How Music Works:

A First-Year Theory Textbook

by Richard Devore, David Kulma, Meghan axer, !ason "lark, and Krystal Kuhns

#econd $dition

& '()( by Richard Devore $xce*t +here other+ise noted, this +ork is licensed under "reative "ommons Attribution #hareAlike %,(, You are -ree. to Share / to co*y, distribute and transmit the +ork 0nder the -ollo+ing conditions. Attribution. You must attribute the +ork in the manner s*eci-ied by the author or licensor 1but not in any +ay that suggests that they endorse you or your use o- the +ork2, Noncommercial. You may not use this +ork -or commercial *ur*oses, No Derivative Works. You may not alter, trans-orm, or build u*on this +ork, Any o- the above conditions can be +aived i- you get *ermission -rom the co*yright holder, othing in this license im*airs or restricts the author3s moral rights,

Table o- "ontents
4ebsite 5inks,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,6 7ntroduction,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,8 Acoustics o- Music. A 9rie- :rimer,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;

0nit ). Fundamentals
"ha*ter ). Rhythm,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,)) "ha*ter '. :itch,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,'' "ha*ter %. Triads and #eventh "hords,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,%%

0nit '. <oice 5eading

"ha*ter =. >armonic :rogression,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,== "ha*ter 6. :art 4riting,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,=? "ha*ter @. onharmonic Tones,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,@'

0nit %. Musical ArganiBation

"ha*ter 8. Melody,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,@? "ha*ter ;. "adences,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,8= "ha*ter ?. :hrase #tructure,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,8;

0nit =. To+ard "hromaticism

"ha*ter )(. :art 4riting #eventh "hords,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;8 "ha*ter )). #econdary Function "hords,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,?)

0nit 6. Tonal $x*ansion

"ha*ter )'. Modulation,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,)(( "ha*ter )%. Modal 9orro+ing,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,)(;

0nit @. Musical #tructure

"ha*ter )=. Altered :redominants,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,))? "ha*ter )6. 9inary and Ternary Form,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,)'8

4ebsite 5inks
Kent #tate 5ibrary Resources
CTo visit these sites, you must either be connected to the internet on cam*us or via the <: , Ax-ord Music Anline +++,ox-ordmusiconline,comDsubscriberDbookDomoEgmo axos Music 5ibrary kentstateuni,naxosmusiclibrary,com

Manuscri*t :a*er and otation

+++,dolmetsch,comDmanuscri*t*a*er,htm +illiamburnson,comDengravingDsta---*a*er,html m*a,orgDmusicEnotationDstandardE*ractice,*d-

Music otation #o-t+are

Finale +++,-inalemusic,com #ibelius +++,sibelius,com

Music Theory #ites

MacFAM0T Music #o-t+are +++,macgamut,com Music Acoustics +++,*hys,uns+,edu,auDG+Dbasics,html Music Theory at <irginia "ommon+ealth 0niversity +++,*eo*le,vcu,eduDHbhammelDtheoryD Ricci Adams3 Musictheory,net +++,musictheory,net :ractice#*ot +++,*ractices*ot,com TonalityF07D$. Tom :ankhurst3s Fuide to >armony and <oice-5eading +++,tonalityguide,com

:ublic Domain Music #cores

"horal :ublic Domain 5ibrary +++,c*dl,orgD+ikiDindex,*h*DMainE:age 7nternational Music #core 5ibrary :roGectD:etrucci Music 5ibrary imsl*,orgD+iki The Muto*ia :roGect +++,muto*ia*roGect,org :roGect Futenberg. The #heet Music :roGect +++,gutenberg,orgD+ikiDFutenberg.TheE#heetEMusicE:roGect

7ntroduction
4elcome to the music theory *rogram at Kent #tate 0niversity, 4hile at this university, your music theory courses +ill cover the 4estern-"lassical tradition -rom early Fregorian chant through the late t+entieth century, This textbook is designed -or the -irst t+o semesters and covers the -undamentals o- music and -unctional tonality *rinci*les circa )8((-);%(, This *eriod encom*asses the careers o- 9ach and >andel and the lives o- >aydn, MoBart, 9eethoven and #chubert, This music, and the music o- their contem*oraries, *rovides the basis -or the study o- -unctional tonality, For the beginning collegiate music student, this music is the easiest to understand -rom an analytical *ers*ective, Although many com*osers have *ur*ose-ully avoided tonality since then, there is a continuous line ocom*osition, study, and *er-ormance o- tonal music, Music theory originates a-ter com*osition, "om*osers have rarely I*ainted by numbers,J using music theory to create their +orks, 7nstead, music theorists throughout history researched -inished com*ositions -or recogniBable *atterns to document, This text book is not a manual -or music com*osition, Music com*osition is a creative art, +hile the study o- music theory is an academic disci*line to understand the creative art, 0nderstanding music theory +ill make you a better musician, As a *er-ormer, it +ill hel* you make in-ormed decisions about style, +ill hel* you memoriBe music, and +ill give you more insights into the music you *er-orm, As an educator, as all musicians are, music theory +ill enable you to hear and -ix mistakes, teach music -undamentals to beginning students, learn a score to conduct an ensemble, and teach music theory to more advanced students,

Acoustics o- Music. A 9rie- :rimer

#ound results -rom the vibration o- an obGect such as a violin string or a tuning -ork, These vibrations cause the adGacent air *articles to vibrate, #ound travels much slo+er than lightK it moves through air at a**roximately ))(( -eet *er second, or 86( miles *er hour, 4hen the air *articles strike the eardrum they are trans-ormed into +hat +e call sound, Musical vibrations occur in a cyclic *eriodic *rocess, AbGects +ith shorter *eriodic structures vibrate more Luickly and +ill have a higher frequency, or number o- cycles *er second, AbGects +ith longer *eriodic structures vibrate more slo+ly and there-ore have a lo+er -reLuency, :itches are usually labeled by the number o- cycles in one second, At the maximum, human hear -reLuencies -rom about '( cycles *er second 1extremely lo+2 to about '(,((( cycles *er second 1extremely high2, FreLuency is directly related to *itch, The note A that vibrates ==( cycles *er second is o-ten used as the standard -or *itch and tuning, Doubling the number o- vibrations results in the same *itch one octave higher, $xam*le )

7n addition to -reLuency, another basic as*ect o- sound is amplitude, Am*litude is the distance an obGect moves in each *eriodic cycle, 7t is directly related to the loudness or intensity o- a sound, Am*litude is measured in units called decibels, The louder a sound is, the higher its decibel reading, The scale -or decibels is logarithmic in structureK this means

? that an obGect that creates )(( decibels is )( times as loud as an obGect creating ?( decibels, The human threshold o- *ain is reached at about )%( decibels, The *eriodic recurring motion o- a musical obGect takes the -orm o- a +ave, Much like the ri**les -rom a stone thro+n into a lake, sound +aves radiate out+ard -rom their source, This out+ard s*read is called diffusion, The length o- the +ave, or wavelength, is directly related to the -reLuency o- the sound, 5o+ *itches thus have longer +avelengths than high *itches, 4avelengths vary greatly, The +avelength o- a lo+ *itch -rom a *i*e organ, -or exam*le, might be @( -eet long, +hile the +avelength o- a high *itch -rom a *iccolo might be only a -e+ inches long, Di--erent ty*es o- sound sources create di--erent ty*es o- +aves, #ome o- the +ave ty*es used in music are sa+tooth +aves, sine +aves, sLuare +aves, and triangle +aves, These ty*es are labeled by the visual re*resentation o- their +aves, $ach ty*e o- +ave has a characteristic sound based on its musical characteristics, $xam*le '

The harmonic series, or overtone series, *rovides the basis -or many Lualitative as*ects o- musical structure and instrumentation, $very *itch sounded on a vibrating or resonating body consists o- a combination o- various -reLuencies, The lo+est o- these *itches is called the fundamental, The *itches above it are called overtones, The distinctive character o- di--erent musical instruments is due to the varying combinations o- harmonics that make u* the sound o- each, These di--erences are seen in the -reLuencies that make u* the di--erent +ave ty*es in the exam*le above, 7n addition, com*osers have generally used the relative s*acing o- *itches in the harmonic series 1+ide at the bottom and closer together on to*2 as a guide in voicing chords, The harmonic series is easily re*roduced by *laying a series o*itches -rom lo+ to high 1+ithout changing -ingerings or slide *ositions2 on a brass instrument, The seventh and eleventh harmonics do not coincide +ith the eLual-tem*ered tuning used on most instruments today, The seventh harmonic is a bit -latter, and the eleventh a bit shar*er, #ome com*osers have ex*loited this distinctive sound,

)( $xam*le %

$arly 4estern music used a tuning system called :ythagorean intonation, in +hich only the intervals o- the octave and -i-th +ere *er-ectly in tune, 7n this system an octave is eLual to the numerical ratio '.), +hile a -i-th is eLual to %.', The -ourth is eLual to an octave minus a -i-th, and there-ore has the ration =.%, This tuning system, +hich +orks very +ell -or medieval music, is the source o- the names M*er-ect octave,M *er-ect -i-th,M and M*er-ect -ourthM still used today to label those intervals, As Renaissance-era com*osers began to use more thirds and sixth as consonances, a ne+ tuning system that created *ure thirds +as needed, This system is called Gust intonation, and adds a 6.= maGor third to the ratios listed above, #ome *er-ormers today *re-er Gust tunings -or certain kinds o- music, such as those sung by an a ca**ella choir, During the 9aroLue *eriod, com*osers needed to make alterations in these *ure tunings to allo+ modulations to more distant keys, <arious ne+ systems +ere develo*ed that alter some intervals -rom *ure ratios and are called mean-tone tem*eraments, Mean-tone systems in general make more commonly-used intervals consonant +hile allo+ing rarelyused MhiddenM intervals to be very dissonant, :eriod-instrument *er-ormances o- 9aroLue music today o-ten use various mean-tone tem*eraments, 9y the nineteenth century, another tuning system that extended the available key relationshi*s still -urther +as needed, This system is called eLual tem*erament and allo+s modulations to all keys, though at the ex*ense o- making every interval and chord very slightly out o- tune, This system is the one in general use in 4estern music today, :ianos and other keyboard instruments are tuned to a modi-ied ty*e o- eLual tem*erament, 7nterval siBe is measured in terms o- a unit called a cent, Ane cent is eLual to )D)'((th o- an octave, 7n other +ords, )(( cents makes one eLually-tem*ered minor second, An eLualtem*ered *er-ect -i-th is thus 8(( cents, Tuning systems can be easily com*ared by looking at the number o- cents in each interval, #trictly s*eaking, a MtuningM or MintonationM is a system that de-ines intervals based only on sim*le numerical ratios, :ythagorean and Gust intonations are organiBed in this +ay, 9y contrast, a Mtem*eramentM is a system that alters intervals -rom such ratios -or various musical reasons, Mean-tone tem*erament and eLual tem*erament are the most -reLuentlyused exam*les, Fo to +++,*hys,uns+,edu,auDG+Dbasics,html -or more in-ormation on acoustics,

))

"ha*ter ). Rhythm
Duration
Rhythm describes ho+ music is organiBed in time, The notation system -or durations is *ro*ortional, 7n the chart belo+, each lo+er duration is hal- the length o- the *revious note or rest, $xam*le )-)

Name 4hole
1)2

Note w h h q q q q eeeeeeee ssssssssssssssss

Rest W H Q E S

>al1'2

Nuarter
1=2

$ighth
1;2

#ixteenth
1)@2

Durations are lengthened +ith either ties or dots, A tie connects notes to create a single duration, A tie is reLuired to extend a duration over a bar line, A dot al+ays adds one hal- o- the note3s or rest3s value to the duration, A second dot adds hal- o- the -irst dot, Rests are only dotted in com*ound meter, and are never tied, $xam*le )-'

q-q = h

q. = q-e

q, = q-e-s

)'

Meter
Meter is the organiBation o- rhythm into regular grou*s o- beats and is notated +ith time signatures, Time signatures re-lect the ty*e o- meter and the beat division, There are three common ty*es o- meters. du*le meter has t+o beats, tri*le has three, and Luadru*le has -our, 7t is also *ossible, but less common, to -ind music that has -ive or seven beats *er measure, #uch exam*les can be heard as combinations o- du*le or tri*le grou*ings 1' O %, % O ', ' O ' O %, etc,2 There are t+o kinds o- beat divisions. sim*le and com*ound, #im*le meter divides the beat in t+o, The to* number re-lects the number o- beats *er measure, +hile the bottom number gives the beat3s duration, The -ollo+ing exam*les illustrate sim*le meters, $xam*le )-% Beats Per Measure Beat Duration ' ' % % = = $xam*le )-= q h q h e q

Time Signature @4 @2 or C #4 #2 $8 $4 or c

Beat Division ry q q ry q q dg ry

)% $xam*le )-6

)= $xam*le )-@

"om*ound meter divides the beat in three, The to* number describes the total number o- beat divisions, +hile the bottom number gives the duration o- the beat divisions, 7n slo+ music, the to* number may re-lect beats *er measure and the bottom number the beat3s duration, thereby having six, nine, or t+elve beats *er measure, The -ollo+ing exam*les illustrate com*ound meters, $xam*le )-8 Beats Per Measure Beat Duration ' ' % % = = q. h. e. q. h. q.

Time Signature ^8 ^4 96 98 !4 !8

Beat Division rty qqq d g rty qqq rty

)6 $xam*le )-;

)@ $xam*le )-?

)8 $xam*le )-)(

); $xam*le )-))

$xam*le )-)'

)? 7n the exam*les above, the meters are as -ollo+s. #im*le du*le. $xam*le )-6 1*, )'2 "om*ound du*le. $xam*les )-; 1*, )=2 and )-)' 1*, )82 #im*le tri*le. $xam*le )-@ 1*, )%2 "om*ound tri*le. $xam*le )-)( 1*, )@2 #im*le Luadru*le. $xam*le )-= 1*, ))2 "om*ound Luadru*le. $xam*les )-? 1*, )62 and )-)) 1*, )82 $xam*le )-)% Top Time Signature Number Simple Compoun Duple @ # $ ! 9 Triple !ua ruple ^

$xam*le )-)= Bottom Time Signature Number Bottom Number Simple Beat Duration Compoun Beat Duration 2 4 8 6 h q e s w. 1hhh2 h. 1qqq2 q. 1rty2 e. 1d g2

>o+ to 7denti-y a Meter

), 5ook at the to* number in the time signature, ', Determine i- the meter is du*le, tri*le, or Luadru*le 1see $xam*le )-)%2, %, "onduct a du*le meter in t+o, a tri*le meter in three, and a Luadru*le meter in -our, =, 5ook at the bottom number in the time signature, 6, Determine i- the meter is sim*le or com*ound 1see $xam*le )-)=2, @, The conducted beat +ill have t+o divisions in sim*le time, and three divisions in com*ound time,

'(

>o+ to 4rite a Meter

), Determine i- the music is du*le, tri*le or Luadru*le, ', Determine i- the music is sim*le or com*ound, %, "hoose the necessary time signature to re-lect the meter ty*e and beat division 1see $xam*les )-)% and )-)=2, =, Make sure all beams, -lags, and ties sho+ the meter correctly,

Ather Rhythmic As*ects

#ynco*ation disru*ts meter by accenting normally unaccented beats or divisions, Ty*ically, synco*ation dis*laces a note by hal- its value, Rests are not normally synco*ated, $xam*le )-)6

$4 qqqry"# eqqqe# qqqq#$

') A hemiola is a s*eci-ic synco*ation in sim*le tri*le meter, 7n t+o measures o- tri*le meter, the e--ect is o- three measures o- sim*le du*le meter at the same beat level, $xam*le )-)@

$xam*le )-)8

Tu*lets grou* durations into irregular *ulse divisions, The tri*let is the most common, $xam*le )-);

r%y = q

&qqq = h

d ' g=q

''

"ha*ter '. :itch

:itch is the s*eci-ic highness or lo+ness o- a musical sound, 7n $nglish-s*eaking countries, *itches are given general names, +hich use the -irst seven letters o- the al*habet, "le-s use the -ive-line sta-- to identi-y s*eci-ic *itches, There are -our commonly used cle-s. treble, bass, alto and tenor, Treble cle- de-ines the sta--3s second line as the F above middle ", 9ass cle- de-ines the sta--3s -ourth line as the F belo+ middle ", Alto cle- de-ines the sta--3s middle line as middle ", Tenor cle- de-ines the sta--3s -ourth line as middle ", Familiarity +ith all -our cle-s is reLuired to read music easily and -luently, :itches are labeled by the register or octave in +hich they occur, Ane system odesignating di--erent octaves adds numbers to the letter names, Actave designations encom*ass the seventh, " to 9, +ith the next " beginning the next designation, Middle " is "=, 5edger lines are reLuired to notate *itches outside the boundaries o- the sta--, $xam*le '-)

'%

The MaGor #cale

A scale is a *itch *attern +ithin an octave, A maGor scale contains +hole and halste*s using all seven note names, An exam*le o- a hal- ste* is the distance bet+een 9 and the " directly above it on a *iano, An exam*le o- a +hole ste* is " to D on the *iano, There are t+o hal- ste*s in a +hole ste*, A maGor scale makes use o- this *attern o- ste*s. 4 4 > 4 4 4 >, An exam*le is the +hite keys o- a *iano beginning on ", $xam*le '-'

A maGor scale is divisible into t+o -our-note segments called tetrachords, 9oth tetrachords are the same and are se*arated by a +hole ste*, This *attern o- 44> is called the maGor tetrachord, $xam*le '-%

The numbers +ith carets are called scale-degree numbers, For any maGor scale, the starting *itch is 1, the second is 2, and so on returning to 1 at the octave, #ol-ege syllables are ex*lained in Learning to Listen,

'=

Accidentals
#tarting a maGor scale on note names other than " reLuires accidentals, An accidental is a symbol used to raise or lo+er a *itch, $xam*le '-=

Acci ental S"mbol Double #har* #har* atural Flat Double Flat

Alteration Raises t+o hal- ste*s Raises a hal- ste* "ancels a *revious accidental 5o+ers a hal- ste* 5o+ers t+o hal- ste*s

x # n b B

For exam*le, starting a maGor scale on F reLuires F be raised to F shar*, $xam*le '-6

The atural Minor #cale

There are three ty*es o- minor scales, The -irst is natural minor, +hich has this ste* *attern. 4 > 4 4 > 4 4, #tarting on " gives the -ollo+ing. $xam*le '-@

'6 Another +ay to derive a natural minor scale is to a**ly accidentals to a maGor scale starting on the same *itch, From maGor, scale degrees 3, 6, and 7 are each lo+ered a hal- ste*, ote that these three scale degrees reLuire the addition o- a -lat in -ront o- the scale-degree number, MaGor and minor scales sharing the same starting *itch are called *arallel, $xam*le '-8

A third +ay to derive natural minor uses a maGor scale beginning on 6, MaGor and minor scales sharing the same *itches are called relative, $xam*le '-;

'@

The >armonic and Melodic Minor #cales

>armonic minor alters a natural minor scale by raising 7 a hal- ste*, $xam*le '-?

Melodic minor alters a natural minor scale by raising both 6 and 7 +hen ascending, 4hen descending, melodic minor is identical to natural minor, $xam*le '-)(

'8 There is another set o- vocabulary 1like sol-ege syllables and scale-degree numbers2 to describe *itches in a scale, These terms are called scale-degree names, Fluency in all three systems is assumed throughout the remainder o- this text, $xam*le '-))

Key #ignatures
Key signatures sho+ consistently used accidentals, Relative maGor and minor scales share a key signature, ote the order o- the accidentals, and their relative *osition to each other as they are added, $x '-)'

The -ollo+ing exam*le sho+s the *lacement o- all shar*s and -lats in alto and tenor cle-s, $x '-)%

'; Ane +ay to visualiBe key signatures and the order o- shar*s and -lats is the circle o- -i-ths, $x '-)=

Diagram copyright MacG M!" Music #oftware$ %nc& !sed by permission&

7ntervals
An interval is the distance bet+een t+o *itches, This distance can occur vertically 1harmonic interval2 or horiBontally 1melodic interval2, There are t+o as*ects o- any given interval. generic siBe and s*eci-ic Luality, An interval3s siBe is its visual distance in notation, For exam*le, a third is a line to the next line or a s*ace to the next s*ace, $xam*le '-)6

'? Nuality re-ers to the s*eci-ic distance bet+een given *itches o- an interval, There are t+o interval Lualities measured -rom the tonic in an ascending maGor scale, The unison, -ourth, -i-th, and octave are *er-ect, +hile the second, third, sixth, and seventh are maGor, $xam*le '-)@

7n a descending maGor scale, there are also t+o interval Lualities measured -rom the tonic, The unison, -ourth, -i-th, and octave are still *er-ect, +hile the second, third, sixth, and seventh are no+ minor, $xam*le '-)8

$x*anding a *er-ect or maGor interval by a hal- ste* creates an augmented interval, and contracting a *er-ect or minor interval by a hal- ste* creates a diminished interval, A minor interval ex*anded a hal- ste* makes a maGor interval and vice versa, A *er-ect interval cannot become maGor or minor, The augmented and diminished intervals in bold are commonly used, $xam*le '-);

>o+ to 7denti-y 7ntervals

), Determine the generic siBe o- the interval, 1', %, etc,2 ', Determine the s*eci-ic Luality o- the interval 1M, m, O, P2, Make sure to take both accidentals into consideration, %, 5abel the interval +ith its s*eci-ic Luality and generic siBe 1i,e, O=2,

%(

>o+ to 4rite 7ntervals

), Determine the generic siBe -rom the given *itch and notate it either above or belo+ the given *itch, ', Do not change the given *itch, %, Add accidentals to the *itch -rom ste* ) to create the s*eci-ied Luality, =, D# N#T C$AN%& T$& %'(&N P'TC$)

"om*ound 7ntervals
7ntervals -rom the unison to the octave are sim*le intervals, +hile intervals beyond the octave are com*ound, 7t is also *ossible to see augmented and diminished com*ound intervals, such as O)), $xam*le '-)?

%)

7nterval 7nversion
7ntervals are inverted by moving one *itch an octave higher or lo+er, "om*lementary intervals add u* to nine 1' O 8 Q ?, % O @ Q ?, etc,2, 4hen inverted, most intervals change their s*eci-ic Luality. MaGor intervals become minor 1M R m2 Minor intervals become maGor 1m R M2 Augmented intervals become diminished 1O R P2 Diminished intervals become augmented 1P R O2 :er-ect intervals remain *er-ect 1: R :2 otice the similar relationshi* bet+een maGor and minor Lualities and augmented and diminished Lualities, $xam*le '-'(

%'

"onsonance and Dissonance

"onsonances are divided into *er-ect and im*er-ect, :er-ect consonances include the *er-ect intervals 1exce*t the -ourth, see exam*le '-''2, +hile im*er-ect consonances include maGor and minor thirds and sixths, Dissonances include seconds, sevenths, and all diminished and augmented intervals, $xam*le '-')

The consonance or dissonance o- the := changes +ith context, The := is dissonant +hen it includes the lo+est voice, other+ise it is consonant, $xam*le '-''

%%

"ha*ter %. Triads and #eventh "hords

Triads
A chord is a combination o- t+o or more intervals, Triads are three-note chords built in thirds, There are -our *ossible triad Lualities. maGor, minor, diminished, and augmented, The three members o- a triad are the root, third and -i-th, A triad +ith the root as the lo+est note is in root *osition, $xam*le %-)

A maGor triad contains a maGor third and *er-ect -i-th above the root, creating a minor third bet+een the third and -i-th o- the chord, $xam*le %-'

A minor triad contains a minor third and *er-ect -i-th above the root, creating a maGor third bet+een the third and -i-th o- the chord, $xam*le %-%

%= A diminished triad contains a minor third and diminished -i-th above the root, creating a minor third bet+een the third and -i-th o- the chord, $xam*le %-=

An augmented triad contains a maGor third and an augmented -i-th above the root, creating a maGor third bet+een the third and -i-th o- the chord, Augmented triads are rarely encountered in common-*ractice music, the music studied in this course, $xam*le %-6

7nversions
4hen a chord member other than the root is the lo+est note, the triad is said to be inverted, A triad in -irst inversion has the third o- the chord as the lo+est note, A -irstinversion triad has a third and a sixth above the lo+est note, $xam*le %-@

%6 A triad in second inversion has the -i-th as the lo+est note, A second-inversion triad has a -ourth and a sixth above the lo+est note, $xam*le %-8

Figured 9ass
7n the 9aroLue and early "lassical *eriods, chords *layed by an accom*animent +ere indicated +ith a -igured bass, 7n this shorthand system, the bass line is given, +ith numbers beneath indicating the intervals above, A keyboard *layer -rom this time *eriod +ould build harmonies based on the -igured bass, 7t is im*ortant to recogniBe that these -igures are a *art o- the music, as are the +ritten notes, articulations, and dynamics, $xam*le %-;

$ntire Figured 9ass #ymbol Root :osition 5e 6e 6r

#horthand S o #ymbolT

First 7nversion

6 6r

#econd 7nversion

%@ $xam*le %-?

%8 4hen -igured bass needs to indicate a *itch that is not *art o- the key signature, s*ecial symbols are used, An accidental on its o+n alters the third 1or tenth2 above the bass as -ollo+s. $xam*le %-)( 5o+ers a hal- ste* Raises a hal- ste*

\ "ancels a *revious accidental

An accidental a**earing +ith a number alters that interval above the bass as -ollo+s. $xam*le %-)) The sixth above the bass is lowered a half step Cancels previous accidental on the fifth above the bass The sixth above the bass is raised a half step

6 \5 #6

9oth the slash through a number and the *lus symbol also raise the s*eci-ied interval by a hal- ste*, $xam*le %-)' The sixth above the bass is raised a half step

The fourth above the bass is raised a half step

%;

Diatonic Triads and Roman umerals

The *itches contained in a given scale or key are diatonic, Diatonic triads can occur on every scale degree, Roman numerals indicate a triad3s root and Luality, 7n maGor keys, the triads are as sho+n belo+, $xam*le %-)%

The diatonic chords in a minor key are dra+n -rom harmonic minor, +ith one exce*tion, The triad on 3 uses the subtonic instead o- the leading tone, $xam*le %-)=

Roman umerals +ith 7nversion #ymbols

To sho+ a triad3s inversion +ith roman numerals, -igured-bass symbols are added, ote that these inversion symbols are analytical tools rather than *art o- the music, $xam*le %-)6

Tria Arrangements 'nversion S"mbol Root :osition First 7nversion None 6 6r

#econd 7nversion

%?

#eventh "hords
There are -ive diatonic seventh chords. maGor, dominant, minor, hal--diminished, and -ully-diminished, Root *osition has the root as the lo+est note, A maGor seventh chord is a maGor triad +ith a M8, $xam*le %-)@

A dominant seventh chord is a maGor triad *lus a m8, $xam*le %-)8

A minor seventh chord is a minor triad *lus a m8, $xam*le %-);

=( A hal--diminished seventh chord is a diminished triad *lus a m8, $xam*le %-)?

A -ully-diminished seventh chord is a diminished triad *lus a P8, $xam*le %-'(

7nversions
There are three inversion *ossibilities -or seventh chords, First inversion has the third as the lo+est note, $xam*le %-')

=) #econd inversion has the -i-th as the lo+est note, $xam*le %-''

Third inversion has the seventh as the lo+est note, $xam*le %-'%

='

Figured 9ass
5ike triads, seventh chords are notated +ith -igured bass, $xam*le %-'=

$ntire Figured 9ass #ymbol Root :osition 7td 6td 6rd 6rs

#horthand 7 6t 4e 4w

First 7nversion

#econd 7nversion

Third 7nversion

=%

Diatonic #eventh "hords

Diatonic seventh chords can also be built on each scale degree, The diatonic seventh chords in maGor keys are seen belo+, $xam*le %-'6

5ike triads, seventh chords in minor keys also use harmonic minor +ith the exce*tion o- the subtonic -or 7778, $xam*le %-'@

7nversion #ymbols
Again as in triads, inversions are sho+n +ith symbols borro+ed -rom -igured bass, $xam*le %-'8

Seventh Chor Arrangements 'nversion S"mbol Root :osition 7 6t 4e 4w

First 7nversion

#econd 7nversion

Third 7nversion

==

"ha*ter =. >armonic :rogression

>armonic :rogression
"hords in common-*ractice harmony have -unctional roles, Function describes the harmonic relationshi* bet+een the tonic and other diatonic triads, 0ltimately, harmonic -unction is based on the idea o- leaving the tonic and returning to it through the dominant, :rogressions are seen as elaborating this -undamental -unctional relationshi*, The *aradigm -or harmonic *rogression can be seen belo+, Root movement by descending -i-ths or thirds and by ascending seconds is *re-erred, $xam*le =-) Ma*or +e"s Ne,t Chor s in Progression Any chord vi or I ii or I ! ii! I! or vii" or vii" I or I or vi Minor +e"s Ne,t Chor s in Progression Any chord <7 or iv ii" or iv <, ii", i, or vii" < or vii" i or < i or <7

Chor I iii vi I ii vii"

Chor i 777 <7 iv ii" vii" <

=6 The diatonic triads o- any maGor key are divided into three -unctions. Tonic, :redominant, and Dominant, Tonic -unction *rovides areas o- relie- -rom harmonic tension, and includes 7, iii and vi, :redominant -unction serves as a connection -rom Tonic to Dominant, and includes ii and 7<, 4hile not as strong as the other -unctions, it *rovides a greater o**ortunity -or harmonic variation, as +ill be seen later, Dominant -unction creates harmonic tension that reLuires resolution, and includes < and viiP, $xam*le =-'

7n minor keys, the -unctions remain the same but the Lualities o- some chords change, $xam*le =-%

$xam*le =-=

=@

#eventh "hords and Function

4hen triads are extended into seventh chords, their -unctions are unchanged, +ith one exce*tion, The tonic loses stability +hen extended to the seventh, 7t cannot end a *rogression, $xam*le =-6

"ircle o- Fi-ths :rogression

A circle-o---i-ths *rogression uses root movement by descending -i-ths 1ascending -ourths2, 0sed diatonically, the circle *rogression can cycle through each scale degree as a root, All these -i-ths +ill be *er-ect, exce*t -or the P6 1O= +hen ascending2 bet+een 7< 1iv in minor2 and viiP, $xam*le =-@

=8 $xam*le =-8

>armonic Rhythm
>armonic rhythm is the rate at +hich chords change, ormally com*osers retain a relatively constant harmonic rhythm throughout a musical *assage, as in the exam*le above, 7t can be mani*ulated to a--ect the musical structure, as in the -ollo+ing exam*le +here the harmonic rhythm accelerates, creating -or+ard motion, $xam*le =-;

=; The texture o-ten visually disru*ts an aurally clear harmonic rhythm, The -ollo+ing exam*le has a continually changing lo+est *itch, but the texture im*lies a continuous harmony that is labeled once rather than +ith each *itch, $xam*le =-?

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, 'si()four chord types$ nonharmonic tones$ cadences$ phrase diagrams$ modulations$ borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

=?

"ha*ter 6. :art 4riting

<oices
The conventional texture in -unctional harmony is -or -our-*art chorus, The standard distribution o- voices in descending order is so*rano, alto, tenor, and bass 1#AT92, Ty*ically, the voices are +ritten in a single grand sta--, +ith so*rano and alto in the treble cle-, and tenor and bass in the bass cle-, Although these -our voices create vertical harmonies, it is vital to consider the melodic as*ect o- each voice as an inde*endent element, 4hen +riting t+o voices in one sta--, the u**er voice is stemmed u*+ards, and the lo+er voice do+n+ards, regardless o- the location o- their *itches, As *art +riting involves +riting -our voices on t+o staves, rhythmically aligned *itches must be visually aligned as +ell, $ach voice has a s*eci-ied range, as seen belo+, $xam*le 6-)

#*acing
The largest acce*table interval bet+een adGacent u**er voices 1#A, AT2 is a *er-ect octave, 7t is *ossible to have a larger interval bet+een the tenor and bass, but it is best to avoid intervals larger than a :)', This s*acing +ill create a *leasing sonority, because it is similar to the structure o- the harmonic series, $xam*le 6-'

6(

A*en and "lose :osition

4hen there is an octave or more bet+een the so*rano and tenor, the chord is in o*en *osition, 4hen there is less than an octave, the chord is in close *osition, $xam*le 6-%

<oice "rossing and Averla*

4hen one voice moves above or belo+ an adGacent voice, the inde*endence o- lines is lost, This voice crossing should be avoided, $xam*le 6-=

4hen the tenor and bass move in the same direction, a common error is the overla**ing o- voices, This overla* occurs +hen one voice sings a *itch above or belo+ the *receding *itch in an adGacent voice, 7n the exam*le belo+, the bass and tenor have *arallel thirds, and the resulting lea*s bring the bass to a higher *itch in the second chord than the tenor had in the -irst one, $xam*le 6-6

6)

Motion
4hen considering voice leading, it is im*ortant to com*are every t+o-voice combination. #A, #T, #9, AT, A9, and T9, There are -ive ty*es o- motion, #tatic motion 1re*etition2 occurs +hen t+o voices stay on the same *itch, $xam*le 6-@

AbliLue motion occurs +hen one voice moves and another stays stationary, $xam*le 6-8

#tatic and obliLue motion create the smoothest chord connections, :arallel motion occurs +hen t+o voices move in the same direction and have the same generic 1numeric2 interval bet+een them in both chords, There are three ty*es o*arallel motion to avoid. *er-ect unisons, *er-ect -i-ths, and *er-ect octaves, $xam*le 6-;

#imilar motion occurs +hen t+o voices move by di--erent intervals in the same direction, Fenerally, similar motion is acce*table, $xam*le 6-?

6' "ontrary motion occurs +hen t+o voices move in o**osite directions, This motion is *re-erred against the bass in most cases, There are t+o ty*es o- contrary motion to avoid. -i-ths by contrary motion and octaves by contrary motion, $xam*le 6-)(

Tendency Tones
A tendency tone is a scale degree that normally reLuires resolution by ste*, For current *ur*oses, all tendency tones resolve to members o- the tonic triad, 4hen ti occurs in the so*rano or bass it must ascend to do, $xam*le 6-))

Fa o-ten descends to mi 1me2, but not +ith the regularity o- ti to do, $xam*le 6-)'

6% Le commonly goes do+n to sol, 7t rarely goes -rom le to ti, because this creates a melodic O', Avoid augmented melodic intervals, $xam*le 6-)%

Melodic diminished intervals should rarely be used and ty*ically reLuire resolution by ste* in the o**osite direction, $xam*le 6-)=

"onnecting "hords
), The best motion is no motion, Kee* common tones, ', The next best motion is contrary motion +ith the bass, %, Movement by seconds and third in the u**er voices is *re-erable, =, Movement by -ourths and -i-ths is *ossible, 5arger lea*s should be avoided, 6, 5ea*s are more common in the bass than the u**er voices, -or exam*le, sixths and octaves, Avoid lea*s o- a seventh,

6=

Root-:osition :art 4riting

4riting triads in -our *arts reLuires doubling one chord member, 7n root *osition, the root is doubled, >o+ever, never double the leading tone, Diminished triads are *roblematic in root *osition, because viiP has a doubled leading tone, and both viiP and iiP have a dissonant P6 +ith the bass, Avoid them in root *osition, $xam*le 6-)6

Re*eated Roots
4hen voicing chords +ith a re*eated root, the u**er voices move -reely +ithin the chord, 7n the -irst exam*le belo+, the u**er voices ascend in similar motion to the nearest chord member, 7n the second exam*le, the voicing changes -rom o*en to close *osition, $xam*le 6-)@

Root Movement by Third

The smoothest chord connections occur bet+een t+o chords +ith roots a third 1or sixth2 a*art since they have t+o common tones, $xam*le 6-)8

66

Root Movement by Fi-th

The next smoothest connections occur bet+een chords +ith roots a -i-th 1or -ourth2 a*art, There is one common tone, $xam*le 6-);

4hen < moves to 7 1i2 at the end o- a +ork, it is *ossible to tri*le the root and omit the -i-th, $xam*le 6-)?

To achieve a com*lete triad, it is also *ossible to I-rustrateJ the leading tone by moving ti do+n to sol in the alto or tenor, $xam*le 6-'(

6@

Root Movement by #econd

"hords +ith roots a second a*art have no common tones, 7t is best to have the u**er voices move in contrary motion to the bass to avoid obGectionable *arallels, 7n minor, contrary motion avoids the O' bet+een le and ti, $xam*le 6-')

4hen < moves to vi 1<72, +hich is called a dece*tive *rogression, extra care is reLuired, To avoid *arallels, double the third in the vi 1<72 chord, 7n minor chords, this also avoids the O' -rom ti to le, $xam*le 6-''

7n the above exam*le, notice that the bass and tenor sing 9 % at the same time, This situation is notated by stemming the notehead in both directions, 4hen this occurs on a +hole note, it reLuires t+o noteheads next to each other,

:art 4riting -rom a Figured 9ass

), 5abel the harmonies +ith roman numerals s*eci-ied by the -igured bass, ', #u**ly the alto and tenor -or the -irst chord, using correct doubling and s*acing, %, "ontinue connecting chords, making sure to move as smoothly and melodically as *ossible in each voice +hile retaining the correct doubling and s*acing, =, "heck each voice combination, 19T, 9A, #A, #T, AT2 6, "heck -or voice-leading errors and correct them, :laying at the *iano +ill hel* identi-y these errors,

68

0sing First-7nversion Triads

First-inversion triads allo+ -or greater -reedom in doubling, Doubling one o- the outer voices is generally *re-erable, subGect to voice-leading considerations, Remember never to double the leading tone, Ane *ur*ose o- -irst-inversion triads is to make chord connections smoother by re*lacing root-*osition chords, First-inversion triads hel* to avoid lea*s in the bass line, ote the doublings o- the -irst-inversion triads in the exam*le belo+, $xam*le 6-'%

"hanging inversions allo+s a com*oser to extend the duration o- a *articular harmony +ithout losing musical interest, 7n general, root-*osition triads have more structural +eight than -irst-inversion triads, $xam*le 6-'=

First-inversion triads o-ten substitute -or root-*osition triads +ith the same bass note, allo+ing more chord *ossibilities -or given bass notes and *roviding added harmonic color, $xam*le 6-'6

6;

"ommon First-7nversion Triads

0sing viiP in root *osition reLuires doubling the root, the leading tone, creating *arallel octaves +hen it resolves, 0sing iiP in root *osition creates a P6 +ith the bass, These *roblems are avoided +hen the triads are in -irst inversion, $xam*le 6-'@

7n maGor keys, ii@ is used more -reLuently than ii in root *osition, 7t shares the *redominant -unction and the bass note +ith 7<, Another chord commonly used in -irst inversion is <@, 7t creates a neighboring bass motion to elaborate the tonic, ote that ti in the bass reLuires resolution to do, $xam*le 6-'8

6?

#econd-7nversion Triads
7n second inversion, the -i-th 1bass2 is doubled, A second-inversion 1six--our2 triad only occurs in -our s*eci-ic contexts, An ar*eggiated six--our occurs +hen the bass outlines a triad beneath a single harmony, 7t -unctions similarly to -irst-inversion chords by extending harmonic duration, and is the least common second-inversion triad, $xam*le 6-';

A *edal six--our occurs +hen the six--our chord has the same bass note as the t+o chords surrounding it, The most common *edal six--our chord is 7< @= surrounded by root*osition tonic triads, 7n the exam*le belo+, the moving voices ascend -rom mi and sol to fa and la and return to mi and sol, This -ormula is the *re-erred voice leading, $xam*le 6-'?

@( A *assing six--our occurs +hen the bass note o- the six--our chord is a**roached and le-t by ste* in the same direction, The most common *assing six--our chord is < @= surrounded by tonic triads in root *osition and -irst inversion, otice in the exam*le belo+ that as the bass ascends do-re-mi, another voice, in this case the so*rano, descends mi-re-do, This *attern is ty*ical in a *assing six--our and is called voice exchange, $xam*le 6-%(

A cadential six--our signals a cadence, 7t is a tonic triad +ith a dominant -unction, +hich occurs on a strong beat in a measure, 7t a**ears directly be-ore <, 7n the exam*le belo+, notice the t+o common tones and the motion in the so*rano and tenor, descending -rom mi to re and -rom do to ti, $xam*le 6-%)

>armoniBing a Fiven #o*rano

), #tart and end on 7 1or i2 to establish the tonality, ', Find all chord *ossibilities -or each *itch, 1Melody note as root, third, or -i-th o- a chord2 %, #elect chords that -ollo+ the harmonic *rogression, =, otate the bass using a**ro*riate root-*osition, -irst-inversion, or second-inversion chords, 6, "heck the bass and so*rano voices -or *art-+riting errors, @, Fill in alto and tenor voices, using correct doubling and s*acing, 8, "heck each voice combination, 19T, 9A, #A, #T, AT2 ;, "heck -or voice-leading errors and correct them, :laying at the *iano +ill hel* identi-y these errors,

@)

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, 'nonharmonic tones$ cadences$ phrase diagrams$ modulations$ borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

@'

"ha*ter @. onharmonic Tones

:itches in music that are dissonant against the harmony are called nonharmonic tones, onharmonic tones can be described as accented or unaccented, An accented nonharmonic tone occurs on a change o- harmony, +hile an unaccented nonharmonic tone occurs any+here else,

0naccented onharmonic Tones

A *assing tone 1:T2 is *receded by a ste* and -ollo+ed by a ste* in the same direction, ote that there can be multi*le consecutive *assing tones, $xam*le @-)

A neighbor tone 1 T2 is *receded by a ste* and -ollo+ed by a ste* in the o**osite direction, 7t can also be thought o- as an ornament o- a single *itch, $xam*le @-'

:assing and neighbor tones can also be accented, An esca*e tone 1$T2 is an unaccented dissonance *receded by a ste* and -ollo+ed by a lea* in the o**osite direction, $xam*le @-%

@% An antici*ation 1A T2 is a dissonance that arrives at a ne+ harmony be-ore the other voices o- the chord, 7t is usually rhythmically shorter in duration than the resolution, $xam*le @-=

Accented onharmonic Tones

An a**oggiatura 1A::2 is *receded by lea* and -ollo+ed by a ste* in the o**osite direction, 4hen unaccented, a lea* -ollo+ed by a ste* is better described as an 7 , $xam*le @-6

@= A sus*ension 1#0#2 is *re*ared by the same *itch 1*re*aration2 and -ollo+ed by a ste* do+n 1resolution2, #us*ensions are al+ays labeled +ith the intervals o- the sus*ension and resolution above the lo+est consonant *itch, The most common sus*ensions are the ?-;, 8-@, and =-%, 4hen the bass sus*ends, it is labeled #0# '-%, #us*ensions can be sho+n +ith -igured bass symbols, as seen belo+, Multi*le sus*ensions in a ro+ are called a chain o- sus*ensions, $xam*le @-@

A retardation 1R$T2 is *receded by the same *itch and -ollo+ed by a ste* u*, Retardations do not use intervallic labels, $xam*le @-8

@6

5abeling onharmonic Tones

), Determine the harmonic rhythm, ', 5abel +ith roman numerals 1including inversion symbols and six--our chord ty*es2 the harmonies that clearly state a triad or seventh chord, %, Find the areas that do not -it a clear chord, =, Determine +hich *itch is the nonharmonic tone, :ut *arentheses around or circle the *itch, 6, Make sure that your labeled harmonies -it the harmonic *rogression, @, Determine the kind o- nonharmonic tone 1see $xam*le @-))2, and label it +ith the *ro*er abbreviation, Kee* in mind that there +ill be exce*tions 1+here the harmonies do not -ollo+ strict *rogressions or +here nonharmonic tones do not -it s*eci-ic labels2,

:assing #eventh
Ane o- the most common melodic movements occurs in a dominant chord moving to the tonic, Sol in the u**er *art descends by ste* through fa to mi, This M*assing seventhM is usually labeled as a chord member because o- the tonal *ull o- fa as a tendency tone, 4hen this same *assing movement occurs in another diatonic chord, this *itch is labeled as a :T, The resulting nondominant seventh chord has -ar less tonal *ull, and there-ore is heard as a melodic dissonance, $xam*le @-;

4riting onharmonic Tones

), Make sure that your nonharmonic tone does not create another chord, ', Make sure to check that rhythms are aligned correctly, es*ecially +hen adding accented nonharmonic tones, %, Fenerally avoid using multi*le nonharmonic tones simultaneously,

@@

Ather onharmonic Tones

An incom*lete neighbor 17 2 is a neighbor tone that is missing ste*+ise motion either be-ore or a-ter the nonharmonic tone, 7t could be considered an Iunaccented a**oggiaturaJ or an Iaccented esca*e tone,J $xam*le @-?

"hanging Tones 1"T2 are t+o consecutive nonharmonic tones, one above and one belo+ the chord tone they ornament, $xam*le @-)(

A *edal *oint 1:$D2, or *edal, is a *itch that is retained through a change o- harmony, 7n the -irst harmony, this *itch is a chord member, but becomes a nonharmonic tone +hen the harmony changes, The *itch returns to being a chord member in the -inal harmony, The *edal is the only nonharmonic tone that is stationary against changing harmony, Ty*ically, a *edal occurs in the bass, "hord inversions are not labeled +hen a *edal *oint is *resent in the bass, $xam*le @-))

@8 $xam*le @-)' Nonharmonic Abbreviation Approach Resolution Tone :assing Tone eighbor Tone :T T 9y ste* 9y ste* 9y ste* in the same direction 9y ste* in the o**osite direction 9y lea* in the o**osite direction #ame note 9y ste* in the o**osite direction Do+n by ste* 0* by ste* 9y lea* in the o**osite direction 9y ste* in the o**osite direction #ee text #ame note #ame note

Accente -.naccente 9oth 9oth

$sca*e Tone

$T

9y ste*

0naccented

Antici*ation A**oggiatura

A T A::

9y ste* 9y lea*

0naccented Accented

#us*ension Retardation 7ncom*lete eighbor Tone 7ncom*lete eighbor Tone "hanging Tones :edal :oint

#0# U-U R$T 7

#ame note #ame note 9y ste*

Accented Accented Accented

9y lea*

0naccented

"T :$D

@;

onharmonic Tones versus "onsonant Tones

There are usually more consonant *itches than dissonant *itches at any given moment, The interaction o- large-scale musical -orm, harmonic rhythm, and nonharmonic tones creates a notable exce*tion o-ten called a Isus*ension chord,J 7n the exam*le belo+, the clear dissonance on the do+nbeat o- the -inal measure is best labeled +ith a consonant bass and three nonharmonic tones, $xam*le @-)%

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, 'cadences$ phrase diagrams$ modulations$ borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

@?

"ha*ter 8. Melody
Feneral Melodic Fuidelines
Melody is the *rinci*al *art in harmoniBed music, 7n #AT9 *art +riting, the so*rano has the melody, Melodies use mostly conGunct 1ste*+ise2 motion, DisGunct motion 1lea*s2 should be -e+ and should not be larger than a -i-th, A-ter a lea* larger than a third, the next *itch normally moves in the o**osite direction by ste*, $xam*le 8-)

Avoid augmented intervals, Diminished intervals are acce*table only i- the next note is a ste* in the o**osite direction, $xam*le 8-'

7- lea*ing t+ice in the same direction, the lea*s must outline a triad, $xam*le 8-%

For *art-+riting *ur*oses, kee* rhythms sim*le, Make sure to end on a strong beat, $xam*le 8-=

8( The melodic contour 1the sha*e o- the melody2 usually has a single -ocal *oint, FreLuently, this -ocal *oint is the highest *itch, $xam*le 8-6

9e a+are o- the melodic line o- each voice, The u**er voices +ill be more conGunct than the bass, The alto and tenor +ill o-ten have re*eated *itches,

Melodic Tendency Tones

4hen ti occurs in the so*rano or bass it must ascend to do, The only exce*tion is +hen either voice ste*s do+n -rom do to sol, $xam*le 8-@

Another im*ortant tendency tone is the lo+ered sixth scale degree in minor, le, Le most commonly descends to sol, 7t rarely ascends to ti, because this creates a melodic O', $xam*le 8-8

8)

Motive
Most melodies are constructed o- motives, A motive is a short rhythmic or melodic unit that is re*eated throughout the music, Ane o- the most -amous motives in 4estern music is sho+n belo+, $xam*le 8-;

8'

#eLuence and 7mitation

A seLuence is the successive re*etition o- a motive in a voice at ne+ *itch levels, A tonal seLuence alters the motive to retain the key, as seen in $xam*le 8-?, A real seLuence maintains the melodic intervals exactly, reLuiring the addition o- accidentals, as seen in $xam*le 8-)(, A related techniLue is imitation, +hich is the use o- the same motive in close *roximity in di--erent voices, 7t usually occurs in *oly*honic textures, as in a -ugue, $xam*le 8-?

8% $xam*le 8-)(

8=

"ha*ter ;. "adences
A cadence is a succession o- t+o chords that marks a structural *oint in music, "adences are analogous to *unctuation in sentences, Four basic kinds o- cadences are used in common-*ractice music,

Authentic "adences
An authentic cadence is <-7 1i in minor2, This cadence de-ines tonality in music, Authentic cadences are conclusive, similar to *eriods ending sentences, They can be s*lit into t+o subcategories. *er-ect and im*er-ect, A *er-ect authentic cadence 1:A"2 uses both < and 7 1i2 in root *osition and has do in the so*rano in 7 1i2, This cadence is the most conclusive and -reLuently ends large sections omovements, $xam*le ;-)

Any other kind o- authentic cadence is an im*er-ect authentic cadence 17A"2, 7- either chord is in inversion, the so*rano ends on mi 1me2 or sol, or i- viiP re*laces < the cadence is im*er-ect, The im*er-ect authentic cadence is less conclusive than the *er-ect, $xam*le ;-'

86

>al- "adences
The other *rimary cadence is the hal- cadence 1>"2, A hal- cadence ends on <, >alcadences are inconclusive and analogous to commas. they *ause, but do not com*lete sentences, $xam*le ;-%

Ane s*ecial kind o- hal- cadence is called the :hrygian hal- cadence, 7t stems -rom the Medieval and Renaissance cadence used in :hrygian mode, Anly occuring in minor, a :hyrgian hal- cadence is iv@-<, otice the hal--ste* motion in the bass -rom le to sol, $xam*le ;-=

"adences do not occur every time there is a <-7 or similar *rogression in music, They are s*eci-ic structural moments in music +here clear harmonic movement and melodic structure align,

8@

Ather "adences
Authentic and hal- cadences are the most common cadences in tonal music, The other t+o cadences are used in more s*eci-ic +ays, A *lagal cadence 1:"2 o-ten occurs a-ter a *er-ect authentic cadence at the end o- a +ork, Although a conclusive cadence, it is re-lexive and is not ca*able o- marking structure on its o+n, A *lagal cadence is 7< 1iv2 / 7 1i2, $xam*le ;-6

A dece*tive cadence 1D"2 is so named because it avoids an authentic cadence by re*lacing 7 +ith another chord, most o-ten vi 1<72, 7n this +ay, dece*tive cadences extend *hrases, making them inconclusive, Remember to double the third in vi 1<72 to avoid *art+riting errors, $xam*le ;-@

Ca ence :er-ect Authentic 7m*er-ect Authentic :lagal >alDece*tive

$xam*le ;-8 Abbreviation Roman Numerals Conclusive or 'nconclusive :A" 7A" :" >" D" < R 7 1i2 < R 7 1i2 7< 1iv2 R 7 1i2 various R < < R vi 1<72 Most "onclusive "onclusive "onclusive 7nconclusive 7nconclusive

88

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, cadences, 'phrase diagrams$ modulations$ borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

8;

"ha*ter ?. :hrase #tructure

Musical -orm occurs on several levels, 5arge-scale -orms include binary, ternary, sonata, and rondo, +hich +ill be discussed later, 4ithin these -orms, music is organiBed into smaller structural units,

:hrase
A *hrase is a melodicDharmonic unit ending in a cadence, :hrases normally include multi*le motives and occur in -our-measure lengths, 7n very -ast music, they may be eight measures, or in slo+ music, they may be t+o, Although they can be di--erent lengths, -ourmeasure units are most common, "om*osers sometimes extend -our-measure *hrases by immediate cadence re*etition, seLuences, or other means, To identi-y *hrases, look -or cadence *oints, The melodic material bet+een cadences +ill likely be a cohesive unit, $xam*le ?-)

8?

:hrases and "adences

:hrases and cadences are t+o interrelated as*ects o- musical structure, "om*osers use the sha*es o- *hrases and cadence *lacement in tandem to delineate their music,

5abeling "adences
), Determine the harmonic rhythm, ', Find a *lace +here the harmonic rhythm changes, +here there are obvious rests, andDor +here the melody *auses, 5et your ear guide you, %, 5abel the harmonies, =, Determine the kind o- cadence based on the last t+o chords be-ore the *ause 1see $xam*le ;-82, 6, :lace a bracket beneath the roman numerals and +rite the correct cadence label,

9uilding 5arger 0nits Aut o- :hrases

A re*eated *hrase occurs +hen a *hrase is immediately restated, $xam*le ?-'

;( A *eriod is a t+o-*hrase unit +ith a more conclusive cadence at the end o- the second *hrase, The -irst *hrase is called the antecedent, and the second *hrase is called the conseLuent, A *eriod is *arallel +hen the melodic material at the beginning o- each *hrase is similar, $xam*le ?-%

A *eriod is contrasting +hen the melodic material at the beginning o- each *hrase is di--erent, $xam*le ?-=

;) A three-*hrase *eriod is still organiBed into t+o sections, but contains either t+o antecedents or t+o conseLuents, 7t can be *arallel or contrasting, $xam*le ?-6

;' A re*eated *eriod, like a re*eated *hrase, is a *eriod that is immediately restated, ote that in the -ollo+ing exam*le, the second statement o- the *eriod is trans*osed an octave higher and has a thicker texture, $xam*le ?-@

;% A double *eriod is a *eriod structure enlarged to cover -our *hrases, 7t can be *arallel or contrasting based on the relationshi* bet+een the -irst and third *hrases, The cadence at the end o- the second *hrase should be less conclusive than the -inal cadence, $xam*le ?-8

;=

Diagramming :hrases
5abeling *hrase structure is the beginning o- -orm analysis, :hrases are labeled +ith lo+ercase letters, <aried re*etitions share the same letter, +hile *hrases containing similar material share the same letter +ith a *rime symbol 1a32, Further similar *hrases add more *rime symbols 1a33, a3332, e+ *hrases +ith contrasting material are labeled +ith the next letter, :hrases are not diagrammed in the score, 7nstead, a *hrase is sho+n as a bracket +ith *hrase label, key, cadence, and cadence measure number, The larger *hrase structure is labeled above, including +hether *arallel or contrasting 1-or exam*le, *arallel double *eriod2, The -ollo+ing diagrams are tem*lates o- the various *hrase structures, #*eci-ic *ieces +ill have varied *hrase content, For exam*le, the double *eriods could end +ith b3 instead o- c, $xam*le ?-;

;6

;@

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, cadences, *hrase diagrams, 'modulations$ borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

;8

"ha*ter )(. :art 4riting #eventh "hords

:art +riting seventh chords is similar to *art +riting triads but reLuires care-ul handling o- the seventh o- the chord, Avoiding *arallel -i-ths and octaves, using correct doubling, and maintaining good s*acing are still necessary -or Luality *art +riting, The seventh o- any chord resolves do+n by ste*, 7t is a**roached by either ste* or common tone, $xam*le )(-)

$xam*le )(-'

;; #ince seventh chords are -our-note chords, it is *ossible -or each voice to have its o+n *itch, A -ully voiced seventh chord is called com*lete, An incom*lete seventh chord most o-ten omits the -i-th and doubles the root, ever double the seventh o- the chord, $xam*le )(-%

Root :osition. <8 R 7 1i2

9y -ar the most common seventh chord is <8, There are multi*le voicing *ossibilities +hen +riting <8 to 7 +ith both chords in root *osition, The bass +ill al+ays move -rom sol to do, <8 includes a tritone bet+een its third and seventh 1 ti and fa2, +hich is normally resolved +hen moving to 7, 4hen it is +ritten as an O=, the *itches resolve out+ardK +hen it is +ritten as a P6, the *itches resolve in+ard, This resolution reLuires that one chord be incom*lete, as seen belo+, The -irst voicing *ossibility is a com*lete < 8 resolving to an incom*lete 7, The seventh resolves do+n by ste* 1fa to mi2, the third resolves u* by ste* 1ti to do2, and the -i-th moves do+n by ste* 1re to do2, This voice leading results in a tonic triad that has a tri*led root and omits the -i-th, $xam*le )(-=

;? The second *ossibility is an incom*lete < 8 resolving to a com*lete 7, The seventh resolves do+n by ste* 1fa to mi2, the third resolves u* by ste* 1ti to do2, and the doubled root 1not the bass2 remains as a common tone 1sol to sol2, $xam*le )(-6

The third *ossibility is a com*lete < 8 resolving to a com*lete 7, The seventh resolves do+n by ste* 1fa to mi2, the third descends by lea* 1ti to sol2 only in an inner voice, and the -i-th moves do+n by ste* 1re to do2, This voicing allo+s -or both chords to be com*lete, but does not resolve the tritone, $xam*le )(-@

7nversions o- <8 and any other seventh chords -ollo+ the *revious *art +riting guidelines,

Root :osition. <8 R vi 1<72

As +ith < to vi, <8 to vi results in a doubled third 1do2, The seventh resolves do+n by ste* 1fa to mi2, the third resolves u* by ste* 1ti to do2, and the -i-th moves do+n by ste* 1re to do2, 4atch -or *otential voice-leading *roblems, such as *arallels or the O' in minor, $xam*le )(-8

?(

viiP8 R i
viiP8 contains t+o tritones. one bet+een the root and -i-th 1 ti and fa2 and the other bet+een the third and seventh 1re and le2, Resolving both tritones and doubling the third in the tonic triad is the most common voice leading, $xam*le )(-;

"ircle o- 6ths +ith #eventh "hords

7n root *osition, a circle o- -i-ths *rogression using seventh chords reLuires alternating com*lete and incom*lete chords, 7n inversion, it is *ossible to use com*lete chords, 4hile the seventh o- the chord still resolves do+n by ste*, the third o- the chord moves to the seventh o- the -ollo+ing chord, $xam*le )(-?

?)

"ha*ter )). #econdary Function

ToniciBation
"om*osers o-ten em*hasiBe *itches other than the tonic by chromatically altering scale degrees to create hal--ste* motion that *arallels ti to do in diatonic music, This techniLue is called toniciBation, The chromatically raised *itch is called a secondary leading tone, ToniciBation in a harmonic context o-ten uses the secondary leading tone in a dominant-unction chord, The toniciBed *itch, the *itch a m' above the secondary leading tone, is treated like a tem*orary tonic, 7n the exam*le belo+, the $ in the bass in the -irst *rogression becomes an $# in the second pro#ression to tonici$e the followin# %#, #econdary -unction chords resolve to the chord they are toniciBing, $xam*le ))-)

?'

#econdary Dominants
A secondary dominant is a maGor triad or dominant seventh chord built on the *itch a :6 above the tem*orary tonic, Any maGor or minor triad 1other than the tonic2 can be toniciBed, +hile diminished triads cannot be toniciBed, A secondary dominant resolves to the chord a :6 belo+ its root, as in < resolving to 7, The exam*le belo+ sho+s secondary triad and seventh chord *ossibilities in various inversions, ote that in certain chords, the chromatically altered *itch is the seventh o- the chord, 7t is lo+ered a hal- ste* and resolves do+n, *aralleling fa to mi, $xam*le ))-' Secon ar" Dominants in Ma*or +e"s Secon ar" Tria Secon ar" Seventh Chor

Diatonic

?% Diatonic Secon ar" Tria Secon ar" Seventh Chor

Diatonic

Secon ar" Dominants in Minor +e"s Secon ar" Tria Secon ar" Seventh Chor

?= The most common secondary dominants are <8D<, <8D7<1iv2, and <8D777, #econdary dominants a**ear as seventh chords more -reLuently than as triads, 7t is also *ossible -or secondary chords to resolve dece*tively, $xam*le ))-%

?6 <182D777 in minor uses b7 as its root, reLuiring no accidentals, #ince it al+ays resolves to 777, it is analyBed as a secondary dominant, as is seen in $xam*le =-8 1*, =@2 and $xam*le ))-= belo+, $xam*le ))-=

>o+ to 7denti-y a #econdary Dominant

), Find the chromatically altered chord, ', Find its root, The chord is either a maGor triad or a dominant seventh chord, %, Find the *itch a :6 belo+ the root, =, This *itch is the root o- a diatonic maGor or minor triad, 6, The chromatically altered chord is a secondary dominant and is called <182Dx, 1V is the roman numeral o- the triad in the *revious ste*,2 7- the altered chord does not meet all o- the criteria listed above, it is not a secondary dominant, :roceed to I>o+ to 7denti-y a #econdary 5eading-Tone "hordJ belo+,

>o+ to 4rite a #econdary Dominant

), Find the root o- the chord to be toniciBed, 7t should be a maGor or minor triad, ', Find the *itch a :6 above the root, %, 9uild either a maGor triad or a dominant seventh chord on this *itch, 7t +ill normally reLuire accidentals,

?@

#econdary 5eading-Tone "hords

A secondary leading-tone chord is a diminished triad, hal--diminished seventh chord, or -ully-diminished seventh chord built on the *itch a m' belo+ the tem*orary tonic, A secondary leading-tone chord resolves to the chord a m' above its root, as in viiP resolving to 7, A secondary leading-tone chord serves the same -unction as a secondary dominant that toniciBes the same scale degree, For exam*le, viiP8D< and <8D< both toniciBe the dominant, <, The exam*le belo+ sho+s secondary -ully-diminished seventh chord *ossibilities in various inversions, $xam*le ))-6 Secon ar" /ea ing0Tone Chor s in Ma*or Secon ar" Dominant Secon ar" Seventh Chor

Diatonic

?8 Secon ar" /ea ing0Tone Chor s in Minor Secon ar" Dominant Secon ar" Seventh Chor

Diatonic

?; The most common secondary leading-tone chords are viiP8D<, viiP8D7<1iv2, and viiP8D777, #econdary leading-tone chords a**ear as seventh chords more -reLuently than as triads, 4hen toniciBing a maGor triad, the secondary leading-tone seventh chord is normally -ully-diminished, but hal--diminished is *ossible, $xam*le ))-@

??

>o+ to 7denti-y a #econdary 5eading-Tone "hord

), Find the chord that is chromatically altered and is not a secondary dominant, ', Find the root, The chord is a diminished triad, a hal--diminished seventh chord, or a -ully-diminished seventh chord, %, Find the *itch a m' above the root, =, This *itch is the root o- a diatonic maGor or minor triad, 6, The chromatically altered chord is a secondary leading-tone chord and is called viiP1&2182Dx, 1V is the roman numeral o- the triad in the *revious ste*,2 7- the altered chord does not meet all o- the criteria listed above, it is not a secondary leadingtone chord, :roceed to I>o+ to 7denti-y a 9orro+ed "hordJ in cha*ter thirteen,

>o+ to 4rite a #econdary 5eading-Tone "hord

), Find the root o- the chord to be toniciBed, 7t should be a maGor or minor triad, ', Find the *itch a m' belo+ the root, %, 9uild a diminished triad, a hal--diminished seventh chord, or a -ullydiminished seventh chord on this *itch, 7t +ill reLuire accidentals,

#econdary Functions in the >armonic :rogression

As stated above, a secondary--unction chord resolves to the chord it toniciBes 1the chord belo+ the slash2, There are three *ossibilities -or determining the chord to *recede it. ), a secondary dominant chord re*laces the diatonic chord built on the same root, +hile a secondary leading-tone chord re*laces the diatonic chord +hose root is a M% lo+er, ', a secondary--unction chord occurs bet+een t+o adGacent chords in the harmonic *rogression 1< R <8Dvi R vi2, or %, a secondary--unction chord is a**roached and resolved by its toniciBing chord 1< R <8D< R <2, 4hen in doubt, *recede it +ith the tonic,

)((

"ha*ter )'. Modulation

"om*osers o-ten change keys during a *iece o- music to delineate its structure, #uch a key change, +hich hel*s create interest and tension, is called modulation, Modulation reLuires a change o- tonic, Movement bet+een *arallel keys is called change o- mode, not modulation, because the tonic remains the same, "hange o- mode is discussed in cha*ter thirteen,

"losely Related Keys

Modulations usually occur bet+een closely related keys, +hich include the relative key and the ones +ith one accidental more or less in their signatures, These relationshi*s are easily visualiBed on the circle o- -i-ths, as seen belo+, Keys can be labeled +ith roman numerals to sho+ their relationshi*s, $xam*le )'-) Closel" Relate +e"s to C ma*or

FC F
7< ' <

d a e
ii vi iii

Diagram copyright MacG M!" Music #oftware$ %nc& !sed by permission&

)() Closel" Relate +e"s to C minor

A ' (
I III II

f
iv

c
i

#
v

Diagram copyright MacG M!" Music #oftware$ %nc& !sed by permission&

>o+ to 7denti-y Modulations

), "onsistently used chromatic *itches that im*ly a ne+ key, ', I"lue chordsJ 1dominant seventh chords and leading-tone chords2 in the ne+ key, %, "adences in the ne+ key, =, 9ass movement o- 1, 4, 5, 1 or similar tonal *atterns in the ne+ key,

)('

:ivot-"hord Modulation
The most common kind o- modulation is the *ivot-chord modulation, +hich uses a chord diatonic to both keys as a common chord, This chord 1the *ivot2 smoothly connects the keys +ithin a single *hrase, Ane +ay to -ind common chords bet+een t+o closely related keys is to align the keys3 diatonic chords as seen belo+, $xam*le )'-'

The *ivot is normally *redominant in -unction 1ii, 7<, or sometimes vi2, and is marked +ith a bracket that includes roman numerals in both keys as seen in $xam*le )'-%,

)(%

>o+ to 7denti-y :ivot-"hord Modulations

), Find the ne+ key using I>o+ to 7denti-y ModulationsJ above, ', Find the -irst chord that does not make sense in the original key, %, Fo back one chord, This is the *ivot, 5abel it in both keys +ith a bracket, $xam*le )'-%

)(= $xam*le )'-=

Ather Modulations
A chromatic modulation has a chromatic line in one voice that leads to a ne+ key, The altered *itch is o-ten ti or fa in the ne+ key, o common chord is labeled bet+een the t+o keysK each chord is labeled only once, Ane note must be raised or lo+ered by a hal- ste* in a single voice +ithout changing the note name 1-or exam*le, -rom " to " #2, $xam*le )'-6

)(6 A *hrase modulation occurs +hen a *hrase ends in one key and the next *hrase begins in a ne+ key, o common chord is labeled bet+een the t+o keysK each chord is labeled only once, $xam*le )'-@

)(@

Another kind o- modulation, common-tone modulation, +ill be discussed in cha*ter thirteen,

)(8

ToniciBation and Modulation

The line bet+een secondary -unctions and changes o- key is not al+ays clear, A brie*assage in a di--erent key usually indicates toniciBation, +hile an extended *assage in a di--erent key signals modulation, 7n exam*le ?-6 1*, ;(2, 9eethoven begins in A minor, but ends the -irst *hrase +ith an im*er-ect authentic cadence in " maGor, The second *hrase returns immediately to A minor, This exam*le clearly sho+s the ambiguity bet+een toniciBation and modulation,

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, cadences, *hrase diagrams, modulations, 'borrowed harmonies$ and form labels*,

)(;

"ha*ter )%. Modal 9orro+ing

To achieve harmonic variety, com*osers o-ten borro+ chords -rom the *arallel key, This techniLue can be vie+ed in three di--erent +ays, The -irst is a brie- use o- a borro+ed chord, called borro+ed harmony, The second includes a longer *assage o- borro+ed harmonies and is called mode mixture, The last, change o- mode, im*lies an extended *assage in the *arallel key, such as a sym*hony in minor that ends in the *arallel maGor 1-or exam*le, 9eethoven #ym*hony o, 62,

Modal 9orro+ing in Minor

The most common borro+ing in minor is the :icardy third, 9aroLue music in minor o-ten ends on the tonic triad borro+ed -rom the *arallel maGor key by raising 3, $xam*le )%-)

)(?

Modal 9orro+ing in MaGor

Most borro+ed chords occur in maGor keys because minor keys contain more diatonic chord-Luality *ossibilities, The chords that are most likely to be modi-ied contain 6, +hich is lo+ered to b6 +hen borro+ed, 9orro+ed chords can be divided into t+o grou*s. ones +ith and ones +ithout altered roots, 7n the -ollo+ing exam*le, the roman numerals I and III reLuire -lats because o- the altered roots that are lo+ered a hal- ste*, Flats are still used +ith the roman numerals, even i- the altered root reLuires a natural accidental, To re-lect the mode mixture, IborJ is added to each roman numeral, $xam*le )%-'

))( $xam*le )%-%

)))

>o+ to 7denti-y a 9orro+ed "hord

), The chord is chromatically altered and is not a secondary dominant or a secondary leading-tone chord, ', The chord Luality occurs diatonically in the *arallel maGor or minor key, %, The chromatically altered chord is a borro+ed chord and should be labeled +ith a roman numeral, Ibor,J and a i- the root is altered, 7- the altered chord does not meet all o- the criteria listed above, it is not a borro+ed chord, :roceed to I>o+ to 7denti-y a ea*olitan #ixth "hordJ in cha*ter -ourteen,

"hromatic Mediants
9orro+ed chords are o-ten chromatic mediants, +hich are chords o- the same mode a third a*art, 4hen labeling chromatic-mediant chords, -irst make sure the chord is not -unctioning as a secondary dominant, This chromatic-mediant relationshi* can also be a**lied to modulations, From a given key, there are -our chromatic mediants, +hich are distantly related, $xam*le )%-=

A
I

'
III

C
I

A
I

'
III

))' $xam*le )%-6

))%

))=

Mode Mixture and Modulation

Mode mixture creates ne+ *ossibilities -or smooth *rogressions bet+een distantly related keys, "om*osers o-ten use a change o- mode to *re*are -or a modulation to a key that is distantly related to the original key, but is closely related to its *arallel maGor or minor, $xam*le )%-@ Distantl" Relate +e"s to A ma*or an minor

% C )
I III II

d a e
iv i v

* A '
I I

b f# c#
ii vi iii

Diagram copyright MacG M!" Music #oftware$ %nc& !sed by permission&

))6 $xam*le )%-8

))@

"ommon-Tone Modulation
A common-tone modulation is another +ay to create a smooth modulation to a distantly related key, A-ten the com*oser em*hasiBes the common tone, +hich is a single *itch that is reinter*reted as a di--erent member o- the triad 1 A. " as the third becomes the root in " maGor2, This modulation is usually to a key that is a chromatic mediant a+ay, $xam*le )%-;

))8

));

Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, cadences, *hrase diagrams, modulations, borro+ed harmonies, 'and form labels*,

))?

"ha*ter )=. Altered :redominants

ea*olitan #ixth "hord
The ea*olitan sixth chord 1 @2 is a common chromatic alteration o- ii P@ or iv in minor, +hich. ), occurs in -irst inversion, ', has a root lo+ered a hal- ste* 1 re becomes ra2, %, doubles the bass 1fa2, =, maintains its *redominant -unction, and 6, resolves to a dominant chord +ith ra descending to ti. The ea*olitan can also be considered a maGor triad built on b2, +hich gives the chord a *ungent sound in the key, $xam*le )=-)

$xam*le )=-'

)'( 7t is also *ossible -or an @ to occur in maGor, +hich reLuires an additional accidental to change la to le, @ is more common in minor, $xam*le )=-%

The use o- ra is akin to ti in that it is a hal- ste* -rom the tonic and -unctions as an u**er leading tone, 9y descending to ti, this u**er leading tone strengthens the im*ulse to resolve to do, 4hen chords such as the cadential six--our occur bet+een @ and the dominant, do occurs bet+een ra and ti, Do in the six--our chord creates a smooth melodic voice, but because this chord is dissonant, it reLuires resolution through ti, $xam*le )=-=

>o+ to 7denti-y a ea*olitan #ixth "hord

), The chord is chromatically altered and is not a secondary dominant, secondary leading-tone chord, or a borro+ed chord, ', The chord is a maGor triad in -irst inversion +ith ra as its root, %, The chromatically altered chord is a ea*olitan sixth chord and should be labeled @ , 7- the altered chord does not meet all o- the criteria listed above, it is not a ea*olitan sixth chord, :roceed to I>o+ to 7denti-y an Augmented #ixth "hordJ belo+,

)')

Ather 0ses o- the ea*olitan

5ike other chords, the ea*olitan may occur in other inversions, as a seventh chord, be *receded by its secondary -unction, or be resolved +ith chords other than <, The -ollo+ing exam*le sho+s the inter*olation o- viiP8D< bet+een @ and <, ote the movement o- ra to do to ti on the beats in the so*rano, $xam*le )=-6

)''

Augmented #ixth "hords

The three augmented sixth chords 1O@2, 7talian, French, and Ferman, also have *redominant -unction, They each contain the t+o tendency tones to sol. le and fi, +hich create an O@, For no+, le al+ays a**ears in the bass, 5ike @ and other altered *redominants, O@ *recedes <,

7talian Augmented #ixth "hord

The 7talian augmented sixth chord 17t O@2 contains le, do, and fi, 7n -our-*art +riting, do is doubled, Le and fi both are resolved to sol, +hile one do descends to ti and the other do ascends to re, $xam*le )=-@

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French Augmented #ixth "hord

The French augmented sixth chord 1FrO@2 contains le, do, re, and fi, Le and fi are both resolved to sol, +hile do descends to ti and re remains as a common tone, $xam*le )=-;

)'= 9oth 7tO@ and FrO@ may resolve to the cadential six--our be-ore arriving on <, $xam*le )=-?

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Ferman Augmented #ixth "hord

The Ferman augmented sixth chord 1FerO@2 contains le, do, me, and fi, 0nlike 7tO@ and FrO@, FerO@ must *roceed to the cadential six--our chord be-ore arriving on < to avoid *arallel -i-ths, Le and fi are both resolved to sol, +hile do remains as a common tone until <, +hen it descends to ti, 7n minor, me also remains as a common tone until <, +hen it either descends to re or ascends to fa 1creating an incom*lete < 82, 7n maGor, me becomes mi be-ore descending to re or ascending to fa, $xam*le )=-)(

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>o+ to 7denti-y an Augmented #ixth "hord

), The chord is chromatically altered and is not a secondary dominant, secondary leading-tone chord, borro+ed chord, or a ea*olitan sixth chord, ', The chord contains le, do, and fi, 7t may also contain either re or me, %, The chromatically altered chord is an augmented sixth chord and should be labeled 7tO@ 1le, do, fi2, FrO@ 1le, do, re, fi2, or FerO@ 1le, do, me, fi2, 7- the altered chord does not meet all o- the criteria listed above, it is not an augmented sixth chord, Any other chromatically altered chords +ill be discussed later in your theory studies, 7- you have arrived at this *oint in attem*ting to identi-y a chromatically altered chord, *lease double check your +ork,

Ather 0ses o- Augmented #ixth "hords

Augmented sixth chords can occur as double tendency tones to scale degrees other than sol, +ith enharmonic res*ellings, or in inversion 1fi in the bass2,

)'8

"ha*ter )6. 9inary and Ternary Form

As seen in cha*ter nine, *hrases are combined to create *eriods and double *eriods, This same *rocess is used to create the next structural level o- musical -orms, The three standard small -orms are binary, rounded binary, and ternary, More com*lex large -orms, such as sonata and rondo, +ill be discussed later in your studies,

9inary Form
9inary -orm, as its name suggests, is organiBed into t+o *arts, :art Ane begins in the tonic key and *resents the basic musical material, :art Ane may end tonally in t+o di--erent +ays, creating either a tonally closed or a tonally o*en -orm, The less common -orm, tonally closed binary, ends :art Ane +ith an authentic cadence in the tonic key, The more common -orm, tonally o*en binary, ends :art Ane in one o- three +ays. ), a hal- cadence in the tonic key, ', an authentic cadence in the dominant key in maGor, or %, in minor, an authentic cadence in the relative maGor, :art T+o normally toniciBes or modulates to various closely related keys be-ore returning to the tonic near the end o- the binary, Motivically, binary -orms are normally based on one thematic idea, +hich is extended and modi-ied during the movement, Tonally, binary -orms are usually based on an overall movement -rom tonic to dominant and back to tonic that connects the t+o *arts o- the -orm, $ven in minor-key exam*les that move to the relative maGor, there is usually a section in the dominant be-ore the return to the tonic, Another de-ining characteristic o- binary -orm is the relative length o- each *art, 7:art Ane and :art T+o have the same number o- measures, it is called a symmetrical binary -orm, 7- :art T+o is longer than the -irst, it is called an asymmetrical binary -orm, 9inary -orms are normally tonally o*en and asymmetrical,

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Another -reLuently used uni-ying -eature o- binary -orm is called cadence rhyme, "adence rhyme occurs +hen the cadence at the end o- :art Ane in the dominant or relative maGor key returns at the end o- :art T+o trans*osed to the tonic, This similarity o- cadences mirrors *oetic rhyme in literature, ote that the similarity +ill be rhythmically andDor melodically recogniBable, but not necessarily identical,

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Rounded 9inary
Rounded binary contains all the -eatures o- binary -orm discussed above but adds an additional element. the return o- the o*ening melodic material -rom :art Ane in the tonic key near the end o- :art T+o, This return, called the rounding o- the -orm, extends :art T+o, ote that rounding may be disguised or modi-ied to -it the musical context, Rounded binary -orms can like+ise be tonally o*en or closed, asymmetrical or symmetrical, and contain the same tonal *aradigms as non-rounded binaries, on-rounded binary -orm o-ten uses similar material in :art Ane and :art T+o, but avoids literal re*etition or return, Rounded binary includes literal re*etition, Rounded binary -orms are normally tonally o*en and asymmetrical,

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5abeling 9inary Forms

), 7s the *iece in binary -ormW ', Find the cadence at the end o- :art Ane, 7s :art Ane tonally o*en or closedW %, "om*are the lengths o- each *art, 7s the -orm symmetrical or asymmetricalW =, 5ook at the end o- :art T+o, 7s the -orm roundedW 6, Do the cadences at the ends o- :arts Ane and T+o rhymeW @, 5abel the -orm using terminology -rom ste*s )-6, For exam*le, tonally o*en asymmetrical binary +ith cadence rhyme 1TAA9 +D"R2,

Ternary
Ternary -orm contains three discrete and tonally inde*endent sections, and is -undamentally based on the conce*t o- statement, contrast, and restatement 1A9A2, $ach section is usually tonally closed, The -irst A section is in the tonic key and *resents the basic musical material, :art 9 creates strong contrast +ith the outer sections through the use one+ musical material, 7t normally introduces a ne+ key, ne+ melodic material, and may contrast in other as*ects such as rhythm, texture, and range, The third section o- the -orm is a return o- AK i- not exact, it is labeled A3, The three sections are usually similar in length, though the 9 section may be some+hat shorter than the outer sections i- it *rovides extreme contrast,

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Rounded 9inary or TernaryW

7t is sometimes di--icult to di--erentiate bet+een rounded binary and ternary, >ere are general characteristics to hel* identi-y ambiguous -orms, These are only the normsK there +ill be exce*tions to these guidelines, ), Rounded binary is tonally o*en, +hile ternary is tonally closed, ', Rounded binary uses the same motivic material throughout, +hile ternary has unrelated melodies bet+een the sections, %, Rounded binary contains a single harmonic movement across the t+o sections, +hile the modulations in a ternary -orm do not connect the three sections, =, The return o- :art Ane material in rounded binary is o-ten *artial or altered, +hile the ternary return o- :art A is com*lete, 6, :art T+o in rounded binary moves -rom dominant back to tonic, +hile :art 9 in ternary begins in a non-tonic key and does not return to the tonic, @, Rounded binary o-ten has t+o re*eat signs, +hile ternary does not,

"om*ound Ternary
7n the minuet and trio 1third2 movements in classical-*eriod multi-movement +orks, such as sonatas and sym*honies, each section is usually a binary -orm, but the large-scale -orm containing the minuet, the trio, and the return o- the minuet is called com*ound ternary, 7t is com*ound because each section o- the ternary is its o+n smaller -orm,

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Fuidelines -or Analysis

Remember to include in every analysis, unless other+ise stated. key, roman numerals +ith inversion symbols, six--our chord ty*es, nonharmonic tones, cadences, *hrase diagrams, modulations, borro+ed harmonies, and -orm labels,