Chapter 2: Units and Measurement Introduction An accurate and consistent system of measurement is the foundation of a healthy economy.

In the United States, a carpenter pays for wood by the board-foot, while a motorist buys petrol by the allon, and a !eweler sells old by the ounce. "and is sold by the acre, fruits and #e etables are sold by the pound, and electric cable is sold by the yard. $ithout a consistent, honest system of measurement, world trade would be thrown into chaos. %uyers and sellers ha#e always tried to defraud each other by wron ly representin the &uantity of the product e'chan ed. (rom ancient times to the present there has been a need for measurin thin s accurately. $hen the ancient ) yptians built the pyramids, they measured the stones they cut usin body dimensions e#ery wor*er could understand. Small distances were measured in di its +the width of a fin er, and lon er distances in cubits +the len th from the tip of the elbow to the tip of the middle fin er- . cubit / 20 di its,. 1he 2omans were famous road builders and measured distances in paces +. pace / two steps,. Archaeolo ists ha#e unco#ered ancient 2oman roads and found milestones mar*in each .333 paces +mil is "atin for .333,. 1he 4anes were a seafarin people and particularly interested in *nowin the depth of water in shippin channels. 1hey measured soundin s in fathoms +the distance from the tip of the middle fin er on one hand to the tip of the middle fin er on the other, so na#i ators could easily #isuali5e how much clearance their boats would ha#e. In )n land distances were defined with reference to body features of the *in . A yard was the circumference of his waist, an inch was the width of his thumb, and a foot the len th of his foot. )n lish farmers, howe#er, estimated len ths in somethin they could more easily relate to: furlon s, the len th of an a#era e plowed furrow. Many )n lish units are specific to certain professions or trades. A sea captain reports distances in nautical miles and depths in fathoms, while a horse trainer measures hei ht in hands and distance in furlon s. Unfortunately, most people ha#e no idea what nautical miles, fathoms, hands, or furlon s are because they only use the more common measures of miles, yards, inches. 1he early )n lish settlers brou ht the Customary system of measurement with them to the American colonies. Althou h the Customary system is still widely used in America, scientists prefer to use the metric system. Unli*e the )n lish +Customary, system, the metric system did not e#ol#e from a #ariety of ancient measurement systems, but was a lo ical, simplified system de#eloped in )urope durin the se#enteenth and ei hteenth centuries. 1he metric system is now the mandatory system of measurement in e#ery country of the world e'cept the United States, "iberia and %urma +Myanmar,. In .673, an international conference was called to standardi5e the metric system. 1he international System of Units +SI, was established in which all units of measurement are based upon se#en base units: meter +distance,, *ilo ram +mass,, second +time,, ampere +electrical current,, 8el#in +temperature,, mole +&uantity,, and candela +luminous intensity,. 1he metric system simplifies measurement by usin a sin le base unit for each &uantity and by establishin decimal relationships amon the #arious units of that same &uantity. (or e'ample, the meter is the base unit of len th and other necessary units are simple multiples or sub-multiples:

. meter / 3.33. *ilometer / .,333 millimeters /.,333,333 micrometers / .,333,333,333 nanometers 1he table . shows the SI prefi'es and symbols. 1hrou hout this boo* we use the metric system of measurement. Table 1: SI Prefixes and Symbols Decimal Representation Prefix .,333,333,333,333,333,333 .,333,333,333,333,333 .,333,333,333,333 .,333,333,333 .,333,333 .,333 .33 .3 . 3.. 3.3. 3.33. 3.333 33. 3.333 333 33. 3.333 333 333 33. 3.333 333 333 333 33. 3.333 333 333 333 333 33. e'a peta tera i a me a *ilo hecto de*a deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto

Factor .3.0 .3.9 .3.2 .36 .37 .3< .32 .3. .33 .3-. .3-2 .3-< .3-7 .3-6 .3-.2 .3-.9 .3-.0

Symbol ) : 1 ; M * h da d c m m n p f a

Unit: =ou measure thin s by definin a standard unit and then statin the measurement in terms of multiples of that unit. A unit of measurement is a definite ma nitude of a physical &uantity, defined and adopted by con#ention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical &uantity. Any other #alue of the physical &uantity can be e'pressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement. (undamental or %ase Units and 4eri#ed Units: A fundamental unit of measurement is a defined unit that cannot be described as a function of other units. >ot all &uantities re&uire a unit of their own. Usin physical laws, units of &uantities can be e'pressed as combinations of units of other &uantities. 1hus only a small set of units is re&uired. 1hese units are ta*en as the base units. ?ther units are deri#ed units. 4eri#ed units are a matter of con#enience, as they can be e'pressed in terms of basic units. $hich units are considered base units is a matter of choice.

International System of Units 1he International System of Units +SI, defines se#en fundamental units of measurement. SI base units 1he International System of Units +SI, defined se#en basic units of measure from which all other SI units are deri#ed. 1hese SI base units or commonly called metric units are: Measure 1ime "en th or distance Mass )lectric Current 1emperature "uminous Intensity Amount of Substance Unit Second Meter or Metre 8ilo ram Ampere 8el#in Candela Mole s m * A 8 cd mol Symbol Area of Science All All :hysics :hysics :hysics ?ptics Chemistry

:lane an le: 2adian describes the plane an le subtended by a circular arc as the len th of the arc di#ided by the radius of the arc. ?ne radian is the an le subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is e&ual in len th to the radius of the circle. More enerally, the ma nitude in radians of such a subtended an le is e&ual to the ratio of the arc len th to the radius of the circle- that is, @ / s Ar, where @ is the subtended an le in radians, s is arc len th, and r is radius. Con#ersely, the len th of the enclosed arc is e&ual to the radius multiplied by the ma nitude of the an le in radians- that is, s / r@. As the ratio of two len ths, the radian is a Bpure numberB that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical writin the symbol BradB is almost always omitted. In the absence of any symbol radians are assumed, and when de rees are meant the symbol C is used. A complete re#olution is 2D radians +shown here with a circle of radius one and thus circumference 2D,. It follows that the ma nitude in radians of one complete re#olution +<73 de rees, is the len th of the entire circumference di#ided by the radius, or 2Dr Ar, or 2D. 1hus 2D radians is e&ual to <73 de rees, meanin that one radian is e&ual to .03AD de rees. Solid An le: In eometry, a solid an le +symbol: E, is the two-dimensional an le in three-dimensional space that an ob!ect subtends at a point. It is a measure of how lar e the ob!ect appears to an obser#er loo*in from that point. In the SI System of Units, a solid an le is a dimensionless unit of measurement called a steradian +symbol: sr,. Problem areas 1here are some #ariations or problem areas in these fundamental units:

"en th: Althou h multiples or fractions of a meter are useful in most sciences, the unit is impractical in Astronomy. Instead, the fundamental unit of len th in Astronomy is the li ht-year, which is the distance that li ht tra#els in *ilometers in one year. Mass: It would seem more intuiti#e to define the fundamental of mass as a ram. Fowe#er, the SI decision was to say that .333 rams or a *ilo ram was fundamental. )lectric current: Since electric current is man-made and depends on a number of factors, the ampere does not seem appropriate as a fundamental unit. 1he ampere is defined as: B1he constant current which, if maintained in two strai ht parallel conductors of infinite len th, of ne li ible circular crosssection, and placed . meter apart in a #acuum, would produce between these conductors a force e&ual to 2 G .3HI >ewton per meter of len th.B Measurement of Length Measurement of "ar e 4istances: :aralla' Method In order to calculate how far away a star is, astronomers use a method called paralla'. %ecause of the )arthJs re#olution about the sun, near stars seem to shift their position a ainst the farther stars. 1his is called paralla' shift. %y obser#in the distance of the shift and *nowin the diameter of the )arthJs orbit, astronomers are able to calculate the paralla' an le across the s*y. 1he smaller the paralla' shift, the farther away from earth the star is. 1his method is only accurate for stars within a few hundred li ht-years of )arth. $hen the stars are #ery far away, the paralla' shift is too small to measure.

Measurement of Kery Small 4istances See power point 2an e of "en ths Measurement of Mass Unified Atomic Mass Unit 1he standard L throu hout chemistry, physics, biolo y, etc L is the unified atomic mass unit +symbol u,. It is defined as .A.2 +one-twelfth, of the mass of an isolated carbon-.2 atom. 1he symbol amu, which stands for atomic mass unit is defined in terms of o'y en As itMs a unit of mass, the atomic mass unit +u, has a #alue, in *ilo rams / ..773 9<0 I02+0<, ' .3-2I * . 1he *ilo ram is defined in terms of a bar of platinum-iridium alloy, sittin in a #ault in :aris. It is important to reco ni5e that the unified atomic mass unit is not an SI unit, but one that is accepted for use with the SI. 1he *ilo ram and unified atomic mass unit are related #ia a primary SI unit, the mole, which is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 3.3.2 *ilo ram of carbon .2. 1he number of atoms there are in a mole of an element is i#en by A#o adroMs number. 1he 4alton +symbol 4, or 4a, is the same as the unified atomic mass unit. In microbiolo y and biochemistry, many molecules ha#e hundreds, or thousands, of constituent atoms, so itMs con#enient to state their masses in terms of Nthousands of unified atomic mass unitsM, so the con#ention is to use *4a +*ilodaltons,. Range of Masses Measurement of 1ime Fumans ha#e been measurin time for a relati#ely short period in our lon history. 1he desire to synchroni5e our acti#ities came about 9,333 or 7,333 years a o as our nomadic ancestors be an to settle and build ci#ili5ations Osource: %ea leP. %efore that, we di#ided time only into dayli ht and ni ht, with bri ht days for huntin and wor*in and dar* ni hts for sleepin . %ut as people be an to feel the need to coordinate their actions, to be prompt for public atherin s and such, they needed a unified system of *eepin time. %ut e#en the best mechanical pendulums and &uart5 crystal-based cloc*s de#elop discrepancies. (ar better for time*eepin is the natural and e'act B#ibrationB in an ener i5ed atom. $hen e'posed to certain fre&uencies of radiation, such as radio wa#es, the subatomic particles called electrons that orbit an atomJs nucleus will B!umpB bac* and forth between ener y states. Cloc*s based on this !umpin within atoms can therefore pro#ide an e'tremely precise way to count seconds. It is no surprise then that the international standard for the len th of one second is based on atoms. Since .67I, the official definition of a second is 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles of the radiation that ets an atom of the element called cesium to #ibrate between two ener y states.

Inside a cesium atomic cloc*, cesium atoms are funneled down a tube where they pass throu h radio wa#es . If this fre&uency is !ust ri ht 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles per second then the cesium atoms BresonateB and chan e their ener y state. A detector at the end of the tube *eeps trac* of the number of cesium atoms reachin it that ha#e chan ed their ener y states. 1he more finely tuned the radio wa#e fre&uency is to 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles per second, the more cesium atoms reach the detector. 1he detector feeds information bac* into the radio wa#e enerator. It synchroni5es the fre&uency of the radio wa#es with the pea* number of cesium atoms stri*in it. ?ther electronics in the atomic cloc* count this fre&uency. As with a sin le swin of the pendulum, a second is tic*ed off when the fre&uency count is met. 1he first &uality atomic cloc*s made in the .693s were based on cesium, and such cloc*s honed to reater precisions o#er the decades remain the basis used to *eep official time throu hout the world. In the United States, the top cloc*s are maintained by the >ational Institutes of Standards and 1echnolo y +>IS1, in %oulder, Colo., and the United States >a#al ?bser#atory +US>?, in $ashin ton, 4.C. 1he >IS1-(. cesium atomic cloc* can produce a fre&uency so precise that its time error per day is about 3.3< nanoseconds, which means that the cloc* would lose one second in .33 million years. Super-accurate time*eepin is inte ral to many elements of modern life, such as hi hspeed electronic communications, electrical rids and the ;lobal :ositionin System +;:S, and of course *nowin when your fa#orite tele#ision show comes on. 1he second +symbol: s, is the base unit of time in the International System of Units +SI, O.P and is also a unit of time in other systems of measurement +abbre#iated s or secO2P,- it is the second di#ision of the hour by si'ty, the first di#ision by 73 bein the minute.O<P %etween A4 .333 +when al-%iruni used seconds, and .673 the second was defined as .A07,Q33 of a mean solar day +that definition still applies in some astronomical and le al conte'ts,.OQPO9P %etween .673 and .67I, it was defined in terms of the period of the )arthJs orbit around the Sun in .633,O7P but it is now defined more precisely in atomic terms. Seconds may be measured usin mechanical, electric or atomic cloc*s. Astronomical obser#ations of the .6th and 23th centuries re#ealed that the mean solar day is slowly but measurably len thenin and the len th of a tropical year is not entirely predictable either- thus the sunLearth motion is no lon er considered a suitable basis for definition. $ith the ad#ent of atomic cloc*s, it became feasible to define the second based on fundamental properties of nature. Since .67I, the second has been defined to be:

the duration of 6.627<.II3 periods of the radiation correspondin to the transition between the two hyperfine le#els of the round state of the caesium .<< atom.O.P In .66I, the CI:M affirmed that the precedin definition Brefers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 3 8.BO.P SI prefi'es are fre&uently combined with the word second to denote subdi#isions of the second, e. ., the millisecond +one thousandth of a second,, the microsecond +one millionth of a second,, and the nanosecond +one billionth of a second,. 1hou h SI prefi'es may also be used to form multiples of the second such as *ilosecond +one thousand seconds,, such units are rarely used in practice. 1he more common lar er nonSI units of time are not formed by powers of ten- instead, the second is multiplied by 73 to form a minute, which is multiplied by 73 to form an hour, which is multiplied by 2Q to form a day. 1he second is also the base unit of time in the centimetre- ram-second, metre-*ilo ramsecond, metre-tonne-second, and foot-pound-second systems of units. Unit of time +second, Abbre#iations: C;:M, CI:M, %I:M 1he unit of time, the second, was defined ori inally as the fraction .A07 Q33 of the mean solar day. 1he e'act definition of Bmean solar dayB was left to astronomical theories. Fowe#er, measurement showed that irre ularities in the rotation of the )arth could not be ta*en into account by the theory and ha#e the effect that this definition does not allow the re&uired accuracy to be achie#ed. In order to define the unit of time more precisely, the ..th C;:M +.673, adopted a definition i#en by the International Astronomical Union which was based on the tropical year. )'perimental wor* had, howe#er, already shown that an atomic standard of time-inter#al, based on a transition between two ener y le#els of an atom or a molecule, could be reali5ed and reproduced much more precisely. Considerin that a #ery precise definition of the unit of time is indispensable for the International System, the .<th C;:M +.67I, decided to replace the definition of the second by the followin +affirmed by the CI:M in .66I that this definition refers to a cesium atom in its round state at a temperature of 3 8,: 1he second is the duration of 6 .62 7<. II3 periods of the radiation correspondin to the transition between the two hyperfine le#els of the round state of the cesium .<< atom. 1ime is one of the se#en fundamental physical &uantities in the International System of Units. 1ime is used to define other &uantities L such as #elocity L so definin time in terms of such &uantities would result in circularity of definition.O2QP An operational definition of time, wherein one says that obser#in a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical e#ent +such as the passa e of a free-swin in pendulum, constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is hi hly useful in the conduct of both ad#anced e'periments and e#eryday affairs of life. 1he operational definition lea#es aside the &uestion whether there is somethin called time, apart from the countin acti#ity !ust

mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. In#esti ations of a sin le continuum called spacetime brin &uestions about space into &uestions about time, &uestions that ha#e their roots in the wor*s of early students of natural philosophy. Accuracy, :recision of Instruments and )rrors in Measurement )rror: 1he actual difference between a measurement #alue and the *nown standard #alue. )rror in the measurement of a physical &uantity is its de#iation from actual #alue. If an e'perimenter *new the error, he or she would correct it and it would no lon er be an error. In other words, the real errors in e'perimental data are those factors that are always #a ue to some e'tent and carry some amount of uncertainty. A reasonable definition of e'perimental uncertainty may be ta*en as the possible #alue the error may ha#e. 1he uncertainty may #ary a reat deal dependin upon the circumstances of the e'periment. :erhaps it is better to spea* of e'perimental uncertainty instead of e'perimental error because the ma nitude of an error is uncertain. Accuracy: 1he accuracy of a measurement system is the de ree of closeness of measurements of a &uantity to that &uantityJs actual #alue.. :recision: 1he precision of a measurement system, related to reproducibility and repeatability, is the de ree to which repeated measurements under unchan ed conditions show the same results Systematic rrors At this point, we may mention some of the types of errors that cause uncertainty is an e'perimental in measurement. (irst, there can always be those ross blunders in apparatus or instrument construction which may in#alidate the data. Second, there may be certain fi'ed errors which will cause repeated readin s to be in error by rou hly some amount but for some un*nown reasons. 1hese are sometimes called systematic errors. 1hird, there are the random errors, which may be caused by personal fluctuation, random electronic fluctuation in apparatus or instruments, #arious influences of friction, etc. 1hese are inherent errors of apparatus or method. 1hese errors always i#e a constant de#iation. ?n the basis of the sources of errors, systematic errors may be di#ided into followin sub-cate ories: Instrumental rrors >one of the apparatus can be constructed to satisfy all specifications completely. 1his is the reason of i#in uarantee within a limit. 1herefore, a manufacturers always mention the minimum possible errors in the construction of the instruments. Im!erfections in x!erimental Techni"ue or Procedure (ollowin are some of the reasons of errors in results of the indicatin instruments : +a, Construction of the Scale : 1here is a possibility of error due to the di#ision of the scale not bein uniform and clear. +b, (itness and Strai htness of the :ointer : If the pointer is not fine and strai ht, then it always i#es the error in the readin . +c, :aralla' : $ithout a mirror under the pointer there may be paralla' error in readin . +d, )fficiency or S*illness of the ?bser#er : )rror in the readin is lar ely dependent upon the s*illness of the obser#er by which readin is noted accurately. Personal rrors

It is due to the indefiniteness in final ad!ustment of measurin apparatus. (or e'ample, Ma'well %rid e method of measurin inductances, it is difficult to find the differences in sound of head phones for small chan e in resistance at the time of final ad!ustment. 1he error #aries from person to person. Random rrors After corrections ha#e been applied for all the parameters whose influences are *nown, there is left a residue of de#iation. 1hese are random error and their ma nitudes are not constant. :ersons performin the e'periment ha#e no control o#er the ori in of these errors. 1hese errors are due to so many reasons such as noise and fati ue in the wor*in persons. 1hese errors may be either positi#e or ne ati#e. 1o these errors the law of probability may be applied. ;enerally, these errors may be minimi5ed by ta*in a#era e of a lar e number of readin s. "east Count )rror 1he B"east CountB of any measurin e&uipment is the smallest &uantity that can be measured accurately usin that instrument.1hus "east Count indicates the de ree of accuracy of measurement that can be achie#ed by the measurin instrument. All measurin instruments used in physics ha#e a least count. A meter rulerJs least count is 3.. centimeter- an electronic scale has a least count of 3.33. , althou h this may #arya #ernier caliper has a least count of 3.32 millimeters, althou h this too may #ary- and micrometer screw au eJs least count is 3.3. millimeter and of course a con#entional ruler has .3.m. 1he "east Count is the discrimination of a #ernier instrument. All measurin instruments used in the sub!ect of physics can be used to measure #arious types of ob!ects, but all do so without considerin the detail of accuracy. >o measurin instrument used in physics is accurate and always has an error when readin s are ta*en. )#en the latest technolo y used in measurin ob!ects also ha#e an error where readin are concerned. Karious names can be i#en to this error. 1he "east Count, uncertainty or ma'imum possible error are the terms normally used in a physics course, althou h this may #ary with different syllabuses. 1he error made in an instrument can be compared with another by calculatin the percenta e uncertainty of each of the readin s obtained. 1he one with the least uncertainty is always ta*en to measure ob!ects, as all measurements are re&uired with accuracy in mind. 1he percenta e uncertainty is calculated with the followin formula: +Ma'imum :ossible errorAMeasurement of the ?b!ect in &uestion, R.33 1he smaller the measurement, the lar er the percenta e uncertainty. 1he least count of an instrument is indirectly proportional to the accuracy of the instrument. Absolute rror# Relati$e rror and Percentage rror Absolute )rror: Absolute error is defined as the ma nitude of difference between the actual and the indi#idual #alues of any &uantity in &uestion. Say we measure any i#en &uantity for n number of times and a., a2 , a< S..an are the indi#idual #alues then:

Arithmetic mean am / Oa.Ta2Ta<T .....anPAn am/

n
i= .

i =n

ai

4efinition of absolute error: 1he ma nitude of the difference between the indi#idual measurements and the true #alue of the &uantity is called the absolute error of the measurement. %y definition: Ua./ am L a. Ua2/ am L a2 S am L an Mean Absolute )rror / Uamean/ ai A n
i =. i =n

>ote: $hile calculatin absolute mean #alue, we do not consider the T- si n in its #alue. Relati$e rror or %ractional rror: 1his is defined as the ration of mean absolute error to the mean #alue of the measured &uantity: Va /mean absolute #alueAmean #alue / UameanAam Percentage rror: It is the relati#e error measured in percenta e. :ercenta e )rror /mean absolute #alueAmean #alue ' .33/ UameanAam'.33 Significant %igures 1he number of si nificant fi ures in a result is simply the number of fi ures that are *nown with some de ree of reliability. 1he number .<.2 is said to ha#e < si nificant fi ures. 1he number .<.23 is said to ha#e Q si nificant fi ures. Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured "uantity: +., All non5ero di its are si nificant: ..2<Q has Q si nificant fi ures, ..2 has 2 si nificant fi ures. +2, Weroes between non5ero di its are si nificant: .332 * has Q si nificant fi ures, <.3I m" has < si nificant fi ures. +<, "eadin 5eros to the left of the first non5ero di its are not si nificant- such 5eroes merely indicate the position of the decimal point:

3.33. oC has only . si nificant fi ure, 3.3.2 has 2 si nificant fi ures. +Q, 1railin 5eroes that are also to the ri ht of a decimal point in a number are si nificant: 3.32<3 m" has < si nificant fi ures, 3.23 has 2 si nificant fi ures. +9, $hen a number ends in 5eroes that are not to the ri ht of a decimal point, the 5eroes are not necessarily si nificant: .63 miles may be 2 or < si nificant fi ures, 93,733 calories may be <, Q, or 9 si nificant fi ures. 1he potential ambi uity in the last rule can be a#oided by the use of standard e'ponential, or Bscientific,B notation. (or e'ample, dependin on whether the number of si nificant fi ures is <, Q, or 9, we would write 93,733 calories as: 9.37 G .3Q calories +< si nificant fi ures, 9.373 G .3Q calories +Q si nificant fi ures,, or 9.3733 G .3Q calories +9 si nificant fi ures,. %y writin a number in scientific notation, the number of si nificant fi ures is clearly indicated by the number of numerical fi ures in the Jdi itJ term as shown by these e'amples. 1his approach is a reasonable con#ention to follow. $hat is an Be'act numberBX Some numbers are e'act because they are *nown with complete certainty. Most e'act numbers are inte ers: e'actly .2 inches are in a foot, there mi ht be e'actly 2< students in a class. )'act numbers are often found as con#ersion factors or as counts of ob!ects. )'act numbers can be considered to ha#e an infinite number of si nificant fi ures. 1hus, the number of apparent si nificant fi ures in any e'act number can be i nored as a limitin factor in determinin the number of si nificant fi ures in the result of a calculation. 2ules for mathematical operations In carryin out calculations, the eneral rule is that the accuracy of a calculated result is limited by the least accurate measurement in#ol#ed in the calculation. +., In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off to the last common di it occurrin furthest to the ri ht in all components. Another way to state this rule is as

follows: in addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so that it has the same number of di its as the measurement ha#in the fewest decimal places +countin from left to ri ht,. (or e'ample, .33 +assume < si nificant fi ures, T 2<.7Q< +9 si nificant fi ures, / .2<.7Q<, which should be rounded to .2Q +< si nificant fi ures,. >ote, howe#er, that it is possible two numbers ha#e no common di its +si nificant fi ures in the same di it column,. +2, In multiplication and di#ision, the result should be rounded off so as to ha#e the same number of si nificant fi ures as in the component with the least number of si nificant fi ures. (or e'ample, <.3 +2 si nificant fi ures , G .2.73 +Q si nificant fi ures, / <I.0333 which should be rounded to <0 +2 si nificant fi ures,. Rules for rounding off numbers +., If the di it to be dropped is reater than 9, the last retained di it is increased by one. (or e'ample, .2.7 is rounded to .<. +2, If the di it to be dropped is less than 9, the last remainin di it is left as it is. (or e'ample, .2.Q is rounded to .2. +<, If the di it to be dropped is 9, and if any di it followin it is not 5ero, the last remainin di it is increased by one. (or e'ample, .2.9. is rounded to .<. +Q, If the di it to be dropped is 9 and is followed only by 5eroes, the last remainin di it is increased by one if it is odd, but left as it is if e#en. (or e'ample, ...9 is rounded to .2, .2.9 is rounded to .2. 1his rule means that if the di it to be dropped is 9 followed only by 5eroes, the result is always rounded to the e#en di it. 1he rationale for this rule is to a#oid bias in roundin : half of the time we round up, half the time we round down. Sam!le !roblems on significant figures

Instructions: print a copy of this pa e and wor* the problems. $hen you are ready to chec* your answers, o to the ne't pa e. .. 2. <. Q. 9. 7. I. 0. 6. .3. ... .2. <I.I7 T <.63I T 227.Q / X <.6..9 - <2.7.Q / X .3Q.7<3 T 2I.30<72 T 3.7. / X .29 - 3.2< T Q..36 / X 2.32 G 2.9 / X 733.3 A 9.2<32 / X 3.33<2 G 2I< / X +9.9,< / X 3.997 G +Q3 - <2.9, / X Q9 G <.33 / X $hat is the a#era e of 3..I3I, 3..I.<, 3..I23, 3..I3Q, and 3..I.9X $hat is the standard de#iation of the numbers in &uestion ..X .<. <.33 ' .39 - ..9 ' .32 / X +;i#e the e'act numerical result, and then e'press that result to the correct number of si nificant fi ures,.

Answer *ey to sample problems on si nificant fi ures .. 2. <. Q. 9. 7. I. <I.I7 T <.63I T 227.Q / 270.. <.6..9 - <2.7.Q / 207.9Q .3Q.7<3 T 2I.30<72 T 3.7. / .<2.<2 .29 - 3.2< T Q..36 / .26 +assumin that .29 has < si nificant fi ures,. 2.32 G 2.9 / 9.3 733.3 A 9.2<32 / ..Q.I 3.33<2 G 2I< / 3.0I

0. 6.

+9.9,< / ..I ' .32 3.997 G +Q3 - <2.9, / Q

.3. Q9 G <.33 / ..Q ' .32 1his answer assumes that Q9 has two si nificant fi ures- howe#er, that is not unambi uous, because there is no decimal point, and because it is not e'pressed in scientific notation. If Q9 is an e'act number +e. ., a count,, then the result should be ..<9 ' .32. ... $hat is the a#era e of 3..I3I, 3..I.<, 3..I23, 3..I3Q, and 3..I.9X 1he a#era e of these numbers is calculated to be 3..I..0, which rounds to 3..I.2 . .2. $hat is the standard de#iation of the numbers in &uestion ..X 1he result that you et in calculatin the standard de#iation of these numbers depends on the number of di its retained in the intermediate di its of the calculation. (or e'ample, if you used 3..I.2 instead of the more accurate 3..I..0 as the mean in the standard de#iation calculation, that would be wron +donJt round intermediate results or you will introduce propa ated error into your calculations,. 1he Mathwor*s MA1"A% std function i#es 7.<I6799.7<36Q7<6e-33Q Microsoft )'cel i#es 3.3337<I6799.7<36Q7Q333333333333 A Fewlett-:ac*ard 93; calculator i#es 7.<I6799.7<36e-3Q 1hese results should be rounded to 3.3337<03, which is 7.<03 ' .3-Q +e'pressed in scientific notation,. .<. <.33 ' .39 - ..9 ' .32 / X +;i#e the e'act numerical result, and then e'press that result to the correct number of si nificant fi ures,. 4oin the math ri ht is the first step. 1hen, clic* here to send your answer and to recei#e an answer *ey and e'planation by email. &imensions 1hey are the powers +or e'ponents, to which the units of base &uantities are raised for representin a deri#ed unit of that &uantity. )'amples: 4imensional formula of #olume OM3"<13P 4imensional formula of #elocity OM3"1H.P 4imensional formula of acceleration OM3"1H2P &imensions of Physical 'uantities

:hysical dimension is a eneric description of the *ind of &uantity bein measured. :hysical dimension is an inherent and un#aryin property for a i#en &uantity. A i#en &uantity can only e#er ha#e one specific physical dimension. 1he con#erse, howe#er, is not true: different physical &uantities can ha#e the same physical dimension. xam!les: Y 1he hei ht of a buildin , the diameter of a proton, the distance from the )arth to the Moon, and the thic*ness of a piece of paper all in#ol#e a measurement of a len th, ", of some *ind. 1hey are all measured in different ways, and mi ht ha#e their #alues assi ned usin different units, but they all share the common feature of bein a *ind of len th. Y 1ime inter#als, timestamps, or any other measurement characteri5in duration, all share the common feature of ha#in a physical dimension of time, 1. =ou will ne#er be able to assi n a #alue to a time coordinate usin units of len thZlen th and time are fundamentally distinct and ine&ui#alent physical dimensions. $hen we tal* about a &uantityMs physical dimension, usin symbols such as " for len th, or 1 for time, we are not usin those symbols to represent an actual #ariableZwe will not assi n any particular #alues or use any specific units for those symbols. Instead, when we write, [this &uantity has physical dimension "\, the symbol " really !ust means [S ha#in a len th unit\. 1o ma*e this distinction e'plicit, we will henceforth set aside symbols in s&uare brac*ets whene#er ma*in a statement about physical dimensions. So: all distances, len ths, hei hts, and widths ha#e dimension of len th, O"P, all timestamps and time inter#als ha#e dimension of time, O1P, and so forth. 1he physical dimension of a &uantity is determined by how we measure that &uantityZand to do that, we need to define an appropriate unit for the measurement. $e can ma*e different choices for the units we use +e. . the SI system #ersus the %ritish )n ineerin system, %),, but whate#er those alternati#e unit choices are, they must all ha#e the same physical dimension. (or e'ample: meters, inches, furlon s, and nautical miles are all #ery different units, but the all share the common feature of bein len ths, O"P. http:AAcbse-notes.blo spot.inA23.2A39Acbse-class-'i-physics-ch2-dimension.html 4imensional (ormulae and 4imensional )&uations 4imensional (ormula :4imensional formula of a deri#ed physical &uantity is the [e'pression showin powers to which different fundamental units are raised\. )' : 4imensional formula of (orce ( OM]."].1]^-2_P 4imensional e&uation:$hen the dimensional formula of a physical &uantity is e'pressed in the form of an e&uation by writin the physical &uantity on the left hand side and the dimensional formula on the ri ht hand side,then the resultant e&uation is called 4imensional e&uation. )': 4imensional e&uation of )ner y is ) / OM]."]21]^-2_P . `uestion : Fow can you deri#e 4imensional formula of a deri#ed physical &uantity. Ans : $e can deri#e dimensional formula of any deri#ed physical &uantity in two ways

i,Usin the formula of the physical &uantity : )': let us deri#e dimensional formula of (orce . (orce (ma - substitute the dimensional formula of mass m OMP - acceleration O"1]^-2_P we et ( OMPO" 1]^-2_P- ( OM]."].1]^-2_P . ii, Usin the units of the deri#ed physical &uantity. )': let us deri#e the dimensional formula of momentum. Unit of Momentum + p , O* -m sec]^-._P * is unit of mass OMP - is unit of len th O"P - sec is the unit of time O1P Substitute these dimensional formulas in abo#e e&uation we et p OM]."].1]^-._P. Y `uantities ha#in no units, can not possess dimensions: 1ri onometric ratios, lo arithmic functions, e'ponential functions, coefficient of friction, strain, poissonMs ratio, specific ra#ity, refracti#e inde', 2elati#e permitti#ity, 2elati#e permeability. All these &uantities ni hter possess units nor dimensional formulas. Y `uantities ha#in units, but no dimensions : :lane an le,an ular displacement, solid an le.1hese physical &uantities possess units but they does not possess dimensional formulas. Y `uantities ha#in both units a dimensions : 1he followin &uantities are e'amples of such &uantities. Area, Kolume,4ensity, Speed, Kelocity, Acceleration, (orce, )ner y etc. &imensional Analysis and its A!!lications 4imensional Analysis ?nly &uantities with li*e dimensions may be added+T,, subtracted+-, or compared +/,b,c,. 1his rule pro#ides a powerful tool for chec*in whether or not e&uations are dimensionally consistent. It is also possible to use dimensional analysis to su est plausible e&uations when we *now which &uantities are in#ol#ed. )'ample of chec*in for dimensional consistency Consider one of the e&uations of constant acceleration, s / ut T .A2 at2. +., 1he e&uation contains three terms: s, ut and .A2at2. All three terms must ha#e the same dimensions.

s: displacement / a unit of len th, " ut: #elocity ' time / "1-. ' 1 / " .A2at2 / acceleration ' time / "1-2 ' 12 / " All three terms ha#e units of len th and hence this e&uation is dimensionally #alid. ?f course this does not tell us if the e&uation is physically correct, nor does it tell us whether the constant .A2 is correct or not. (hec)ing the &imensional (onsistency of "uations %ased on the principle of homo eneity of dimensions Accordin to this principle, only that formula is correct in which the dimensions of the #arious terms on one side of the relation are e&ual to the respecti#e dimensions of these terms on the other side of the relation. )'ample: Chec* the correctness of the relation, where l is len th and t is time period of a simple pendulum- is acceleration due to ra#ity. Solution: 4imension of ".F.S / t / O1P 4imension of 2.F.S / +2D is a constant, 4imensionally, ".F.S / 2.F.S- therefore, the i#en relation is correct. As stated abo#e, in physics we deri#e the physical &uantities of interest from the set of fundamental &uantities of len th, mass, and time. $hen a &uantity is bro*en down to its ma*eup in terms of the fundamental &uantities we call this brea*down its dimension. 1he dimension, therefore, represents the fundamental type of the &uantity. $hen indicatin the dimension of a &uantity only, we use capital letters and enclose them in brac*ets. 1hus, the dimension of len th is represented by O"P, mass by OMP, and time O1P. $e use a lot of e&uations in physics- these e&uations must be dimensionally consistent. It is e'tremely useful to perform a dimensional analysis on any e&uation about which you are unsure. If the dimensional consistency is not there, it cannot be a correct e&uation. 1he rules are simple: 1wo &uantities can only be added or subtracted if they are of the same dimension. 1wo &uantities can only be e&ual if they are of the same dimension.

>otice that only the dimension needs to be the same, not the units. It is perfectly #alid to write .2 inches / . foot because both of them are len ths, O"P / O"P, e#en thou h their units are different. Fowe#er, it is not #alid to write ' inches / t seconds because they ha#e different dimensions, O"P O1P. &educing Relationshi!s among Physical 'uantities %ased on the principle of homo eneity of dimensions Y )'ample: 1he centripetal force, ( actin on a particle mo#in uniformly in a circle may depend upon the mass +m,, #elocity +#, and radius +r, of the circle. 4eri#e the formula for ( usin the method of dimensions. Solution: "et ( / *ma#brc S +i, $here, * is the dimensionless constant of proportionality, and a, b, c are the powers of m, #, r respecti#ely. ?n writin the dimensions of #arious &uantities in +i,, we et OM.".1H2P / Ma O"1H.Pb "c / Ma"b1Hb"c M.".1H2 / Ma"b T c1Hb ?n applyin the principle of homo eneity of dimensions, we et a / ., b/ 2, b T c / . S+ii, (rom +ii,, c / . H b / . H 2 / H. ?n puttin these #alues in +i,, we et ( / *m.#2rH. ?2 1his is the re&uired relation for centripetal force.