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1
Fig.1: Isp range of chemical propulsion
* Hybrids are liquid/solid bipropellants. Isp- ture ratios are free of Hydrogen combustion products
performance covers a broad range from low- to high- even in very complex mixtures (4)(5). Using liquid
energy. Hypergolic combinations such as Ozone rather than LOX and BeH2 rather than Be
HNO3/Amine-fuel (not shown in Fig.1) are found at (both are endothermic compounds) one obtains prob-
the lower end. Semi-cryogenic hybrids include envi- ably the highest known Isp of conventional chemical
ronmentally benign, medium energy combinations propellants.
(e.g. LOX/Polyethylene, PE, not shown). The solid
* The concept of modular dissected cryogenic solid-
fuel in regular hybrids lends itself for adding metals.
rocket propellant grains (CSPs) provides a means for,
Among others, the formation of the Oxides and Fluo-
in principle, realizing a l l propellant combinations
rides of Beryllium, Lithium, Boron, and Aluminum
as solid propellant motors. This includes, under cer-
yields the highest known mass-specific heats of for-
tain provisions, propellants that are hypergolic liquids
mation. Powders of these metals can be mixed with
at ambient temperature. If Hydrogen is to be used,
solid fuels or can be introduced as hydrides if such
temperatures well below 14K (25R) are required.
exist in solid state. Thus, regular hybrids cover a
This kind of cryogenic solids is the main subject of
broad range on the scale of Isps.
investigations at Berlin University of Technology's
Metal combustion does not make much sense without Aerospace Institute (6)(7)(8).
molecular weight reduction. This can be achieved by
Super High Energy Propellants (SHEPs) employ
an excess of Hydrogen. Metal-rich solid propellants
metastable chemical species. Known examples are
used for Hydrogen heating are a special category of
atomic Hydrogen and other atomic species, free radi-
bipropellants and were dubbed "Quasi-hybrids" (2).
cals and excited species. If storable, they could push
Using extra Hydrogen in addition to some other fuel,
the upper limit of chemical propulsion by a factor of 4
one obtains three component combinations also
to 5 beyond the bounds shown in Fig.1. Matrix isola-
called tripropellants. Hybrids with highly metalized
tion is one method of storing SHEPs. In the case of
fuel grain are excellent means for heating excess Hy-
some of the more sensitive species it is believed that
drogen (3) and were called tribrids. Most of the met-
matrix isolation needs extremely low temperatures
als in question can easily reduce H2O under combus-
along with strong magnetic fields. Cryogenic solids are
tion chamber conditions. Hence it can be demonstrat- being studied at USAF in the High Energy Density
ed that the combustion products at maximum Isp mix- Matter Program, which considers solid Hydrogen
2
doped with SHEPs and burned in hybrid manner with
liquid Oxygen, see (10). Such elements could easily be
included in the modular CSPs suggested in this article. Tab.1: Theoretical performance of SOX/SH2 propel-
lants at 68:1 equilibrium expansion (9)
propellants
Isp [m/s]
3800
SOX/SH2 E
3700
CSPs are much colder than liquids and hence con-
tain less energy resulting in lower Isp performance. 3600
However, a more detailed calculation shows that the
missing heats of liquefaction are small compared with
3500
F
the overall heat content and therefor the differences are
small. Fig.2 shows the situation for SOX/SH2: even
3400
when subcooled to 2K (3,6R), the difference to
LOX/LH2 performance is only 0,5%!
3300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
O/F
3830
Froz en Fl ow
Equil ibrium Fl ow
3820
3810
Fig.3: Mass-specific impulse of SOx/SH2 as function
of O/F mass ratio at 68:1 equilibrium expansion (7)
3800
3790
In general, the density of solids is higher than the one
of liquids. This is also true for Oxygen and Hydrogen
3780
(see Fig.5). As a consequence, the slight Isp reduction
3770
found for CSPs is more than offset when volume spe-
3760
Liqui d Soli d, 14 K Soli d, 2K
cific Isps are compared (see Fig.6).
Fig.2: Mass specific impulse [m/sec] of O2/H2 propel- CSPs instead of slurries
lants at optimum mixture ratio, standard 68:1 equili-
brium expansion (7)
Frozen Hydrogen provides for easy mixing with denser
materials. There is no danger of separation as with
The following slurries. Propellants of the type O2/Al/H2 or O2/Mg/H2
can therefor be used as monopropellants (defined as
Tab.1 contains further data about SOX/SH2 Isps
explained above), by using solid Oxygen elements
as function of mixture ratio. As Fig.3 shows, the opti- along with frozen Hydrogen / metal suspensions.
mum mixture ratio is where one is used to find it when
Oxygen and Hydrogen are liquid. In the following Tab. 2 are shown results of calcu-
lations with such propellants. The amount of metal in
the fuel was chosen between 45 to 90%. However, the
ratio of Oxygen to Aluminum was always kept in equi-
valence according to the formation of Al2O3 due to the
O/F Ispvac,E Isp,E vg.density vol. spec. Isp, E
earlier demonstration in (3)(4)(5) that this is optimal. It
1,00 3374 3167 0,146 461 should be noted that the exhaust products near the Isp
2,00 3857 3617 0,207 748 maximum around 60 - 65% Al (corresponding to a
3,00 4034 3766 0,262 987 molar ratio of about 8, see Fig.4) are exclusively made
4,00 4093 3804 0,312 1186 up of solid Al2O3 and molecular Hydrogen. There is no
5,00 4091 3787 0,357 1353 H2O in the equilibrium at all, hence the term "Chemi-
6,00 4053 3734 0,399 1488 cal heating of Hydrogen" (as opposed to nuclear heat-
7,00 3980 3649 0,436 1593 ing, for instance).
8,00 3858 3529 0,471 1663
9,00 3714 3400 0,504 1712
10,00 3366 3117 0,533 1750
3
As can be seen in Fig.1 and Tab. 2, there is only a pellant masses over mixture ratio, Fig.6 the correspond-
small gain compared with the metal-free system. Now ing volume specific Isps (i.e. Isp times specific mass).
how about density? Fig.5 shows average specific pro-
%AL %H2 Mass ratio Molar ratio O/F Isp,E Ispvac ,E vol. spec. Avg. prop.
in fuel in fuel H2/Al H2/Al [kg SOX / [m/s] [m/s] Isp E density
kg fuel] [g|cc]
90,00 10,00 0,11 1,50 0,80 3011 3308 2416 0,8028
81,80 18,20 0,22 3,00 0,73 3472 3801 1864 0,5365
75,00 25,00 0,33 4,50 0,67 3728 4077 1541 0,4136
69,23 30,77 0,44 6,00 0,62 3837 4160 1344 0,3425
64,29 35,71 0,56 7,50 0,57 3872 4172 1147 0,2962
60,00 40,00 0,67 9,00 0,53 3861 4145 1017 0,2636
56,25 43,75 0,78 10,50 0,50 3822 4095 915 0,2395
52,94 47,06 0,89 12,00 0,47 3774 4038 833 0,2209
50,00 50,00 1,00 13,50 0,45 3722 3978 767 0,2061
47,37 52,63 1,11 15,00 0,42 3670 3918 712 0,1941
45,00 55,00 1,22 16,50 0,40 3616 3859 666 0,1841
Tab. 2: Theoretical performance of SOX/(SH2+Al) CSPs with equiv. ratio of SOX/Al. (9)
4500 3000
Isp,vac,E [m/s]
Isp,vol [kg/s,m2]
4000
3500
3000 SOX/(SH2+Al)
2500
I_ s p_ v a c _ E
I_ s p_ E
2000
2000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Mol H2/Al
SOX/SH2
Fig.4: Isp (E, 68:1) of SOX/(SH2+Al) CSPs with
LOX/LH2
equiv. ratio SOX/Al; (9)
1000
1,0
Avg. Prop. Density [g/cc]
90% Al
0
0,8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0,6
Fig.6: Volume-specific impulse of SOX/(H2±Al) as
75% Al SOX/SH2 function of O/F mass ratio at 68:1 equil. expansion; (9)
3000
0,4
LOX/LH2
Isp,vol [kg/s,m2]
90 % Al
0,2
2000
45%
Al 75
0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1000
4
Oxygen in equivalence to Aluminum. %Al refer to fuel pulsion is not a very good means for improving average
composition; (9) propellant density.
Fig.7 shows the aluminized part in more detail. Density Prod. Hf A-wght M- MJ/kg- MJ/kg
and hence Isp,vol skyrocket within a small O/F range, (solid) [Mj/kg] metal wght metal O2
because in comparison with Hydrogen, Aluminum prod.
needs ten times less Oxygen for combustion. BeO 23,948 9,013 25,013 66,462 37,439
The effect of more and more metal combustion is to Li2O 19,971 6,94 29,88 42,992 37,296
replace more and more Oxygen, rather than Hydrogen. B 2 O3 18,338 10,82 69,64 59,014 26,606
It takes 8kg Oxygen for burning 1kg of Hydrogen, but Al2O3 16,412 26,98 101,96 31,012 34,862
less than 0,9 kg for 1kg of Aluminum. Compared on a
constant total impulse basis, it would therefor take MgO 14,947 24,32 40,32 24,780 37,666
quite aluminum rich fuel mixtures in SOX/(SH2+Al) H2O g 13,431 1,008 18,016 120,029 15,124
propellants if the average density of SOX/SH2 were to
Tab. 3: Energy released by the formation of oxides
be equaled.
Thus the heating of Hydrogen by metal-combustion
SOX / frozen Hydrocarbons
rather than Hydrogen-combustion is a process with
much higher efficiency in terms of propellant mass Obvious candidates for improving on the density Isp of
consumption. As Tab. 3 shows, several metals release SOX/SH2 are hydrocarbon fuels. The following data
more than twice as much energy per unit Oxygen as (Tab. 4) show SOX with frozen Kerosene as an exam-
Hydrogen does. Ironically, this is exactly the reason, ple.
why metal-combustion used in thermal Hydrogen pro-
LOX/RP1 SOX/SRP1
O/F Isp avg. spec. vol. spec. Isp avg. spec. vol. spec.
68:1,E mass Isp E 68:1,E mass Isp E
1,00 2015 0,924 1863 1884 0,976 1838
2,00 2844 0,989 2812 2771 1,046 2899
2,50 2944 1,009 2970 2898 1,068 3094
3,00 2908 1,024 2979 2876 1,085 3121
4,00 2765 1,047 2895 2737 1,110 3038
5,00 2637 1,063 2803 2609 1,127 2941
6,00 2522 1,074 2709 2492 1,140 2840
7,00 2414 1,083 2615 2382 1,150 2738
8,00 2314 1,090 2522 2279 1,157 2637
9,00 2221 1,096 2433 2185 1,163 2542
10,00 2136 1,100 2350 2099 1,168 2453
Tab. 4: Isps and average densities of Oxygen/Kerosene in liquid and solid state;
based in part on extrapolated values by (9)
5
The concept of modular dissected solid-rocket pro-
3200
pellant grains is based on the idea that for any solid
I_sp_vac_E
3000 I_sp_E
propellant combination there exist subcritical mixture
ratios that do not require separation for well behaved
2800 combustion. Propellant elements with such mixture
I_sp [m/s]
2600
ratios
offer a further degree of freedom for obtaining a
2400
desired value of regression rate (combustion veloci-
2200 ty)
offer themselves as modules for ignition as well as
2000
for sustaining and enhancing combustion (not nec-
0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0
essarily using the same propellants as the bulk of
MR [-] the modular grain composite).
Fig.8: Standard Isp 68:1, E and Isp,vac. The element at the front end of the stack in Fig.9 is
of SOX/SRP1 (9) formed by such a fuel rich gas generator composition,
capable of self-sustained burning. It serves as igniter
and sustainer (of course, the arrangement of oxidizing
Boundary layer combustion in and reducing elements might just as well be the other
solid propulsion way round). If required, there is another self sustained
The concept of dissected solid-rocket propellant burner at the end, serving as what with hybrids is called
grains is based on the idea that the degree of separation "turbulator". In between, there is the dissected stack
is a perfect means for controlling the rate of propellant with multiple boundary layer combustion.
consumption in solid rockets. Example: consider a There are many more geometrical solutions other
cylindrical grain of SOX followed by a cylindrical than sandwiches, e.g. wedge shaped arrangements or
grain of hydrocarbon, both with a central combustion cigarette burners. A "mixedness parameter" has been
channel (not necessarily of circular shape). Without defined for their characterization, see (6).
other means, this 2-piece "Internal Hybrid" arrange-
ment would not be able to sustain combustion. As the To ensure proper operation, they are all subject to
degree of dissection is increased by increasing the the following boundary conditions and requirements
number of alternating oxidizer and fuel elements, the concerning their operational parameters:
regression velocity attainable after ignition would, to a 1. The time average over-all mixture ratio (= "tank
certain degree, approach the value expected for a mix- mixture ratio") determines the overall equivalence
ture of the two reactants. Dissected grains offer a new ratio. It is defined as
degree of freedom for controlling combustion rate, that
may not have been required with conventional propel- c
M
1
O/ Fto t (O / F) xma x t dt
ox
lants ("Sandwich grains") but might be essential for
cryogenic solids. tc
t 0 M fu
Fig.9 shows a motor with modular CSP grain de- where
sign. (All dimensions in this figure are arbitrary). The tc : cut-off time (i.e.: c = combustion duration)
grain is a stack of alternating oxidizer- and fuel ele- (O/F)x : instantaneous over-all mixture ratio
max
ments. The cross section of the central combustion
channel can have any shape and change along the grain. Mox : Total amount of oxidizer present in ele-
Oxidizer Ele ment ments and gas generators
Fuel Eleme nt Mfu : Total amount of fuel present in elements
and gas generators
xmax: rear edge of grain, maximum value of the co-
ordinate of linear length x
Desired condition: O/ Ftot = some specific value
2. Instantaneous over-all mixture ratio, i.e. O/F ratio
Igniter- and sustainer Gasgenerator Module of gases passing rear edge of grain (of course relat-
module
ing to the composition of their sources before com-
bustion)
Fig.9: Solid rocket motor using a modular CSP grain in
disk-stack design (O/F)x (t) = mfox(t) / mffu(t)
max
6
• steps do not normally form in hybrids since they en-
where hance regression of protruding material
mf: mass flows with • regression velocities can be matched by either ma-
nipulating the lengths of individual elements or
n ox ngg their total number.
mfox(t) = A (t )r mf
i i i i ox,gg (t)
i1 i1
and
mffu(t) = ditto
where
nox , nfu , ngg: number of respective oxidizer-, fuel-
or gas generator elements Performance of cryogenic solid
i: number of individual elements (e.g. number 1 = rockets
gg, 2, 4, 6 = oxidizer, 3, 5, 7 = fuel)
i: specific mass of element i
A general feasibility study of Cryogenic Solid
Ai(t): combustion surface area of element i at time t
Boosters (CSBs) sponsored by the German Aerospace
r i : average regression velocity (= combustion rate Research Center DLR (2) was finished in 1996. The
per unit area) between linear co-ordinate xi,o (front basic assumption was that the above concepts are feasi-
edge of element i) and xi,e (rear edge) ble and it aimed at identifying specific problem areas
mfox,gg(t), mffu,gg(t): mass flow contribution of gas and their possible solutions. Boosters were investigated
with solid Hydrogen (SH2) and Oxygen (SOX) as a
generator i at time t according to its primary com-
sample propellant combination. As a result, no insur-
position
mountable problems were found in the areas of cooling
equipment and its operation during fabrication and
Desired condition: the instantaneous (O/F) over-all
launch operations; neither were there problems with
mixture ratio should at all times be as close to the
thrust to weight ratio of uncooled but insulated CSBs
desired value as possible:
that leave their terrestrial cooling equipment at the
tc launch pad. The pressure variation of the melting points
(O / F)
1 of SOX (and its allotropic modifications) and of SH2
x ma x (t )dt = (O/F)tot
tc appeared manageable.
t 0
Precautions will be necessary with respect to me-
3. The average regression velocity of element i ex- chanical stability and the influence of off-design condi-
tending between xi,o (front edge) and xi,e (rear tions. While many frozen liquids are quite sturdy (see
edge) (11)) special supporting and enclosing measures are
suggested (see (12)).
x i ,e
On the other hand, under specific assumptions, very
r (x )d x
1
ri = substantial performance gains were calculated for
x i,0
i
x i ,e
x i ,0 ARIANE V and the US-STS if the conventional solid
where boosters were replaced by cryogenic ones (SOX/SH2).
ri(x): local regression velocity of element i, that As is shown in
must satisfy the basic hybrid heat balance
ri(x) = q (x) / (i•hi) Tab.5, the lift-off mass of the boosters of both space
transportation systems could be cut down to about 2/3
of their present mass.
where
As was already pointed out in the section on Isp-
q (x): local heat flow per unit area calculations, the use of metalized SOX/(Al,SH2) solid
hi : specific heat of sublimation of element i propellants does not really improve on the metal-free
combination. A just slightly lesser mass would have to
Desired condition: be bought by using about 60% of Aluminum in the fuel
(see Tab.6). Whether such amounts could be burned
ri(xi,e) = ri+1(xi,o) with sufficient efficiency, must be doubted.
7
previous amount!), heating but not oxidizing 37300kg
STS-SRB STS-SRB ARIANE ARIANE
CSP- 5-EAP 5-EAP
of Hydrogen (15% more!).
Ersatz CSP-
Ersatz
%Al Mp [t] Vp[m3]
Isp [m/s] 2634,9 3438,52 2678,13 3438,52 90,00 210,9 262,8
81,80 182,9 340,7
pc [bar] 62,4 20 ~30 20 75,00 170,3 412,0
pc/pe - 66 ~77 66
69,23 165,5 472,5
64,29 164,0 553,8
O/F 2,3 5 ~2,3 5 60,00 164,5 624,2
56,25 166,2 694,1
M-prop [Mg] 504 349,525 237 167,870 52,94 168,3 762,0
50,00 170,6 828,0
Itot [MNs] 1320 1320 634,7 634,7
47,37 173,0 891,8
cut-off time [s] 124 120 130 130 45,00 175,6 954,1
0,00 164,9 521,0
Thrust [kN] 11500 5300
Tab.6: Propellant mass and volume of boosters of
M-tank [Mg] 91,000 54,411 38,000 26,207 ARIANE V size (Itot ~635 MNs) with SOX/(Al,SH2)
cryo-solid propellants
Lift-off [Mg] 595 403,936 275 194,077
Feasibility demonstration
Tab.5: STS and ARIANE V boosters compared with Ongoing work aims at the experimental demonstra-
their CSP-Ersatz; after (7) tion of the feasibility of cryogenic solid grain combus-
tion and is considered as the second step in a four step
procedure leading to the acquisition of the technology
The results were optimized for best mixture ratio of of modular, dissected solid propellant grains.
SOX/SH and for optimum chamber pressures chosen,
see Fig.10
500
Summary
490 As a conclusion, the concept of Modular Dis-
STS-SRB mass [Mg]
8
Literature