
"

hear
on

what
"

Lytic
when

just touching
was
a

something
of thunder. in the her

the Alice
own

switchboard gave
room
a

there awoke and

to

crash self herthat the

start

and

to

find

at

midday,
in her the

realize had been

slamming
that
sat

of

door

corridor

thunder

terminated in the

dream.

She
that "that had

up been

big

chair of her

and,
her
as

with
a

the

motion

characteristic little
toss

little

girl, gave
back her the

queer

of zvould

head,

to

keep
into

wandering
and said "There
at to

hair

that

always

get

eyes,"

herself: aren't
any
curves

of
or

light
two

across

the

sky
exist

all ! in
are

And the

worlds mind.

of

one

dimensions But dream. life will

at

only they

They
I'm wand.

are

abstractions. I had The the

least

thinkable.

glad
"

ination Imagbe
a

is
real

magic
and

future

wonderland,
the
to start

"
"

Then time
some

ringing
for
an

of

bell

reminded

her and

that she

it

was

afternoon in the

lecture,
corridor

heard
to

of

her

classmates

calling

her,

"Come,

Alice."

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

NOTES.

Mathematical
work
as one

recreations. in

The has
a

Ahmes

papyrus,

oldest

ematical mathprets intermarks re-

existence,
for

problem
At
are

which which correct,

in

Cantor

proposed
the above

amusement.

Cajori
it looks

:*
if

"If

interpretations
were

as

'mathematical centuries collection thinks

was

recreations'

indulged

by

scholars

forty
The

ago."
of "Problems Alcuin has been for

Quickening

the

Mind"

tor Can-

by
"It

(735-804).
remarked is that

Cajori's
the

interesting
proneness
to

commentf

is

propound
Alcuin the the that title Mind.'
even was

jocular

questions
noted

truly
in this
:

Anglo-Saxon,
respect. Of
for

and interest

that is

particularly
the Do in
power
not

which

collection
these darkness of mathematics of

bears words of the

'Problems

Quickening
to

bear

testimony
Ages

the

fact mind-

the

Middle
was

the

developing
Later
many

recognized?"
recreations
some

collections
many

mathematical contained in

were
tions. recrea-

published,

and

arithmetics

of

the

Their
in A the

popularity
and

is noticeable

England

and

Germany

seventeenth

eighteenth
of 16

centuries.J
recreations the sixteenth and is

good
Lucas. the

bibliography "
There
are

mathematical titles from the

given
33

by
from the

century,
100

seventeenth,
century,
of
Elem.

38

from,
the

eighteenth,
date

from

nineteenth

latest

being
f Id.,

1890.

Young

Hist,

Math.,
Rara

p.

24.

p.

13-4.

t A
is It
to

book be

entitled

Arithmetica,
" Co. the
pages most

by

Prof.

David
summer

Eugene
or

Smith,

published
six
or

by

Ginn
seven

coming
and

fall hundred in the the

(1907).
trations, illus-

will

contain

hundred the

have

three facts

presenting
of
an

graphically
author's
among

interesting
in of this field mathematical it is

history
book

arithmetic. immediate

Its

reputation
the
as

insures

place

classics his list

history.
restricted in

" 1:237-248.
scope.

Extensive Nous

is,

professedly
l'ordre de
sur

He

l'indication

qui
aux

ont

ete

ci-apres, extraits livres, memoires, principaux de et l'Arithmetique position publies sur

says.

donnons

suivant

chronologique,

des

correspondence,
la

Geometrie
se

de

situation.

Nous
que
nous

'

avons avons

surtout

choisi
ou

les
que

documents
nous

qui

rapportent

sujets

traites

traiterons

ulterieurement.

234

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

NOTES.

235

(p-

l73~4)

gives
those

list of

of

20

titles,
list

mostly

recent,
where
two

in

no

case

duplicating
later

Lucas's

(except
of and
over

mentioning
hundred the list titles.

edition).
turn to two

This other

gives

total

Now
extended.
a

collections,

we

find

greatly
has

Ahrens' of

Mathcmatische
330

Unterhaltungen including nearly

all

(1900)
those has

bibliography
Lucas.
recent

titles,
Curiositccs
It

given
the

by
most

Fourrey's

Geometriques
is extensive and in Ahrens.

(1907)
itself and

bibliography.
to vast

mostly

supplementary
In all the the the

the

lists

by
of does

Lucas

number writer

published
not

mathematical of
a

tions, recrea-

present
in We

know

book

covering
in ously seri-

subject

general
seem

which have the

was

written
our

and

published
very

America.

to

taken Atlantic. sections have been in

mathematics

on

this

side

of

Publications of
as

of
book The and

foregoing
which

in

periodicals.
in
are

The

tions sec-

this

printed
each of
case

magazines
those
at

are

follows.

month the
page

and is

year

of

the the

magazine,
section The

the

page

this

book

which

begins.
Open
p. p.

Court,
73,

January April,
p. p.

1907, 109;

p.

218;
p.

February,
143,

p.

212; 122;

March,
June,
The New

76;

May,

154,

196,

81,

83;

July,
January

168,
1907,

170.
p.
11,

Monist,
York
p.
210.

15.

Education

(now

American

Education),

January

1899,

American
p.

Education,

September

1906,

p.

59;

March

1907,

51.
Some of the in articles have form. been altered

slightly

since

their

publication

periodical

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

INDEX.

List mentioned. entry. A

In

of

the
The

publications
pages

mentioned this
are

in
are

this

book,
after the
in

with the

the

pages in

where each

of

book
not

given

imprint
index.

These date
many
use or a

references

included

general
*

in

( )
cases

is
a

the

date

of

copyright.
mentioned.
in

work of the taken

is

barely
from the

indicates 'direct

either

more

extended

made

book

this book.

case,

or

(though

brief)

quotation,

figure

[Abbott, by
Ahrens.

E.
a

A.] Square.

Flatland; [London,

Romance

of

Many 1899.
und

Dimensions,
*2i8.

1884]

Boston,

Mathematische
1900.

Unterhaltnngen

Spiele.

zig, Leip-

235.

American 235. Annali di

Education

(monthly).

Albany,

N.

Y.

145,

*2io,

Matematica.

Milan.

38.
1806. Recreations 94 and both

Argand,
Ball,
W.

J. R.
W. R.

Essai.

Geneva,

Mathematical

Essays. fascinating
any taste

Ed.

4. and for

Macmillan, scholarly,
mathematical
123,

London,
attractive

1905.
to

(A
every

book
one

with

studies.) *i4i,
Short

*35,*38,

*4i, *83,

III,

117,

*I22,

*I27,
W.
3.

*i7i,
Account

186, 187, *200

of the

Ball,

W. Ed.

R.

History
*34,

of

Mathematics.

Macmillan,

London,

1901.

*35,

^37,

*i23,

*203
Beman and Smith.

New

Plane

Geometry.

Ginn

(1895,

'99).

164
Bledsoe,
A. T.

Philosophy
150.

of

Mathematics.

Lippincott,

1891

(1867).
Brooks,
Edward.

Philosophy (1876.) (An

of admirable

Arithmetic.
.

.Sower,

delphia Phila-

popular
of

presentation
;

of
torical his-

some

of

the

elementary
25,
31,

theory *5o, 66.

numbers

also

notes). Bruce,
W. and H. its Some Circles.

Noteworthy
Heath,
1903.

Properties
(One
10

of of
cents

the the

Triangle
series

of
135

Heath's

Mathematical

Monographs,
236

each).

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

INDEX.

237 Society (monthly).

212.

Bulletin

of

the

American

Mathematical New of York

Lancaster,

Pa., and History

Methods

City. *I03, *204,

Mathematics,
1905

Cajori,

Florian.
on

Elementary
should be
193,

with

Hints

of Teaching. book

Macmillan,
read 195,

(1896).

(This suggestive *52, *67, *gi, Cajori,

Cantor,
Florian. 135,

by

every

teacher.)

148, *i65,
of

*234.
Macmillan, 1894.

History
193.

Mathematics.

37,

148,

Moritz.
3

Vorlesungen
vol.

iiber

die

Geschichte

der
49,

Mathe-

matik.
234.

Teubner,

Leipzig, 1880-92.
Books. of Paradoxes. *i8i. und
40.

67, 148.,

De De

Morgan, Morgan,
London,

Augustus.
Augustus.

Arithmetical

68.

Budget

Longmans,

1872. *35, *4i, 86, *i26,

O.

Dietrichkeit,
rithmen.

Siebenstellige Logarithmen Julius Springer, Berlin,

1903.

Antiloga1865.

Dodgson,
201,

C.

L.

Alice's

Adventures

in

Wonderland.

*2l8. C. L.

Dodgson,
Found

Through

the

Looking-glass

and

What

Alice

There.

1872.
Solutio

*2i8.
9. 39,

Encyclopaedia
Euler, Leonhard.

Britannica.

Ed.

*yi, ^176, *i83, 186.

ad Geometriam Situs

Problematis

Pertinentis.

St. Petersburg, Evolutional

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Evans,

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Psychology.

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Fechner, Fink,
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Determinees.

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148.

Analyse
E.

Equations

Fourrey,

Curiositees
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Vuibert

et

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Paris, 1907. Girard, Albert. 1629.

92.

Invention

en

l'Algebre. Amsterdam,
of

Gray,

Peter.

Tables

for
to

the
24
or

Formation
any

Logarithms
of

and

Antilogarithms
C.

less

Number

Places.

Layton, London,
G. B.

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of
104,

40.

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Bibliography 1878.
Art of for j888.

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107. and

and

ean Non-Euclid-

Geometry.
Harkness,
William.

Weighing ^43.

Measuring.

sonian Smith-

Report

238

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Hooper,

W.

Rational and

Recreations,
Natural
..

in which

the Are

Principles Clearly
1774.

of

Numbers

Philosophy
.4
1

and

Copiously
the

Elucidated.
pages

vol.
treat

London,
of

(Only
26, *27,

first 166

of

vol.

numbers.)

*38
.

Journal
Kempe,

of A.

the
B.

American How
to

Medical Draw
a

Association.

Chicago.
; a

158.
on

Straight

Line

Lecture

Linkages.
Klein, F.
Beman Famous and

Macmillan,
Problems Smith.

London,
of

1877.

*I32, ^136, ^139. Geometry;

tr.

Elementary 1897.
I23-

by

Ginn,

Knowledge. Lagrange, by Lebesgue,

Leonardo
1202.

187.

J.
T.

L.

Lectures McCormack.

on

Elementary
Ed.
2.

Mathematics Court

tr.

J.
1901

Open
des

Publishing

Co.,

(1898).
A. Table

61. des
40.
et

V.

Diviseurs

Nombres.

Gau-

thier-Villars, Paris.
Fibonacci.
66. des

Algebra

Almuchabala

(Liber Abaci).

LTntermediaire

Mathematiciens.
zur

*20, *2i, 36.

Listing, J.

B.

Vorstudien

Topologie Gottingen,
Geometrical G.

(Abgedruckt 1848.
B. 117, 170, Researches, Halsted.

aus

den

Gottinger Lobatschewsky, Theory

Texas,
Lucas Edouard. of

Studien).
Nicholaus. Parallels

173.
on

the

tr.

by

Austin,

1892

(date of dedication).

104. 4 vol.
1

Recreations

Mathematiques. *iy, *7o,

Nombres. of
141,
*

Gauthier-

Villars, Paris, 1891-6. Lucas,

McLellan Edouard. and Theorie

1
,

186, *i97, ^234.

"

des

17,

22.

Dewey.
154. A.

Psychology
Method in

Number.

Appleton,
Macmillan,

1895McMurry,
1905. C.

Special

Arithmetic.

*207.
P. Non-Euclidean
1503.

Manning, Margarita
Mathematical

H.

Geometry. 67
and

Ginn,

1901.

107.

Philosophica.
Gazette.

frontispiece.

London.

41.

Mathematical

Magazine.
of Mathematics.

Washington. Cambridge,
Court

*20,

40.

Messenger
Monist

36, 127.
Co.

(quarterly).
235-

Open

Publishing

*I9,

186,

Napier, John.

Rabdologia.

1617.

49,

61, 69, 71.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC

INDEX.

239
Mathematica.

Newton,

Isaac.

Philosophise Naturalis

Principia

1687. *I49.
New York Court Education

(now

American

Education).

*2io, 235.
Co. ill,

Open

(monthly).

Open

Court

Publishing
.Venice,
*68.

168, 235. Pacioli, Lucas.

Summa di Arithmetica.
.

1494.

59,

67.

Pathway

to

Knowledge.
of the

London,
1743.

1596.
119.

Philosophical Transactions, Proceedings Proceedings

Public Rebiere.

Central

Association

of

Science

and

matics Mathe-

Teachers.

206.

of the

Royal

Society
*2o6.
et

of London,

vol.

21.

,124.

School

Journal.
Grounde

Mathematique
Robert. W. S. H.

Mathematiciens. of Artes. 1540.

196.
68

Recorde, Richards, Row,

T.

Military Topography.
Exercises ed.
2

London,

1883.

200.

Geometric

in

Paper
Beman
144.

Folding.
and

Ed.

1,

Madras, Open Rupert,

W. with W. their

1893;
Famous

(edited by
1901.

Smith).

Court

Publishing Co.,
Geometrical

Theorems
1901. 124.

and

Problems,

History.
fur
and

Heath,

Schlomilch.
School

Zeitschrift

Mathematik

und

Physik. Chicago.

ill.

Science
90,

Mathematics

(monthly) Essays

*5o,

125,

159, 206. Mathematical and

Schubert,
tr.

Hermann.

Recreations, Co.,

by
E. E.

T.

J. McCormack.
95,
124,

Open
154-

Court

Publishing

1903

(1899).
Rara

Smith, Smith,

D. D.

Arithmetica. of

Ginn,

1907.

234. Mac-

Teaching
(1900).
Old The

Elementary ^56.
the New for of
a

Mathematics.

millan, 1905 Smith,

D. from E.

and

Arithmetic. Feb.
1905.

Reprinted
Ginn. *68.

Text-Book La Disme

Bulletin

Stevin, Simon.

(part
of of the

larger work). Allyn (1900).

and

1585. ^'96.

59

Taylor, J. Taylor, J.
#

M. M.

Elements Elements Rev. ed.

Algebra.
1898.

Differential 151,

Integral

Cal-

cuius.

Ginn,

*2i$.
and

Taylor,
Teachers'

J.

M.

Five-place
Ginn Book The

Logarithmic
40.

Trigonometric

Tables. Note David. Beasts.

(1905). (an
Number 181.

occasional and

publication). *i89.
Names of the

Thorn,

Apocalyptic

1848.

240

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Thorndike,
Social

E.

L.

Introduction

to

the

Theory
Press,
New

of

Mental

and

Measurements.

Science

York,

1904.

"156-158.
Tonstall,
Treviso

Cuthbert. Arithmetic. Edward.

Arithmetic.

1522. 59,

67.

1478.
Meditationes Arithmetic.

67. Algebraical Leipsic, 1489.

the

Waring, Widmann, Willmon,

36.
162.

John. J.
edition. C.

Secret
Los

of

the

Circle

and

Square.

Author's

Angeles,
Euclid's

1905. Parallel in

125. Postulate: Its

Withers,

J. Validity,
Court

W.
and

Nature,

Place

Geometrical

Systems. *io5-io6,
in the 107.

Open

Publishing
W. A.

Co.,

1905. of

*I04,

Young.
and

J.

Teaching
School.

Mathematics

Elementary *34, 98, 206,

Secondary

Longmans,

1907.

235.

GENERAL

INDEX.

Note:
i49n

^i
means

means

page
note at

43

and

the of

page page

or

pages

immediately given
in

ing. followin
rare

bottom

149.
are

References
not

the

Index (preceding Bibliographic here. repeated

pages)

(except

stances) in-

Abel,

N,

H.,
of
to
a

103.
measures,

Arithmetics

of

the

Renaissance,

Accuracy
Advice
201.

43L
committee,

66-68.

building

Arrangements
Art and

of

the

digits,
213.

21.

mathematics, 164.
44,

Agesilaus,
Ahmes
Al

55.

Assyria,
164,
234.

papyrus,

Astronomers,

165,
37.

216-217.

Battani,
234.

148.

Asymptotic Autographs teaching

90, 95;

laws,
of

Alcuin,

mathematicians,

Algebra, Algebraic

73-103;

of, 205f.
cies, falla-

168.

balance, 83.

Avicenna,
Axioms in
to

66.

elementary

algebra,
76.

73;

Alice

in

the
218.

wonderland

of

matics, mathe-

apply

equations?

American
197.

game

of

seven

and

eight,

Babbage,
geometry,

72. 54,

Analytic
233-

156-157,

226-

Babylonia,
Balance,

164.
90,

algebraic,
number
in

95.

Anaxagoras, Antiquity,
of,
122.

122.

Beast,
famous

of,

180. 208.

three

problems

Beauty
Bee's

mathematics,
118-1
19.

cell,

Apollo, Apparatus
of

122, to

128.

Beginnings
line
values

of

mathematics

on

the

illustrate

Nile,

164.
180.

trigonometric
women,

functions,
194.

146.

Benary,
Berkeley,

Apple
Arabic Arabic for

George,
88,
166. 168.

150.

camel

puzzle,
52,

193.

Bernoulli,
word

notation, sine, 148.

66-68;

Berthelot,

Bibliographic
216.

notes,

234;

index,

Archimedean

proof,
i49n.

236. Billion,
9.

Archimedes,

Argand,
Ariadne,

J.

R.

37,

94.

Binomial
159.

theorem

and

statistics,

178. 83.
9-72;

Aristotle, Arithmetic,

Bocher,
in
the

M.,

10311,

21211.

sance, Renais-

Bolingbroke,
Bolyai, Bonola,
241
10411.

Lord,

51.

66;

present

trends

in, 51;

teaching,

54-58;

2osf.

Roberto,

10711.

242

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Book-keeper's
numbers,
25.

clue

to

inverted

Complex
of

numbers,
231-232.

75,

92;

branch

graph,
167.

Book-keeping,
on,

first

English

book

Compound Compte,
Concrete,

interest, 47.
mathematics

68.
40.

Boorman, Brahe,

teaching,

Tycho,
and
50, 126.

214.

205, 170.

217.

Bridges Briggs,
Buffon,

isles,
165.

Concrete Constants

necessarily complex,
and
152-153.

214.

variables

trated, illus-

Building
201.

Committee,

advice

to,

Converse, Counters, Crelle,

Crescents
135.

fallacy of, 83
games,
191,

f. 197.

of

Mohammed, 178.

175-176.

Caesar

Neron,

180.
59, 124.

Cretan Criterion

labyrinth,
for

Cajori, Florian,
Calculus,
Calculus

prime

numbers,
19.

36.

Calculation, mechanical
149-153,

aids, 69.
213, 124,

Curiosities, numerical,

206,

2241".
126-

of

probability,
of,
168.

128, Camels, Cantor, Cardan, Carroll,

156. puzzle Moritz,

66. 193.

Daedalus,
Days- work
DeKalb Decimal
201,

178. problem,
normal 213. 207.

school,
49.

separatrixes,
of

Lewis, Paul,

218.

Decimalization Decimals
as

arithmetic,
of

51 f.

Carus,
Catch

173.

indexes
44.

degree

of

questions,
149m

196.

accuracy,

Cavalieri, Cayley,
Centers of

Decimals Declaration

invented of of

late, 165.
175.

140.

Independence, multiplication,
101;

triangle,
102.

133.

Definition
of

98;

Chain-letters, Checking
Chinese

exponents,
212-217.

of

matics, mathe-

solution criterion

of for

equation,

81.
bers, num-

prime

Degree
De la

of

accuracy

of

ments, measure-

36.

43-44.

Chirography
168. Christians

of

mathematicians,
Turks

Loubere, problem,
181,
182. 37,

183.
122L
140.

Delian and
at sea,

195.

De

Morgan,
175,

85, 126-129,

166,

Circle-squarer's paradox,

126.

Circle-squaring, 122-129.
Circles of

Descartes,
11-

94,

166.

triangle,

133.

Circulating
202.

decimals,

16,

40,

Descriptive geometry, 206. of Diagonals a polygon,

216.

174-175,

Cistern

problem,
and

212-213.

Digits
217.

in

powers, 20;

20;

in

square

Civilization

mathematics,

numbers,
21.

arrangements

of,

Clifford, 168. Coinage, decimal,

52.

Dimension,
of

fourth,
in
37.

143,

223-224; 194.

Collinearity of
133.

centers

triangle,

only
Direction
199.

one

Wall

street,

Diophantus,
in
map

Colors

drawing,
and

140.

determined

by

watch,

Combinations
37,

permutations,
88,

156. law,
watch
as,

Dirichlet,
154.

37. 95.

Commutative

Discriminant,
D'Israeli,
128.

Compass,

199.

GENERAL

INDEX.

243

Distribution

curve

for

measures,

Factors,

more

than
two

one

set
common,

of

156-159. Divisibility, Division,

first
tests

prime,
of,
30.

37;

highest

89.
23;

Fourier's

method,

in of

Fallacies, algebraic, 83; 196.

Familiar tricks
27. 217.

catch

tions, ques-

printed
63,
of

arithmetic, 65.
into

67;

decimals,
Division

based

on

literal

plane
118.

regular

arithmetic,

polygons, Divisor,
194.

Faraday,
with

166,
G.
i49n,

greatest,

remainder,

Fechner, Fermat,

T., 215.
186.

Do

the

axioms

apply
L., 168,
of in

to

equations?
218.

Fermat's
35;

theorem,
on

36;

last
powers,

rem, theo41.

76.

binary

Dodgson,
Dominoes,

C.

201, ways

Feuerbach's
ranging, ar-

theorem,
170.

135.

number

of

Figure
Fine

tracing,
art

38; 187. Donecker,

F. of

magic

squares,

and

mathematics, of,

213. 142.

Forces, C,
oon.

parallelogram principle and

for

Formula,
Formulas

rule,

216.

Duplication

c,ube, i22f.

prime

numbers, of,

36.
19.

Forty-one,
Four-colors
e,

curious

property
140.

theorem,
206.

40,

216. 54,

Fourier, 164.
of Fourier's

Egypt,
Eleven,
3i-33.

method

of

division,

23,

tests

divisibility

by,

4m.

Fourth

dimension,

143,

223-224.

English Equation,

numeration,
50.

9;

decimal

Fox,

Captain,
54,

127m
202.

separatrix, solvability
103.

Fractions,
102;

exponential,
of

in-

Franklin, Freeman,
French

Benjamin,
E.

186.

general

higher,
to?

A.,

51. 9;

numeration,
50.

decimal

Equations,

axioms
77-79;

apply
solved in

76;
lution so-

separatrix,
Frierson, Fiitzsche,
L.
180.

equivalency, of, 81; Egypt, Equations

length 164.
of and

checking

S., 186.

ancient

U.
mass,

S.

standards
155.

of

Game-puzzle,
Games Gath with

191.

counters,
52. 37, 94, 95,

191,

197.

Eratosthenes, Error, Escott,

32n,

123,

14911.

giant,
34,

theory
E.

of, 46.
7-8,
4m, 13, in, 14,

Gauss,
1911,

103,

166, 203.

B.,
40,

Gellibrand,
General General Geometric form
test

165.
of of law of

36,

116,
130,

187. 166,

signs,

99.

Euclid,
202.

103-108, 118,

123,

divisibility, 30. of complex illustration

92;

Euclidean

and

non-Euclidean

ometry, ge-

numbers,
in

of

law 97. squares, 154;

of

signs
186;

104-108.
Euclid's

multiplication, magic

postulate,
19,

103-108.
41,

Geometric
135,

Euler, 165,
Exact Exercise

36,
171,

37, 177,
212.

94,

multiplication, 88,
109.

puzzles,

168,

178.

science,
in

Geometry,

103-145; 206.

teaching, 205f
decimal

public

speaking
96.
102.

210.

descriptive,
German

Exponent,

imaginary, equation,
10

numeration,
50.

9;

Exponential Exponents,

separatrix,
Giant with

1,

165.

twelve

fingers,

52.

244
Girard,

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Albert,
39, age

37,

92.

Infinite,
151203.

87,

224f;

symbols

for,

Glaisher,
Golden

7111,

167.

of

mathematics, of, 189.

159.

Inhabited

planets,
Roman that

216.

Gotham,

square

Inheritance,
Instruments
227130.

problem,
are

193.

Grading Graph
233-

of of

students,

postulated, simple,

equation,

156-157,

Interest, compound
215.

and

47.

Gravitation,
Greatest
194.

Involution with

not
1

commutative,

154.

divisor

remainder,

Irenaeus,
Isles

80-181. 170. 9;

and

bridges,
numeration,
50.

Greeks, 148,
Growth Growth

37, i49n,

54,

56,

66,

72,

123,

Italian

decimal

167, 186, 216, 217.

concept of

separatrix,
37.

of of

number,
of the

philosophy

culus, cal-

Jefferson, Thomas,

175.

149.

Gunter,

165. Kant, 167.

Hall,

W.

S., 158.
G. W. Court of

Kegs-of-wine
Kempe,
94, A. 50, 217. 155. 57.

puzzle,
B.,
107, 132, i49n,

194. 139.

Halsted, Hamilton, Hampton

B.,

104.

136,

R.,

168.

Kepler, 178.
214,

167,

203,

labyrinth,

Handwriting
168.

mathematicians,

Kilogram, Knilling,
Knowlton,

Heron

of

Alexandria,
division of

212.

197. 170- 171, 93, 94. 174.

Hexagons,
118;

plane

into,

Konigsberg,
Kiihn, Kulik, H.,
40.

magic,
149m

172-173,

187-188.

Hiberg, Higher
Highest
Hindu

equations,
common

103.

factors,
on

two, and

89.

Labyrinths,
Laisant, Laplace, Lathrop,
Law
154166.

170,

176-179.
168.

check

division
25;

tiplication, mulLagrange,

36,

illustration
91, 92;

of

real

numbers,
52,

numerals word
for

126,
H.

168.

(Arabic), sine,

66-68;

J.,

145m of

148.
of of

of

signs,
36,
D.

97;

commuation,

Hippias History Hitzig,

Home-made

Elis, 123. mathematics, facts, 165. 167;

prising sur-

Legendre,
Lehmer, Leibnitz,

37,
40.

168.

N.,

180.

149-150,

166.

leveling device,
science

120.

Length,
Lennes,
Leonardo

standard N. of

of,
90m 66.

155.

J.,

Ideal, mathematics
215.

of, 214,
the

Pisa,
120.

Leveling
Indians hadn't spent Limits

device,

If

the the

illustrated,
'

152.

$24,
of

47.

Lindemann,
the
law 144;

123,

124.

Illustrations
97;

of

of of

signs, nometric trigoits, lim-

Line

values

of

trigonometric

tions, func-

symmetry,

146.

functions,
152.

146;

of

Linkages
136.
Literature

and

straight-line motion,
mathematics,

Imaginary,
branch Indians of

94;

exponent,
230-232.

96;

of

203,

graph,
the

208-209.

spent

$24,

47.

Lobachevsky,

104-108.

GENERAL

INDEX.

245
A.

Logarithms,
102,

45,

47, also

52,
e.

69,

87,

Mobius, Mohammed, Morehead,

F., 140. 175-176.

165.
and de
common

See

London

Wise,

176.

J. C.,
186.
to

41.

Loubere,
Lowest

la, 183.

Moscopulus,
two,

multiples,
18711.

Movement concrete,

make

teaching sight,
62, 64;

more

89.

205.
at

Loyd,
Lunn, Luther,

S., 116, J. R.,

181.

Multiplication
in

15;

proximate, ap-

40. 59;

45,

of

mals, decimetic, arithtrated, illusas a

first printed
law

67; Maclaurin,
119. 25; 97;

of

signs
98;

definition,
100; 100;

Magic
173;

number,

pentagon,
172-173,

172-

proportion, of,
154-

gradual

ization general88,

hexagors,
squares, value
now,

187Myers,
G.

geometric,

188;

183.
of

Manhattan,
1626

reality

in

W.,

9on.

and makers'

47-48.
140.
11

Map

proposition,
159.

dimensions,
dimension.

104.

See

also Fourth

Marking
Mars, Mass,

students,

signaling, 216-217. standard of, 155.

advice
201.

Napier, Napier, building Napier's

John.
Mark, rods, 167.
of
212.

See

Logariths.

165. 69.

Mathematical

to

committee,
Mathematical Mathematical
212.

Napoleon,
191.

game-puzzle, reasoning,
recitation
nature

Nature

mathematical

ing, reason-

of,

Negative
as

and

positive numbers,
in

90.
tury, cen-

Mathematical
in

an
210.

ercise ex-

Negative
Neptune,

conclusions
103.

19th

public speaking,
recreations,

Mathematical Mathematical Mathematical

234.

distance

from

sun,

44.

symbols,
treatment

162,
of

165.
tics, statis-

Nero,
New 15-

180.

trick

with

an

old

principle,

156. Mathematics,
nature
more

definitions,
212-217; 205,

2i2n;

New and

York,
now,

value

of

realty in 1626

of,
concrete,

teaching
217;

47-48.
149-150, 123. 215.

Alice

Newton,

49,

in

the

wonderland

of, 218.

Nicomedes,
Nile, 164.
curious

Mazes,

176-179.
numbers
;

beginnings

of

mathematics

Measurement, from,
43

arising
accuracy

on,

degree

of

Nine,

properties of,
134-135.

25.

of, 43-44Measurements
1

Nine-point
treated ally, statisticNineteenth

circle,
century,

negative
103.

clusions con-

56- 161,

207-208.
155.

reached,
Non-Euclidean Normal

Measures,

standard,
68.

geometry,

104-108.
157.
on, notes

Mellis, John,
Methods Metric in

probability
miscellaneous

integral,
concept

arithmetic, 54-58.
43, 50. 53, 155.

Number,
34-42;

system, G.

growth
may 41;
a

of

of, 37;

Miller,

A.,
use

How
term

particular number
the

Million, first
67. Minotaur,
Miscellaneous
34-

of

in

print,

arise? Numbers

of

beast,
from

180.
ment, measure-

arising
43;

178.
notes
on

differing from
in

their decimal

number,

log. only

position of

point,

19;

theory

of, 34L

246

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Numeration,
Numerical

two

systems,
19.

9.

Psychology,
Ptolemy,
Publication
103,

54,

57,

215. 217.

curiosity,

167,

of

foregoing
235.

sections

Old-timers, Oratory,
as

194.

in

periodicals,
game,

mathematical
210.

recitation

Puzzle,
193-

191;

of

the

camels,

exercise,
of
10

Orbits

planets,
1.

214.

Puzzles,

geometric,

109.
121,

Oresme,

Pythagorean
94.

proposition,

164.

Orthotomic,

See

also

inary. Imag-

Quadratrix,
Oughtred,
49.

123.

Quadrature Quaternions,
216;

of

the

circle,
154.

122-129.

88, 94,
fourth
143-

7T,

-40,

123-129,

expressed
23.

Question
analogy,

of

dimension

by

with

the
59,

ten
100.

digits,

Pacioli, Paper

Questions,
144.

catch,
on

196.
166.

folding,

Quotations

mathematics,

Paradox,
Paradromic Parallel

circle-squarer's, 126. rings,

of
at

117.

Real

numbers,

90,

232.
212.

postulates, 103-108.
forces,
142.
107. meet

Reasoning,
Recitation

mathematical,
as an
210.

Parallelogram
Parallels

exercise

in

lic pub-

infinity,

speaking,
Recreations,
Rectilinear

Peaucellier, Pentagon, Periodicals,

136-139.

mathematical, motion, decimals, 136-13911-16,

234.

magic,
sections

172-173.

publication
in, 235. 156.

of

going fore-

Recurring Regular
into, Reiss,

40.

polygons,
118.

division

of

plane

Permutations, Petzval,
40.
122.

37,

38.
arithmetic of

Philoponus, Philosophy Pierpont,

Pitiscus, Plane,

Renaissance,
the

in,

66.
203. 40;

of

calculus,
203.

149.

Renaissance

mathematics, 11-16,

James,
49,

Repeating products, regular gons, poly-

decimals,
11-16; of

50.

table, 17. complex

bers, num-

division
118.

into

Representation
92,

231-232.

Planetary
Planets,

orbits,

214.

Reuss,
Riemann's

180.

inhabited,
in

216.

postulate, 105-108. paradromic,

117.

Planting
Plato,
Plato
122,

hexagonal
123,
130,

forms, 166,
211,

119. 214.

Rings, Rods,

Napier's, 69.
Adrian,
inheritance of 6of.

Tiburtinus,
and

148.
90.
20.

Rornain,
Roman Roots of

Positive Powers Present Prime than

negative numbers,
same

problem,
73, 103.

193-

having
trends factors
one

digits,
number,

equal

numbers,

75;

in of

arithmetic,
a

51.
more

higher

equations,
121.

Rope Royal

stretchers,

set, 37.

Society's catalog,
162.

203.

Primes,

formulas

for, 36;
tables

Chinese

Rudolff, Rule,
Ruler

criterion

for, 36;
rule
124,

of,

40.

principle and
unlimited and

formula,

216.

Principle,
Problems

and

formula, 156.
122; 234.

216.

ungraduatcd,

Probability,
of

126-128,

130-132.

antiquity,
the

for

quickening
Products,

mind,
11-

Scalar,
Scheutz,

94.

See

also

Real

bers. num-

repeating,

16.
as,
100.

Proportion,

multiplication

72.

GENERAL

INDEX.

247
J. M.,
made
135. 7.

Separatrixes, decimal,
Seven-counters
game,

49.

Taylor, Teaching
31-

197.

concrete,

205f,

217.

Seven,
33-

tests

of

divisibilityby,

Terquem,
Tests of

divisibility, 30.
of error,

Shanks,

William,
of

40,

124.

Theory
168-

46;

of

numbers,

Signatures
169;

mathematicians,
170,

34*.
Theseus, 178.
test

unicursal,
illustrations

175-176.
law

Signs, Smith, Smith,

Smith,
Social

of

of,
148.

97.

Thirteen,
32.

of

divisibility by, September,

property
68.

Sine, history of the Ambrose,

D.
M.

word,

127.

Thirtie

daies

hath

E., K.,

56, 59,
159.

168, 234n.
ically, mathemat-

Thirty-seven,
19.

curious

of

sciences

treated

Three
.

famous
122.

problems postulates of,

of

anti-

156, 207-208.
Societies'

quity,

initials, 38.
55.

Three

parallel
105.

trated, illus-

Sparta,

Speaking,
in,

recitation
210.

as

an

cise exer-

Time-pieces, Trapp,
Trends
57.

accuracy

43.

Speidell, 165. Square digits Square Squares, magic, 187. Squaring

Standards the numbers
not

in

arithmetic,

51.

containing
20.

the

Triangle
Trick,
15new

and

repeated,
Gotham, 183;

its circles, 133. with old principle, an

of

189.

magic,
186;

geometrical
domino,

Tricks
27.

based

on

literal

arithmetic,
146-148,

coin, 187; circle,

Trigonometry,
122-129.
mass, treatment

96,

107,

165.
155.

of length

and

Trisection Turks Two H. and C.

of

angle,

i22f,
at

130-132.
sea,

Statistics, mathematical
of, 156, 207-208.

Christians

195.

F., 89.
conclusions century, of
103. 9.

Stevin, Simon, Stifel, 91. Straight-edge,

Student

59f,

10

1.

Two in

negative
the

reached

19th

130-132,

136. 136.

Two

systems

numeration,

Straight-line motion,
records,
40, 159.
41.

Tycho

Brahe,

214.

Shuffield, G.,
Surface Surface of with

Undistributed
Unicursal
170.

middle,

83f.
and

frequencey, 156-159.
one

signatures
States standards
155.

figures,
of

face,
in the

117.

Surprising
Swan
pan,

facts

history of

United and

length

mathematics,
72.

165.

mass,

Sylvester, J. J., Symbols,

for

139,

168.

Variables

illustrated,
88,
94,

152-153.

mathematical, infinite, 151.

illustrated
144.

162,

165;

Vectors,
Vienna Visual

154.
40.

academy,

Symmetry folding,

by

paper

representation
92.

of

complex

numbers,

Vlacq,
Von

165.
57.

Busse,

Tables,
Tait,

39;

repeating,

17,

19. 57.

Wall

street,
93,
as

194.
101, 151. 199.

Tanck,
Tax

Wallis,

rate,

46.

Watch

compass,

248

SCRAP-BOOK

OF

ELEMENTARY

MATHEMATICS.

Weights
Wessel, Whewell, Wilson,
Wilson's

and

measures,

43,

53,

155.

Wonderland

of

mathematics,

218.

37,

94.

167,

217.

Young,
note,
35m

.W.

A.,

205.

John,

biographic
35.

theorem, J. Richard, W.,

49. 107.

Zero

in

fallacies,
1

87,
51;

meaning
first
use

of of

Withers,

symbol,
word in

50-1

Witt,

print,

67.