Human Physiology (Biology 4) Laboratory Exercises

Instructor: Rebecca Bailey

Laboratory Exercises Lab 1: The Microscope and Overview of Organ Systems..................page 3 Lab 2: Ce s ! Tiss"es #See S"pp ement$........................................page 1% Lab 3: Transport 1 ! 2 #See S"pp ement for &art 2$........................page 1' Labs ( and %: )ervo"s System #*+*M$...........................................page 1, Lab ': -ef e.es ! Senses//////...........................................page 20 Lab 1: M"sc" ar System #*+*M$.....................................................page 32 Lab 1a: 2ho e M"sc e 3"nction #See S"pp ement$.........................page 33 444this ab is not done every semester5 chec6 yo"r sched" e444 Lab 7: 8C9 and Cardiovasc" ar System/......................................page 3( Lab ,: Cardiovasc" ar System #See S"pp ement5 *+*M$...............page (3 Lab 10: : ood///.........................................................................page (( Lab 11: : ood S ides and -espiratory System #*+*M$....................page %0 Lab 12: -espiratory System.............................................................page %3 Lab 13: ;rinary System....................................................................page %7 Lab 1(: +igestive System and *cid<:ase +emo..............................page '(

At the end of each lab, you should be able to understand the concepts and processes learned and answer any of the questions investigated in the activity. You are expected to identify microscopic tissues/organs and state functions, concisely express concepts learned, and explain outcomes of experiments on lab practical exams.

Lab 1: The

icrosco!e an" #$er$ie% o& #rgan 'ystems

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines For Microscope 4 yo" wi earn how to proper y "se and care for the microscope 4 fo ow instr"ctions in ab caref" y 4 instr"ctor wi review care and c eaning of microscopes 4 fie d si=e activity wi be done as a who e c ass 4 do not "se oi immersion today5 b"t fi o"t as m"ch of the chart as yo" can For rgan !ystems

4 6now the names of each organ system and the organs in each 4 find the fo owing organs on torso mode s: heart5 6idneys5 "ngs5 trachea5 brain5 esophag"s5 b ood vesse s5 adrena g ands5 iver5 stomach5 sma and arge intestine5 pancreas5 ga b adder5 "reters5 b adder5 sp een 4 6now basic f"nctions of organ systems

The
Microscope :asics

icrosco!e

The microscope m"st a ways be hand ed proper y. >o" m"st observe the fo owing r" es for its transport5 c eaning5 "se5 and storage: ? Transport in an "pright position with one hand on the arm and the other s"pporting the base. Set it down caref" y at yo"r wor6 station. +o not drag it across the tab e. ? ;se on y specia ens paper to c ean the enses. C ean a enses before and after "se. S ides sho" d a so be c eaned. ? * ways begin the foc"sing process with the (. or 10. ob@ective ens in position5 changing to the higher4power enses as necessary. ? The coarse ad@"stment 6nob may be "sed with the (. or 10. ens5 b"t "se on y the fine ad@"stment with (0. or 100.. ? *d@"st ighting appropriate y. T"rn off the ight when not in "se. ? * ways "se a cover s ip with temporary #wet mo"nt$ preparations. ? 2hen yo" p"t the microscope away5 remove the s ide from the stage5 and rotate the owest4power ob@ective ens into position. 2rap the cord aro"nd the c ips on the bac65 not aro"nd the base. ? )ever remove or oosen any parts from the microscope. ? Anform yo"r instr"ctor of any mechanica prob ems. *ctivity 1: Adentifying the &arts of a Microscope 1. Obtain a microscope and bring it to the aboratory bench. #;se the proper transport techniB"eC$ Compare yo"r microscope with the fig"re on the fo owing page and identify the fo owing microscope parts: :ase: S"pports the microscope. S"bstage ight: Located in the base5 the ight passes direct y "pward thro"gh the microscope. Stage: The p atform the s ide rests on whi e being viewed. The stage has a ho e in it to permit ight to pass thro"gh both it and the specimen. The mechanica stage permits precise movement of the specimen. Condenser: Concentrates the ight on the specimen. The condenser has a height4 ad@"stment 6nob that raises and owers the condenser to vary ight de ivery. 9enera y5 the best position for the condenser is c ose to the inferior s"rface of the stage.

oc" ar enses

head

arm rotating nosepiece with ob@ective enses mechanica stage stage condenser coarse ad@"stment 6nob iris diaphragm mechanica stage contro s

fine ad@"stment 6nob s"bstage ight base ight contro

Aris diaphragm dia : +ia attached to the condenser that reg" ates the amo"nt of ight passing thro"gh the condenser. The iris diaphragm permits the best possib e contrast when viewing the specimen. Coarse ad@"stment 6nob: ;sed to foc"s on the specimen when on (. or 10.. 3ine ad@"stment 6nob: ;sed for precise foc"sing once coarse foc"sing has been comp eted. ;se on y this 6nob when on (0. or 100.. Dead or body t"be: S"pports the ob@ective ens system5 and the oc" ar enses. *rm: Eertica portion of the microscope connecting the base and the head. Oc" ar #or eyepiece$: There are two enses at the s"perior end of the head5 thro"gh which observations are made. *n oc" ar ens has a magnification of 10.. Af yo"r microscope has a pointer5 it is attached to the right oc" ar and can be positioned by

rotating the oc" ar ens )ose piece: Das fo"r ob@ective enses and permits seB"entia positioning of these enses over the ight beam passing thro"gh the ho e in the stage. ;se the nose piece to change the ob@ective enses. Ob@ective enses: *d@"stab e ens system that permits the "se of a scanning ens5 a ow4power ens5 a high4power ens5 or an oi immersion ens. The ob@ective enses have different magnifying and reso ving powers. 2. Loo6 at the ob@ective enses caref" y. The shortest ens is the scanning ens5 and has magnification of (.. The ow power ens is 10.. The high4power ob@ective ens is (0.. The oi immersion ob@ective ens is "s"a y the ongest of the ob@ective enses and has a magnifying power of 100.. -ecord the magnification of each ob@ective ens of yo"r microscope in the first row of the s"mmary chart. 3. -otate the owest power ob@ective ens "nti it c ic6s into position5 and t"rn the coarse ad@"stment 6nob abo"t 170 degrees. )otice how far the stage #or ob@ective ens$ trave s d"ring this ad@"stment. Move the fine ad@"stment 6nob 170 degrees5 noting again the distance that the stage #or ob@ective ens$ moves.

'(

)R* +H)RT
'canning Lo% Po%er . . mm . . mm High Po%er . . mm #il Immersion . . mm

agni&ication o& ob,ecti$e lens Total magni&ication -or.ing "istance /etail obser$e" ("ra% or "escribe) 0iel" si1e ("iameter)

mm m

mm m

mm m

mm m

Magnification and -eso "tion

The microscope is designed to magnify specimens. >o"r microscope is ca ed a compo"nd microscope beca"se it "ses two enses to magnify the specimen. The ob@ective ens magnifies the specimen to prod"ce a rea image that is pro@ected to the oc" ar. This rea image is magnified by the oc" ar ens to prod"ce the virt"a image seen by yo"r eye. The tota magnification of any specimen being viewed is eB"a to the power of the oc" ar ens m" tip ied by the power of the ob@ective ens. Af the oc" ar ens magnifies 10. and the ob@ective ens magnifies %0.5 the tota magnification is %00. #10 . %0$. ? +etermine the tota magnification with each of the ob@ectives on yo"r microscope and record in the chart. 2ith a compo"nd ight microscope s"ch as the one yo" are "sing5 the eve of magnification is a most imit ess5 b"t the reso "tion #reso ving power$ is not. -eso "tion refers to the abi ity to discriminate two c ose ob@ects as separate. The h"man eye can reso ve ob@ects abo"t 100 m apart5 b"t the compo"nd microscope has a reso "tion of 0.2 m "nder idea conditions. Ob@ects c oser than 0.2 m are seen as a sing e f"sed image. -eso ving power is determined by the amo"nt and physica properties of the visib e ight that enters the microscope. An genera 5 the more ight de ivered to the ob@ective ens5 the greater the reso "tion. The si=e of the ob@ective ens apert"re #opening$ decreases with increasing magnification5 a owing ess ight to enter the ob@ective. >o" wi i6e y need to increase the ight intensity at the higher magnifications. *ctivity 2: Eiewing Ob@ects Thro"gh the Microscope 1. Obtain a mi imeter r" er and a etter FeF s ide. *d@"st the condenser to its highest position and switch on the ight so"rce of yo"r microscope. 2. & ace the s ide on the stage #in the s ide ho der$ so that the etter e is centered over the ight beam passing thro"gh the stage. 3. 2ith yo"r owest power ob@ective ens in position over the stage5 "se the coarse ad@"stment 6nob to bring the ob@ective ens and stage as c ose together as possib e. (. Loo6 thro"gh the oc" ar ens and ad@"st the ight for comfort "sing the iris diaphragm. )ow "se the coarse ad@"stment 6nob to foc"s s ow y away from the e "nti it is as c ear y foc"sed as possib e. Comp ete the foc"sing with the fine ad@"stment 6nob. %. S6etch the etter e in the space on the s"mmary chart @"st as it appears in the fie d #the area yo" see thro"gh the microscope$. Dow far is the bottom of the ob@ective ens from the specimenG This is the wor6ing distance. ;se a mi imeter r" er to ma6e this meas"rement #an estimate is fine$.

-ecord the detai observed and the wor6ing distance in the s"mmary chart. Dow has the apparent orientation of the e changed #compared to what yo" see oo6ing at the s ide with the na6ed eye$G HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH '. Move the s ide s ow y away from yo" on the stage as yo" view it thro"gh the oc" ar ens. An what direction does the image moveG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH Move the s ide to the eft. An what direction does the image moveG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 1. Most aboratory microscopes are parfoca . This means the s ide sho" d be in foc"s #or near y so$ at the higher magnifications once yo" have proper y foc"sed. 2itho"t to"ching the foc"sing 6nobs5 increase the magnification by rotating the ne.t higher magnification ens into position over the stage. Ma6e s"re it c ic6s into position. ;sing the fine ad@"stment on y5 sharpen the foc"s. )otice the decrease in wor6ing distance. On high power or oi immersion5 foc"sing with the coarse ad@"stment 6nob co" d drive the ob@ective ens thro"gh the s ide5 brea6ing the s ide and possib y damaging the ens. S6etch the etter e in the s"mmary chart. 2hat new detai s can yo" observeG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH -ecord the detai observed5 and wor6ing distance in the s"mmary chart. As the image arger or sma er than on the previo"s magnificationG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH *ppro.imate y how m"ch of the etter e is visib e nowG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH As the fie d arger or sma erG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 2hy is it necessary to center yo"r ob@ect #or the portion of the s ide yo" wish to view$ before changing to a higher powerG

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH Move the iris diaphragm ever whi e observing the fie d. 2hat happensG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH As it more desirab e to increase or decrease the ight when changing to a higher magnificationG 2hyG HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 7. -epeat the steps given in direction I1 "sing the high4power ob@ective ens. -ecord the detai observed5 and wor6ing distance in the s"mmary chart. ,. 2e wi not "se the oi immersion ens today5 b"t yo" wi earn to "se it ater in the semester. )ever c ic6 an oi immersion ens into p ace witho"t "sing oi proper y. >o" sho" d fi in as m"ch of the s"mmary chart as yo" can right now. 2hat do yo" thin6 the wor6ing distance sho" d be on oi immersionG 2hat do yo" thin6 yo" wo" d observeG

Si=e of the Microscope 3ie d :y this time yo" sho" d 6now that the si=e of the microscope fie d decreases with

increasing magnification. 3or f"t"re microscope wor65 it wi be "sef" to determine the diameter of each of the microscope fie ds. This information wi a ow yo" to ma6e an estimate of the si=e of the ob@ects yo" view in any fie d. 3or e.amp e5 if yo" have ca c" ated the fie d diameter to be ( mm and the ob@ect being observed e.tends across ha f this diameter5 yo" can estimate the ength of the ob@ect to be appro.imate y 2 mm. Microscopic specimens are "s"a y meas"red in micrometers # m$ and mi imeters #mm$5 both "nits of the metric system. *ctivity 3: +etermining the Si=e of the Microscope 3ie d 1. 2e wi do the first part of this activity as a c ass. >o" wi earn to meas"re the si=e of the fie d of view on (.5 then ca c" ate it for the other ob@ective enses. The " timate goa is to be ab e to estimate the si=e of an ob@ect in yo"r fie d of view. Af yo" are waiting for other gro"ps to finish5 yo" may ta6e a B"ic6 brea6 #ma6e s"re yo" are bac6 in time to do fie d si=e$ or move on to one of the other activities sched" ed for today.

2. 8stimate the ength # ongest dimension$ of the fo owing microscopic ob@ects. :ase yo"r ca c" ations on the fie d si=es yo" have determined for yo"r microscope.

10

a. Ob@ect seen in ow4power fie d:

appro.imate ength: HHHHHHHHHH mm

b. Ob@ect seen in high4power fie d:

appro.imate ength: HHHHHHHHHH mm or HHHHHHHHHH m

c. Ob@ect seen in oi immersion fie d:

appro.imate ength: HHHHHHHHHH m 3. Af an ob@ect viewed with the oi immersion ens oo6ed as it does in the fie d depicted be ow5 co" d yo" determine its appro.imate si=e from this viewG Af not then how co" d yo" determine itG

11

&erceiving +epth *ny microscopic specimen has depth as we as ength and width. >o" wi rare y view a tiss"e s ide with @"st one ayer of ce s. )orma y yo" can see two or three ce thic6nesses. An microscope wor6 the depth of fie d #the depth of the specimen c ear y in foc"s$ is greater at ower magnifications. An other words5 yo" can c ear y see more ayers of ce s on ower magnifications. On high magnifications5 yo" can on y foc"s on one ayer at a time5 and the other ayers may appear b "rred. Jeep this in mind when wor6ing with the microscope.

Overview of Organ Systems

#rgan 'ystem a,or #rgans 0unctions

12

Anteg"mentary S6e eta M"sc" ar )ervo"s 8ndocrine

S6in5 inc "ding epidermis and dermisK g ands :ones5 carti ages5 tendons5 igaments5 @oints M"sc es :rain5 spina cord5 nerves5 sensory receptors &it"itary5 thyroid5 parathyroid5 adrena 5 and pinea g andsK ovaries5 testes5 pancreas Deart5 b ood vesse s5 b ood Lymphatic vesse s5 ymph nodes5 sp een5 thym"s5 tonsi s5 other ymphoid tiss"es )asa passages5 pharyn.5 aryn.5 trachea5 bronchi5 "ngs Ora cavity5 esophag"s5 stomach5 sma and arge intestines5 teeth5 sa ivary g ands5 iver5 ga b adder5 pancreas Jidneys5 "reters5 b adder5 "rethra Ma e: testes5 scrot"m5 penis5 d"ct system 3ema e: ovaries5 "terine t"bes5 "ter"s5 vagina

&rotect deeper organsK e.crete wastes s"ch as sa t and "reaK reg" ate body temperat"reK vitamin + prod"ction S"pport and protect interna organsK provide evers for m"sc e actionK form b ood ce s in marrow Contraction of m"sc es a ows movement s"ch as ocomotion and facia e.pressionK generate heat Contro system with rapid response5 activates m"sc es and g ands Contro system which acts thro"gh hormones Transport of vario"s s"bstances in b ood5 e.g.5 b ood gases5 n"trients5 wastes5 hormones5 ions -et"rn ea6ed f "ids to b oodK destroy pathogens and remove debrisK ho"se defense ce s and provide a ocation for activating imm"ne responses Obtain o.ygen and remove carbon dio.ideK pD ba ance +igest and absorb n"trientsK e iminate wastes

Cardiovasc" ar Lymphatic

-espiratory +igestive

;rinary -eprod"ctive

-emove wastes from b oodK maintain water5 e ectro yte and pD ba ance Ma6e gametes for reprod"ctionK ma6e hormones

13

(se this "iagram to hel! you &in" the &ollo%ing organs on the torso mo"els: heart5 6idneys5 "ngs5 trachea5 brain5 esophag"s5 b ood vesse s5 adrena g ands5 iver5 stomach5 sma and arge intestine5 pancreas5 ga b adder5 "reters5 b adder5 sp een

Lab 2: +ells 3 Tissues

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

14

4 activities can be fo"nd in yo"r ab s"pp ement5 read ahead for descriptions of fo"r ma@or tiss"e typesK "se pict"res to g"ide yo"K review sheets at the end are optiona 4 view a tiss"e s ides at appropriate magnifications5 typica y 10 or (0. 4 find a view simi ar to the pict"res for most tiss"es 4 earn to recogni=e the ( ma@or tiss"e types and the vario"s s"btypes #there are more than this in the s"pp ement5 these are the 20 yo" need to 6now$: a,or Ty!e 8pithe ia Connective M"sc e )ervo"s 'ubty!es simp e sB"amo"s5 simp e c"boida 5 simp e co "mnar5 pse"dostratified co "mnar5 stratified sB"amo"s5 transitiona areo ar5 adipose5 retic" ar5 dense reg" ar5 dense irreg" ar5 hya ine carti age5 e astic carti age5 fibrocarti age5 bone5 b ood s6e eta 5 cardiac5 smooth ne"rons

4 a ways state the f" tiss"e name on an e.am5 eg.5 Fb ood5 connective tiss"e5F or Fsimp e sB"amo"s epithe i"mF 4 yo" may "se CT to abbreviate connective tiss"e5 and 8 for epithe i"m 4 6now 2 f"nctions and 2 ocations for each s"btype of tiss"e 4 some s ides may be set "p on demo5 most yo" wi find yo"rse fK yo" may need to oo6 at more than one s ide of each typeK a partic" ar s ide may have m" tip e tiss"e types5 yo"L have to oo6 for the correct view 4 ad@"st ighting and contrast appropriate y5 do not "se oi immersion 4 we wi stop in the midd e of ab to go over some hints for recogni=ing tiss"es 4 ta6e on y 243 s ides at a time 4 t"rn off microscopes wi they wi be "n"sed more than a few min"tes 4 the s ides yo" see today are a samp ing of the ma@or tiss"es in the body

Lab 4: Trans!ort 1 3 2
Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

15

4 yo" wi earn vario"s concepts regarding transport 4 Transport 1 activities sho" d be set "p and performed as directed 4 be s"re to answer a B"estions 4 Transport 2 activities can be fo"nd in the ab s"pp ement5 and sho" d be done in gro"ps of 243 peop e<comp"ter 4 answer a B"estions #e.ception: s6ip activity ( on fi tration$ 4 when as6ed a Fwhat ifGF B"estion5 thin6 abo"t it5 answer5 and try it in the sim" ation 4 Chart 1: record as M or 4 4 Chart 2: record as rate 4 Chart 3: record n"merica change in osmotic press"re or 4 4 e.tra B"estions after comp eting Chart 3: 2hat effect5 in genera 5 does so "te concentration have on osmotic press"reG 2hy does ,mM )aC have greater osmotic press"re than ,mM a b"min or ,mM g "coseG 4 s6ip activity %5 b"t do activity ' 4 review sheets at end are optiona 4 we wi not print data

Trans!ort 1
??:e s"re to read a the directions for a topic before yo" begin??

16

:rownian Motion #do this e.ercise in pairs or gro"ps of three$ :rownian motion refers to the random movement of partic es. * atoms and mo ec" es vibrate5 and these vibrations can be observed indirect y. Ma6e a wet mo"nt of carmine dye so "tion #p ace a few drops of dye on a c ean s ide5 cover with a cover s ip$. The s ide sho" d oo6 red to the na6ed eye. Observe the dye partic es with the 10. and (0. enses of yo"r microscope. 2hat do yo" observe abo"t the dye partic esG 2hat do yo" thin6 is ca"sing thisG *re yo" act"a y seeing mo ec" es moveG #is the microscope powerf" eno"gh for yo" to see something as sma as a mo ec" eG$

2hat do yo" thin6 wo" d happen if yo" heated the s ideG

+iff"sion #' set4"ps avai ab e5 one for each ab bench$ +iff"sion is the movement of mo ec" es from where they are more concentrated to where they are ess concentrated. :e e.tra caref" C Try not to get the dye on yo"rse f or anywhere b"t where it be ongs 4 it wi stain. >o" wi "se agar p ates with ho es a ready c"t o"t of the agar. >o" sho" d fi the ho e with the dye b"t +O )OT a ow the dye to overf ow. ;sing the dropper bott es5 p ace methy ene b "e dye #mo ec" ar weight 320$ in the center of one agar p ate5 and p ace potassi"m permanganate dye #mo ec" ar weight 1%7$ in the other p ate. ;sing a mi imeter r" er5 meas"re the distance the dye has diff"sed in 30 min"tes5 1 ho"r5 and 1.% ho"rs #meas"re the diameter of the circ e of dye$. 2hich dye moved fasterG 2hat is the re ationship between mo ec" ar weight and the rate of diff"sionG

Osmosis Thro"gh a )on iving Membrane #demonstration$ Osmosis is diff"sion of water thro"gh a membrane. 8ach t"be origina y contained 1.%

17

M s"gar so "tion. T"be 1 is p aced in disti ed water5 t"be 2 in 1.% M s"crose5 and t"be 3 in 3 M s"crose. 2hat happenedG There are two 6inds of mo ec" es invo ved here5 s"gar and water. 2hich one is moving thro"gh the membraneG 2hy do yo" s"ppose it is this one and not the otherG #-emember that this is not a iving membrane5 b"t5 if it were5 how might yo" e.p ain that one mo ec" e moves thro"gh the membrane b"t the other does notG$

Osmosis Thro"gh a Living Membrane #demonstration$ The s ides yo" wi observe contain sheep b ood. -ed b ood ce s have been s"spended in the fo owing 3 so "tions. Observe each s ide and note the appearance of the b ood ce s. 2hat has happened to the ce sG #reca that yo" saw norma red ce s ast wee6$ 1. Asotonic so "tion #concentration of so "tes eB"a to that in ce s$ 2. Dypertonic so "tion #concentration of so "tes greater than that in ce s$ 3. Dypotonic so "tion #concentration of so "tes ess than that in ce s$

note: if we do not have sheep b ood avai ab e this semester5 yo" wi view photographs of the res" ts

Labs 4 3 5: 6er$ous 'ystem ()/) )

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

18

4 this ab sho" d enhance yo"r "nderstanding of the ect"res on these topics and give yo" a vis"a e.p anation of events 4 wor6 in gro"ps of 243<comp"ter 4 do not try to write down the information on the disc 4 it is a ready in yo"r ect"re notes 4 *+*M Anteractive &hysio ogy is avai ab e for p"rchase if yo" wo" d i6e yo"r own copy5 @"st do an internet search 4 comp ete a the parts of the )ervo"s System activity5 inc "ding the B"i==es at the end of each section: *natomy -eview Aon Channe s Membrane &otentia #ignore p. 2 of B"i=$ *ction &otentia 4 if the disc gives different information from ect"re5 give preference to ect"re #for e.amp e5 FactiveF channe s N gated channe sK FpassiveF channe s N ea6age channe sK a ce s have )aM<JM p"mps$ 4 there are no written directions to fo ow5 simp y do the *+*M activities 4 for additiona time with these activities5 *+*M discs are avai ab e at the ibrary or d"ring my office ho"rs #no borrowing from department$

Lab 7: Re&lexes 3 'enses

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

19

4 yo" wi earn a variety of concepts regarding these topics5 inc "ding the names of some ref e.es and how they are tested5 and basic sensory physio ogy 4 on an e.am5 yo" wi be e.pected to 6now the names of the tests5 descriptions of the tests5 and res" ts 4 wor6 in a gro"p of (4% peop e5 and switch s"b@ects occasiona y 4 for some of the eye ref e.es5 it may be easier to see res" ts if the s"b@ect has ight4 co ored eyes 4 for the tests with food and scented oi s5 the s"b@ect cannot 6now what is avai ab e ahead of time 4 peop e with any food a ergies sho" d not be the s"b@ect for the food e.periments 4 in this ab there tends to be differences in res" ts obtained between gro"ps5 so we wi disc"ss what the res" ts sho" d be at the end of c ass #or if there is not time5 at the beginning of the ne.t ab$

Re&lexes 3 'enses
The -ef e. *rc 20

-ef e.es are rapid5 predictab e responses to stim" i. The pathway a ong which the e ectrica signa s trave is ca ed a ref e. arc. There are five parts to a ref e. arc: 1. The receptor detects a stim" "s. 2. The sensory "afferent# neuron sends an e ectrica signa to the C)S. 3. The integration center consists of one or more synapses in the C)S5 and processes the information. (. The motor "efferent# neuron sends an e ectrica signa from the C)S to the effector. %. The effector5 which may be m"sc e tiss"e or a g and5 responds appropriate y. * monosynaptic ref e. has on y one synapse. *n e.amp e is the pate ar or 6nee4@er6 ref e.5 which we wi demonstrate today. Most ref e.es5 however5 are po ysynaptic5 invo ving more than one synapse. The more synapses invo ved5 the onger the ref e. ta6es. * spina ref e. needs on y the spina cord to f"nction5 whi e other more comp e. ref e.es reB"ire brain participation. Somatic ref e.es invo ve s6e eta m"sc e stim" ation by the somatic division of the nervo"s system. *"tonomic ref e.es are dea t with thro"gh the a"tonomic division and activate smooth m"sc e5 cardiac m"sc e or g ands. -ef e. testing is an important diagnostic too for assessing the genera hea th of the nervo"s system. +istorted5 e.aggerated or absent ref e.es may indicate patho ogy. Af the spina cord is damaged5 ref e. tests can he p pinpoint the eve of damage. Spina -ef e.es *ctivity 1: The &ate ar -ef e. The pate ar #or 6nee4@er6$ ref e. is ca ed a stretch ref e. beca"se it is initiated by tapping a tendon5 which stretches the m"sc e5 stim" ating the m"sc e spind e #the proprioceptor inside the m"sc e$ and ca"sing ref e. contraction of the B"adriceps m"sc es. Stretch ref e.es genera y act to maintain post"re5 ba ance and ocomotion. 2hi e this ref e. is occ"rring5 the antagonistic m"sc e gro"p5 in this case the hamstrings5 ref e.ive y re a.es to prevent interference with the pate ar ref e.. The brain wi a so receive information and the s"b@ect wi be conscio"s y aware of what is happening5 a tho"gh this is not necessary for the ref e. to operate. Stretch ref e.es tend to be absent or hypoactive with periphera nerve damage or ventra horn disease5 and hyperactive in corticospina tract esions. They are absent with deep sedation or coma.

21

An this fig"re the B"adriceps m"sc es are on the front of the thigh and the hamstrings are on the bac6. The ref e. arc invo ving the B"ads #pate ar ref e.$ is a monosynaptic ref e.. The ref e. arc invo ving the hamstrings is po ysynaptic5 and is an e.amp e of reciproca inhibition. That is5 when the B"ads contract in the pate ar ref e.5 the hamstrings m"st ref e.ive y re a.5 beca"se they wo" d otherwise oppose the action of the B"ads.

1. The s"b@ect sho" d sit on the ab bench with egs hanging free y. Tap the pate ar igament #see fig"re above$. This assesses the L24L( eve of the spina cord. Test both sides. This wi represent the base ine response. 2. Dave the s"b@ect add severa n"mbers together as yo" test again. This tests the effect of menta distraction. As the response greater than or ess than the base ineG 3. Test again whi e the s"b@ect p" s "p on the ab bench with the arms whi e re a.ing the ower imbs. This tests the effect of other sim" taneo"s m"sc" ar activity. As the response greater than or ess than base ineG (. 2hich is more i6e y responsib e for the changes yo" observed 4 nervo"s system activity or m"sc" ar system activityG

*ctivity 2: Crossed 8.tensor -ef e. This is more comp e. than the pate ar ref e.. At invo ves a withdrawa of one imb fo owed by e.tension of the other imb. This wo" d wor6 if a stranger s"dden y grabbed yo"r arm as yo" wa 6ed down the street 4 yo" wo" d p" away with the grabbed arm and p"sh with the other. At rare y wor6s "nder aboratory conditions beca"se peop e typica y do not fee threatened in ab5 b"t try it.

22

1. The s"b@ect sho" d sit with eyes c osed and one hand resting5 pa m "p5 on the ab bench. 2ith a sharp penci pric6 the s"b@ectLs inde. finger. 2hat happensG 2. 8ven if the e.tensor part of the ref e. did not wor65 do yo" thin6 it sho" d be s ow compared to the ref e.es yo" have observed so farG 2hyG

*"tonomic -ef e.es *ctivity 3: &"pi ary -ef e.es 2e wi test the p"pi ary ight ref e. and the consens"a ref e.. An both5 the retina of the eye is the receptor5 the optic nerve ho ds the afferent fibers5 the oc" omotor nerve contains the efferent fibers5 and the smooth m"sc e of the iris is the effector organ. Many C)S areas are invo ved. *bsence of these ref e.es indicates severe tra"ma or damage to the brain stem from metabo ic imba ance. 1. 3or the p"pi ary ight ref e.5 have the s"b@ect in a re ative y dim area #t"rn off ights in ab if he pf" $. The s"b@ect sho" d shie d the right eye. Shine a pen ight into the s"b@ectLs eft eye. 2hat happens to the p"pi G 2. * so observe the right p"pi . +oes the same change #ca ed a consens"a response$ occ"rG 2hen a ref e. is observed on the same side of the body that was stim" ated5 that is ca ed an ipsi atera response. 2hen a ref e. occ"rs on the opposite side of the body that was stim" ated5 that is a contra atera response. 3. Af there is a contra atera response in a ref e.5 what does that indicate abo"t the pathways invo ved in the ref e.G (. 2hat is the p"rpose of the p"pi ary ref e. yo" @"st testedG %. +o yo" thin6 these ref e.es invo ve sympathetic or parasympathetic pathwaysG #yo" may want to try the ne.t ref e. before yo" answer$

*ctivity (: Ci iospina -ef e. This response is somewhat "n"s"a 5 b"t interesting.

23

1. Dave the s"b@ect stare straight ahead. Loo6 into the s"b@ectLs eyes as yo" gent y stro6e the s6in5 or @"st the hairs5 on the eft side of the bac6 of the nec65 near the hair ine. 2hat is the reaction of the eft p"pi G As there any reaction on the rightG Af yo" see no reaction5 try a gent e pinch instead of stro6ing.

2. +o yo" note a contra atera responseG The di ation of the p"pi yo" sho" d have noted is a sympathetic response. This can happen when one p"pi receives more sympathetic stim" ation than the other for any reason. Try to e.p ain why di ation is sympathetic whi e constriction is a parasympathetic response.

*ctivity %: -eaction Time of ;n earned -esponses The bodyLs reaction time to a stim" "s depends on many things5 inc "ding sensitivity of receptors5 speed of nerve cond"ction5 n"mber of synapses invo ved5 etc. The type of response is a so 6ey. Af the response invo ves an estab ished ref e. arc5 response time wi be short. Af the response is an "n earned response5 as we wi demonstrate5 then more pathways and higher eve processing wi be needed5 and response time wi be greater. At is critica that yo" fo ow the instr"ctions precise y5 or res" ts wi not be va id. >o" m"st "se the same person as the s"b@ect for a three parts. 1. The s"b@ect sho" d sit with hand o"t5 th"mb and inde. finger e.tended. Do d a r" er vertica y so it is one inch above the s"b@ectLs hand5 n"mbers read from the bottom "p. +rop the r" er5 and et the s"b@ect grasp it with inde. finger and th"mb. The re ative speed of reaction time is determined by reading the n"mber at the s"b@ectLs fingertips. -ecord five s"ccessf" tria s. Af the s"b@ect cannot catch the r" er5 ho d it a bit higher above the hand before dropping. tria 1HHHHH tria 2HHHHH tria 3HHHHH tria (HHHHH tria %HHHH

2. Test again5 this time saying a simp e word before dropping the r" er. +esignate a certain word that wi be the signa for the s"b@ect to catch the r" er. Af any other word is said5 the s"b@ect m"st et the r" er pass thro"gh the fingers. Af the s"b@ect catches the r" er on the wrong word5 disregard that tria . +oes this increase or decrease the reaction timeG

24

tria 1HHHHH tria 2HHHHH tria 3HHHHH tria (HHHHH tria %HHHH 3. +o the test again5 now with word association. Say a simp e word @"st before yo" drop the r" er. The s"b@ect m"st say a response word he<she associates with the stim" "s word5 before catching the r" er. Af the s"b@ect cannot thin6 of a word5 the r" er m"st be a owed to pass thro"gh the fingers. +oes this increase or decrease response timeG Dow many times did the s"b@ect miss the r" erG tria 1HHHHH tria 2HHHHH tria 3HHHHH tria (HHHHH tria %HHHH

There was probab y a great dea of variation in this partic" ar set of tria s. 2hyG

9enera Sensation and Sensory -eceptor &hysio ogy The genera sensory receptors of the body react to to"ch5 press"re5 temperat"re5 pain and changes in body position. C"taneo"s receptors are fo"nd in the s6in. There is probab y a great dea of over ap in the 6inds of stim" i that the receptors respond to. ;nencaps" ated receptors inc "de free dendritic endings5 which sense main y pain and temperat"re5 Mer6e discs5 which sense ight press"re and root hair p e."ses5 which sense to"ch via movement of hairs. The encaps" ated receptors are enc osed in a caps" e of connective tiss"e5 and inc "de MeissnerLs corp"sc es5 &acinian corp"sc es5 and -"ffiniLs corp"sc es. They are a mechanoreceptors5 sensing stim" i s"ch as to"ch5 ight and deep press"re5 stretch5 and vibration. +ensity of s6in receptors is greater in areas that are designed to sense o"r environment. *ctivity ': Two4point +iscrimination Test 1. ;sing ca ipers5 test the abi ity of the s"b@ect to differentiate two distinct sensations when the s6in is to"ched sim" taneo"s y at two points. Af ca ipers are not avai ab e5 "se two b "nt probes #or forceps$ and a metric r" er. Start with the points right together5 then grad"a y increase the distance apart. -ecord the distance at which the s"b@ect first reports fee ing two distinct points of contact with the s6in #the two4point thresho d$. Test the areas of the body as isted in the chart be ow. Of the tested areas of the body5 which ones seem to have the greatest density of receptors #sma est two4point thresho d$G Bo"y area 3ace T%o8!oint threshol" (mm)

25

:ac6 of hand &a m of hand 3ingertips Lips :ac6 of nec6 :ac6 of ca f *ctivity 1: Tacti e Loca i=ation Tacti e oca i=ation is the abi ity to determine e.act y which portion of the s6in has been to"ched. Some areas of the body have a high density of to"ch receptors5 and a strong abi ity to oca i=e a stim" "s. Other areas have a ower density of receptors and ess abi ity to oca i=e a stim" "s. 1. The s"b@ect sho" d sit with eyes c osed. To"ch the pa m of the s"b@ectLs hand with a co ored mar6er or pen. The s"b@ect then tries to to"ch that e.act point with a different co ored mar6er or pen. Meas"re the error in mi imeters. Test a the areas three times5 recording the res" ts in the tab e be ow. Bo"y area ;pper bac6 3ingertip *nterior forearm *nterior arm &a m of hand Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 4 )$erage

2hich areas seem to have a greater density of receptorsG +oes this agree with yo"r findings in the two4point discrimination testG +oes the abi ity to oca i=e the stim" "s consistent y improve over a three tria sG 8.p ain.

*ctivity 7: *daptation of To"ch -eceptors The n"mber of signa s sent by the sensory receptors may change with the intensity of the stim" "s and the ength of time the stim" "s is app ied. 2hen the awareness of a stim" "s decreases5 it is ca ed adaptation. Some receptors adapt rapid y5 s"ch as certain types of to"ch receptors5 and others5 s"ch a pain receptors5 may not adapt at a . 26

1. The s"b@ect sho" d sit with eyes c osed5 arm resting on the ab bench. & ace a coin on the anterior s"rface of the s"b@ectLs forearm. Time #in seconds$ how ong it ta6es for the sensation to disappear. 2. )ow stac6 three more coins on top of the first one. +oes the sensation ret"rnG Dow ong does it ta6e for the sensation to disappearG +o yo" thin6 the same receptors are being stim" ated by the fo"r coins as with the one coinG 3. ;sing the tip of a pen or penci 5 s ow y bend bac6 one of the tiny hairs on the s"b@ectLs forearm. This is being sensed by the root hair p e."s. Af this type of receptor did not adapt5 what wo" d be the conseB"ences to a person wearing their hair in a ponytai G

Specia Senses The specia senses are vision5 hearing5 sme 5 taste5 and eB"i ibri"m. *ctivity ,: +emonstration of the : ind Spot * portion of the retina #the sensory part of the eye$ does not have any photoreceptors5 beca"se this is where the ne"rons head o"t of the eye via the optic nerve. ;se the proced"re be ow to demonstrate the e.istence of the b ind spot. 1. Do d the fig"re of the and the abo"t 17 inches from yo"r eyes5 straight o"t in front of yo"r face. C ose yo"r eft eye5 and 6eep yo"r right eye foc"sed on the 5 which sho" d be direct y in ine with yo"r right eye. Move the fig"re s ow y toward yo"r face. The spot sho" d disappear at some point5 then reappear as the fig"re is moved c oser. >o" can try it with the eft eye as we 5 b"t yo"L oo6 at the n.

*ctivity 10: *fterimages 2hen ight bo"ncing off an ob@ect stri6es the rhodopsin pigment in the rods of the retina5 the rhodopsin is sp it into its co or ess prec"rsor mo ec" es. This is ca ed b eaching of the pigment5 and it " timate y res" ts in a signa being sent a ong the optic nerve. 2hen b eaching occ"rs5 the pigment m"st then be remade before the rod can be stim" ated 27

again. This ta6es a bit of time. :oth the stim" ation of the rods and the fo owing inactive period can be demonstrated. 1. Stare at a bright ight b" b for a few seconds5 then c ose yo"r eyes. 3irst5 yo" sho" d have seen a positive afterimage ca"sed by the contin"ed firing of the rods after yo" first c osed yo"r eyes. Then5 a negative afterimage #a dar6 image of the ight b" b on a ighter bac6gro"nd$ is seen. This is beca"se the pigment in the rods had been b eached. *ctivity 11: More 8ye -ef e.es 1. Test the accommodation p"pi ary ref e. by having the s"b@ect stare at a distant ob@ect #not a ight so"rce$. Observe the s"b@ectLs p"pi s. Then ho d "p printed materia severa inches in front of the s"b@ect and have him<her foc"s on it. 2hat happens to the p"pi sG 2hy is this change "sef" G

2. Test the convergence ref e. by having the s"b@ect stare at a distant ob@ect #not a ight so"rce$. Observe the s"b@ectLs p"pi s. Then ho d "p a pen or penci and have the s"b@ect foc"s on it. Dow does the position of the eyeba s changeG 2hy is this importantG

*ctivity 12: So"nd Loca i=ation The tests sho" d be performed in a re ative y B"iet area. Af the room is too noisy5 yo" may step o"tside. 1. The s"b@ect sho" d c ose the eyes. Do d a watch with an a"dib e tic6 #if one is not avai ab e5 c ic6 together two b "nt probes to ma6e a noise$ and move it to vario"s ocations aro"nd the s"b@ectLs head #front5 bac65 sides5 above$. Dave the s"b@ect ocate the position of the noise by pointing toward it. As the so"nd oca i=ed eB"a y we at a positionsG The abi ity to oca i=e a so"rce of so"nd depends on the difference in o"dness of the so"nd reaching each ear and the time difference in the arriva of the so"nd at each ear. Dow does this he p e.p ain yo"r res" tsG *ctivity 13: Tests of :a ance and 8B"i ibri"m The eB"i ibri"m apparat"s5 sometimes 6nown as the vestib" ar apparat"s5 is part of yo"r inner ear5 b"t separate from the str"ct"res of hearing. The fo owing tests demonstrate proper f"nctioning of these str"ct"res.

28

1. Dave the s"b@ect wa 6 in a straight ine5 p acing one foot direct y in front of the other. +oes the s"b@ect e.perience wobb ing or di==inessG Af not5 this indicates a proper y f"nctioning eB"i ibri"m apparat"s. 2. Dave the s"b@ect stand with his<her bac6 to the b ac6board. +raw para e ines on each side of the s"b@ectLs body. S"b@ect sho" d stand straight5 eyes open5 for abo"t two min"tes whi e yo" observe. +o yo" note any gross swaying movementsG 3. )ow repeat the test5 this time with the s"b@ect standing with one side of the body toward the b ac6board. (. -epeat steps 2 and 35 this time with the s"b@ectLs eyes c osed. 2hat difference do yo" note with eyes c osedG %. Dave the s"b@ect stand on one foot for abo"t one min"te5 eyes open. Then try it with eyes c osed. 2hat is the differenceG

+o yo" thin6 that the s"b@ectLs eB"i ibri"m apparat"s was wor6ing eB"a y we in a the testsG 2ere the s"b@ectLs proprioceptors wor6ingG 2hat conc "sions can yo" draw abo"t which factors are necessary for maintaining ba ance and eB"i ibri"mG

*ctivity 1(: 8ffects of Sme and Te.t"re on Taste Obtain samp es of the foods avai ab e. The s"b@ect sho" d not be a owed to 6now what is avai ab e beforehand. *nyone with food a ergies sho" d not be a s"b@ect in this test. 1. S"b@ect sho" d have eyes c osed and nose pinched sh"t. & ace a c"be of food in the

29

s"b@ectLs mo"th and record with a chec6 mar6 the point at which the identification was made. 3irst the s"b@ect sho" d manip" ate the food with the tong"e and try to identify it. Af no identification is made the s"b@ect sho" d chew and again try to identify. Af no identification is made the s"b@ect sho" d contin"e chewing with nostri s open and try to identify the food. 0oo" Texture only +he%ing %ith nostrils !inche" +he%ing %ith nostrils o!en 6ot able to i"enti&y

2as the sense of sme eB"a y important in a casesG 8.p ain.

2. Obtain fresh cotton swabs dipped in three different scented oi s. & ace the swabs on a paper p ate or paper towe to 6eep them c ean and do not dip a swab bac6 in the bott e of oi after it has to"ched any s"rface. The s"b@ect sho" d not 6now what oi s are avai ab e beforehand. Dave the s"b@ect sit with eyes c osed and nostri s pinched sh"t. *pp y one of the oi s to the s"b@ectLs tong"e. Can the s"b@ect identify the oi #or at east describe the taste$G 3. )ow have the s"b@ect open the nostri s. Can the s"b@ect identify the oi G (. ;se the other two oi s for this step. Sim" taneo"s y p ace one swab near the s"b@ectLs nostri s and the other on the tong"e. 2hich oi is identified firstG

30

+o yo" thin6 sme is important in what we genera y ca tasteG

*ctivity 1%: O factory *daptation >o" wi need two swabs dipped in scented oi s for this test. They may be different from the previo"s ones "sed if yo" wish. 1. & ace one swab near the s"b@ectLs nostri s whi e the s"b@ect breathes thro"gh the nose5 and record the time it ta6es for the scent to disappear #if it does not comp ete y disappear5 record the time it ta6es for the sensation to significant y decrease$. Once the sensation has disappeared or decreased5 immediate y p ace the new oi at the s"b@ectLs nostri s. As the new scent detectedG 2hat can yo" conc "de abo"t o factory adaptationG

Lab 9:
Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

uscular 'ystem ()/) )

4 this ab sho" d enhance yo"r "nderstanding of the ect"res on these topics and give

31

yo" a vis"a e.p anation of events 4 do not try to write down the information on the disc 4 it is a ready in yo"r ect"re notes 4 comp ete the fo owing parts of the M"sc" ar System activity5 inc "ding the B"i==es at the end of each section: *natomy -eview )e"rom"sc" ar O"nction S iding 3i ament Theory Contraction of Motor ;nits Contraction of 2ho e M"sc e do on y p. 1'5 ength4tension re ationship5 then B"i= p. '47 4 there are no written directions to fo ow5 simp y do the *+*M activities

Lab 9a: -hole

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines

uscle 0unction ('imulation)

this ab is not done every semester 4 chec6 yo"r sched" e

4 yo" wi earn how a who e m"sc e wor6s5 as opposed to the ce " ar eve that yo" 32

e.p ored ast wee6 4 this activity can be fo"nd in yo"r ab s"pp ement 4 do this activity in gro"ps of 243<comp"ter 4 the graph yo" see is )OT a graph of an *&5 it is force generated 4 review sheets are optiona

Lab :: E+; 3 +ar"io$ascular 'ystem

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 4 read the appropriate section in yo"r te.t before beginning # oo6 "p 8C9 in the inde. to find the right pages in yo"r edition of the te.t$

33

4 earn what an 8C9 can be "sed for5 the basics of reading the tracing5 and be ab e to ca c" ate heart rate from the tracing 4 earn what ca"ses heart so"nds5 types of m"rm"rs5 and how to meas"re b ood press"re 4 do the 8C9 portion in gro"ps of (4%5 yo"r instr"ctor or ab aide wi he p each gro"p get started 4 at the end of the 8C9 activity5 everyone in the gro"p sho" d have a portion of the resting and the e.ercise readings 4 after comp eting 8C9 reading5 ca c" ations sho" d be done at yo"r "s"a ab station 4 we wi stop d"ring c ass to disc"ss heart so"nds 4 when an activity ca s for the s"b@ect to e.ercise5 the s"b@ect m"st rea y ma6e an effort in order to obtain appropriate res" ts

Electrocar"iogra!hy an" +ar"io$ascular 'ystem

-ead the appropriate section in yo"r te.t before beginning

&reparing the S"b@ect

34

;se an a coho swab to c ean the s6in of the s"b@ect at the e ectrode attachment sites on the inner wrists and inner an6 es. &ee the e ectrodes off the pac6aging and app y to attachment sites. C ip the appropriate ine to each e ectrode #-* N right arm5 L* N eft arm5 -L N right eg5 LL N eft eg$. The s"b@ect sho" d sit in a comfortab e position and not ma6e any "nnecessary movements. :ase ine -eadings -"n a base ine #at rest$ recording for eads A4AAA. :e s"re to record "nti yo" have a strip of stab e readings ong eno"gh for each gro"p member to have a segment for ca c" ations. 8.ercise -eadings *fter the base ine recording is finished5 stop recording5 and have the s"b@ect r"n in p ace for 243 min"tes. *s soon as the s"b@ect stops5 have him<her sit down and begin recording. 2hen yo" have eno"gh readings for each gro"p member5 stop recording. C ean "p by throwing away the disposab e e ectrodes. The s"b@ect may c ean any resid"e off the s6in with an a coho pad. -et"rn to yo"r seat to perform ca c" ations. ;nderstanding the -ecording & wave: atria depo ari=ation P-S comp e.: ventric" ar depo ari=ation #obsc"red atria repo ari=ation$ T wave: ventric" ar repo ari=ation5 may be inverted5 e evated5 or depressed depending on the ead samp ed5 or patho ogy ???see yo"r te.t for e.amp es of abnorma 8C9 recordings???

35

& P S &T

& P S

P-S PT

$% &nterval This is the time from the initiation of S* noda depo ari=ation to the initiation of ventric" ar depo ari=ation. At encompasses the time it ta6es for the action potentia to pass thro"gh the *E node. * typica va "e5 from 1204200 msec5 indicates that the e ectrica imp" ses are originating from the atria and fo owing the proper cond"ction pathways. The &- interva may shorten s ight y d"ring tachycardia5 and engthen d"ring bradycardia within the stated imits. * significant y onger than norma interva may s"ggest a partia *E heart b oc6 ca"sed by damage to the *E node. '%! (uration The norma P-S d"ration is '04100 msec. * onger P-S indicates cond"ction prob ems5 often ca"sed by b"nd e branch b oc6s that ca"se one ventric e to contract ater than the other. ') &nterval This interva represents the time from onset of depo ari=ation to the comp etion of repo ari=ation of the ventric es. )orma va "es are aro"nd 3004(00 msec at a heart rate of 10 beats<min. *s heart rate increases5 the interva becomes shorter. *s heart rate decreases5 the interva becomes onger. *n e.ceptiona y ong PT interva may indicate s owed ventric" ar repo ari=ation5 possib y d"e to hypo6a emia5 or other e ectro yte imba ances. Shortened PTs are seen with hyperca cemia and digita is to.in.

36

:ase ine Ca c" ations Loo6 at the fig"re on the previo"s page and "se the fo owing eB"ations. >o" do not need to memori=e eB"ations5 b"t yo" do need to 6now how to "se them. *omputing +eart %ate ;se the ead which gave the most idea recording. Meas"re the distance in mi imeters #the strip of paper is divided into mi imeters$ from the beginning of one P-S comp e. to the beginning of the ne.t P-S comp e. #that is5 meas"re from P to the ne.t P$. HHHHH mm . 0.0( sec<mm N HHHHH sec<beat

heart rate #beats<min$ N

1 HHHHH sec<beat

. '0 sec<min

*omputing &ntervals Comp"te the d"ration of the fo owing interva s in msec by m" tip ying mm . (0 P-S interva HHHHHHHHHHH P4T interva HHHHHHHHHHH &4- interva HHHHHHHHHHH

*re the comp"ted va "es for the interva s and heart rate within norma imits #see above$G *s the T4& interva increases5 how might this affect cardiac o"tp"tG

37

,xercise *alculations 2hich ca c" ations do yo" e.pect to be different from base ineG -epeat the base ine ca c" ations for the e.ercise readings to verify yo"r predictions.

+iagnosing *bnorma ities ;sing the 8C9 2hat three types of prob ems can be diagnosed "sing an e ectrocardiogramG * so5 define the terms tachycardia5 bradycardia5 arrhythmia5 fibri ation5 heart b oc65 and myocardia infarction.

38

Deart So"nds C osing of the heart va ves prod"ces vibrations in the wa s of the ventric es and ma@or arteries that are termed heart so"nds. These so"nds are common y described as F "b4 d"p.F The first so"nd5 F "b5F is d"e to the c osing of the *E va ves at the beginning of systo e. The second so"nd5 Fd"p5F is d"e to the c osing of the semi "nar va ves at the beginning of diasto e. Listen to yo"r own or yo"r partnerLs heart so"nds "sing a stethoscope. ;se the a coho pads to c ean the ear pieces. Andivid"a va ve so"nds can be heard by p acing the stethoscope in the appropriate thoracic region. Try this5 referring to the fig"re that fo ows. )ote that the semi "nar va ves are heard best at the second intercosta space5 whi e the *E va ves are heard at the fifth intercosta space.

39

*S

&S

-*E L*E

*S N aortic semi "nar va ve &S N p" monary semi "nar va ve -*E N right atrioventric" ar #tric"spid$ va ve L*E N eft atrioventric" ar #bic"spid or mitra $ va ve

+eart Murmurs *bnorma heart so"nds are "s"a y associated with cardiac disease and are ca ed m"rm"rs. Sometimes a non4patho ogica m"rm"r #ca ed a f"nctiona m"rm"r$ can be

40

heard5 probab y d"e to re ative y thin heart wa s that vibrate with r"shing b ood. 3"nctiona m"rm"rs are more common in very yo"ng or e der y individ"a s. )orma y5 b ood f ows smooth y thro"gh the str"ct"res of the heart. &atho ogica m"rm"rs are heard d"e to t"rb" ent b ood f ow that ca"ses vibrations in the heart. * stenotic va ve is a stiff5 narrowed va ve that does not open comp ete y. : ood is forced thro"gh5 and a characteristic whist ing or screeching so"nd is heard. *n ins"fficient or incompetent va ve does not c ose comp ete y5 and bac6ward f ow of b ood creates a swishing or g"rg ing so"nd. This is sometimes referred to as reg"rgitation. :oth stenotic and ins"fficient va ves are most often ca"sed by infection. *n e.perienced hea th care practitioner can te by the ocation and timing of the m"rm"r which va ve is invo ved. * m"rm"r occ"rring between the first and second heart so"nds is a systo ic m"rm"r # "b4m"rm"r4d"p$. Af the m"rm"r occ"rs between the second and first heart so"nds it is a diasto ic m"rm"r # "b4d"p4m"rm"r$. 2e wi pa"se d"ring c ass to disc"ss heart m"rm"rs and fi o"t the chart and answer the B"estions that fo ow. /I)'T#LI+ -HI'TLI6;
%th ACS on eft5 ne.t to stern"m %th ACS on eft

(R (R

'*'T#LI+ -HI'TLI6;
2nd ACS on right 2nd ACS on eft

(R (R

#open d"ring diasto e$

#open d"ring systo e$

'-I'HI6;
2nd ACS on right 2nd ACS on eft

#c osed d"ring diasto e$

'-I'HI6;
%th ACS on eft5 ne.t to stern"m %th ACS on eft

#c osed d"ring systo e$

* whist ing diasto ic m"rm"r heard best at the fifth intercosta space on the eft side of the thora. signifies a HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH. * swishing systo ic m"rm"r heard best on the eft side of the thora. at the fifth intercosta space5 right ne.t to the stern"m signifies an HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH. * whist ing systo ic m"rm"r heard best on the right side of the thora. at the second intercosta space signifies a HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH. 41

&" se * p" se is fe t d"e to the a ternating e.pansion and recoi in an artery. At can be fe t where arteries pass c ose to the s"rface of the body. &a pate #fee $ as many of the p" se points as yo" can on yo"rse f and<or yo"r partner as appropriate. ;se the fingertips of yo"r first two fingers to fee for the p" se. * hea thy p" se is strong and reg" ar. 2hat do yo" thin6 a wea6 p" se co" d indicateG

Pulse Point Tempora 3acia Carotid :rachia -adia 3emora &op itea &osterior Tibia +orsa is &edis

-here to &in" it *t the Qtemp es5R over the tempora bone *ppro.imate y the midd e of the mandib e #@aw$ )ec6 *rm @"st above the inner e bow Anner wrist on th"mb side An the groin5 where the thigh meets the tr"n6 :ac6 of 6nee Media side of eg @"st above an6 e Top of foot

42

: ood &ress"re : ood press"re is the press"re the b ood e.erts against the b ood vesse wa s5 and is genera y meas"red in the arteries. 3irst meas"re yo"r partnerSs b ood press"re "sing the a"tomatic eB"ipment. This wi give yo" an idea of what yo" wi get "sing the man"a method. )ow for the rest of the proced"res meas"re yo"r partnerLs b ood press"re with a man"a sphygmomanometer. ;nderstand the instr"ctions before proceeding 4 donLt 6eep the c"ff inf ated onger than necessary. The partner sho" d sit comfortab y with one arm resting on the ab bench. Ma6e s"re the c"ff is def ated and wrap it aro"nd yo"r partnerLs arm @"st above the e bow. & ace the diaphragm of a stethoscope over the brachia artery #"nder the c"ff$. Anf ate the c"ff s ight y above the press"re yo" e.pect based on the a"tomatic reading and s ow y re ease the press"re va ve. 2atch the press"re ga"ge as yo" fee for a radia p" se and isten for soft th"dding so"nds. 2hen yo" first fee a p" se that sho" d be the systo ic press"re. The first so"nd yo" hear occ"rs at systo ic press"re. The so"nd disappears at diasto ic press"re. -ecord yo"r partnerLs b ood press"re5 and ca c" ate the mean arteria press"re. M*& N diasto ic press"re M #?p" se press"re<3$ ?p" se press"re N systo ic 4 diasto ic Once each st"dent has a base ine va "e for b ood press"re5 get in a gro"p of fo"r and se ect one member for f"rther testing. Dave the s"b@ect stand sti for a few min"tes and meas"re p" se rate and b ood press"re. Then have the s"b@ect e.ercise for severa min"tes and meas"re p" se rate and b ood press"re. Ca c" ate M*& for a b ood press"re meas"rements. 2hat changes do yo" noticeG

43

Lab <: +ar"io$ascular 'ystem ('imulation= )/) )

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 4 wor6 in gro"ps of 243<comp"ter 4 do the sim" ation activity first #see ab s"pp ement$5 to earn the effects of vario"s e ectrica conditions and chemica s"bstances on the heart 4 do optiona 5 high y recommended *+*M Cardiovasc" ar System5 foc"sing on the heart #no written instr"ctions5 begin with heart anatomy and do as many sections as yo" can inc "ding B"i==es$ 4 activity ,: be s"re to note changes in strength of contraction #amp it"de of force$ as we as rhythm

44

Lab 1>: Bloo"

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 4 earn "niversa preca"tions #ma6e s"re to read this section before coming to ab$ 4 determine yo"r own b ood type5 hematocrit and hemog obin eve s5 and "nderstand what the res" ts mean 4 on y st"dents c"rrent y wor6ing with rea b ood sho" d be on the right side of the room 4 anything with b ood on it or s"pp ies that were "sed in wor6ing with b ood m"st be disposed of proper y 4 abso "te y no food or drin6 in the ab room 4 yo" may on y hand e yo"r own b ood5 and pric6 yo"r own finger 4 if yo" cannot pric6 yo"r own finger5 on y yo"r instr"ctor may he p yo" 4 if yo" notice b ood on the tab e or f oor5 or on any other non4disposab e s"rface5 yo" m"st immediate y notify yo"r instr"ctor

45

Bloo"
;niversa &reca"tions An a hea th care setting5 a body f "ids m"st be treated as tho"gh they harbor infectio"s agents. This is to protect a individ"a s in the c inica setting. The preca"tions inc "de techniB"es designed to prevent contact with pathogens and contamination5 and if this is not possib e5 to ta6e p"rposef" meas"res to decontaminate potentia y infectio"s materia s. 1. :arrier preca"tions5 inc "ding mas6s and g oves5 sho" d be ta6en to prevent contact of s6in and m"co"s membranes with patientsL b ood or other body f "ids. :eca"se g oves may have sma invisib e tears5 do"b e g oving decreases ris6 f"rther. 3or protection d"ring s"rgery5 venip"nct"re5 or emergency proced"res5 gowns5 aprons5 and other body coverings sho" d be worn. +enta wor6ers sho" d wear eyewear and face shie ds to protect against spattered b ood and sa iva. 2. More than 10T of hea th care personne are pierced each year by sharp #and "s"a y contaminated$ instr"ments. These accidents carry ris6s not on y for DAE b"t a so for hepatitis : and C5 and other diseases. * disposab e need es5 sca pe s5 or sharp devices from invasive proced"res m"st immediate y be p aced in p"nct"re4proof containers for steri i=ation and discard. ;nder no circ"mstances sho" d a wor6er attempt to recap a syringe5 remove a need e from a syringe5 or eave "nprotected "sed syringes where they pose a ris6 to others. -e"sab e need es or other sharp devices m"st be heat4steri i=ed in a p"nct"re4proof ho der before they are hand ed. Af a need estic6 or other in@"ry occ"rs5 immediate attention to the wo"nd s"ch as thoro"gh degermination and app ication of strong antiseptics can prevent infection. 3. +enta instr"ments sho" d be steri i=ed between patients. (. Dands and other s6in s"rfaces that have been accidenta y contaminated with b ood or other f "ids sho" d be scr"bbed immediate y with germicida soap. Dands sho" d i6ewise be washed after removing r"bber g oves5 mas6s5 or other barrier devices. %. :eca"se sa iva may be a so"rce of some types of infections5 barriers sho" d be "sed in a mo"th4to4mo"th res"scitations. '. Dea th care wor6ers with active5 draining s6in or m"co"s membrane esions m"st refrain from hand ing patients or eB"ipment that wi come in contact with patients. &regnant hea th care wor6ers ris6 infecting their fet"ses and m"st pay specia attention

46

to these g"ide ines. &ersonne sho" d be protected by vaccination whenever possib e. These are the basics. More information can be obtained at: http:<<www.cdc.gov &hysica Characteristics of & asma This is anima p asma and is safe to hand e witho"t g oves #yo" wo" d )8E8- hand e h"man p asma witho"t g ovesC$. )ote the co or and transparency of the p asma. Meas"re and record the pD. & ace a drop on yo"r finger and describe the consistency.

3or the fo owing activities5 fo ow instr"ctorLs directions precise y. 2*-)A)9C D*)+L8 O)L> >O;- O2) :LOO+. *L2*>S D*E8 :;TCD8&*&8- ;)+8- >O;- 2O-JS&*C8. &-ACJ >O;- O2) 3A)98-. 2D8) >O; *-8 3A)ASD8+5 )8*TL> 3OL+ TD8 :;TCD8- &*&8- *)+ +AS&OS8 O3 AT &-O&8-L>. ;S8+ L*)C8TS 9O A) TD8 SD*-&S CO)T*A)8-. )O)4SD*-&S5 A)CL;+A)9 TOOTD&ACJS5 9O A) TD8 *;TOCL*E8 :*9. ;S8+ SLA+8S 9O A) TD8 A)+AC*T8+ CO)T*A)8-S. *)> :LOO+ S&ALLS SDO;L+ :8 :-O;9DT TO >O;- A)ST-;CTO-LS *TT8)TAO) AMM8+A*T8L>. +O )OT &-OC88+ ;)TAL >O; *-8 CL8*- O) *LL +A-8CTAO)S. : ood Typing An this activity5 yo" wi "se sim" ated b ood to practice typing. :efore "sing rea b ood5 yo" M;ST &-*CTAC8 with sim" ated b ood. Once yo" "nderstand the concept of b ood typing5 yo" wi be ready to "se the rea thing and discover yo"r own b ood type. -ed b ood ce s have genetica y determined proteins on their p asma membranes ca ed antigens. The body recogni=es its own antigens5 b"t wi fight against antigens it does not recogni=e as se f. The worst transf"sion reactions occ"r with the *:O and -h b ood gro"ps. There are other antigen systems5 b"t these "s"a y do not ca"se as severe a reaction as with the *:O<-h gro"ps. Af someone receives b ood of the wrong type5 the worst prob em is the reaction of the recipientLs antibodies on the donorLs -:Cs. 2hen someone m"st receive b ood5 typica y one wo" d perform a type and cross match5 where the donor ce s and the recipientLs p asma are mi.ed to test for agg "tination. 2hen the body enco"nters a foreign antigen5 agg "tination occ"rs. *gg "tination is the c "mping of -:Cs d"e to binding of antibodies #part of the imm"ne system$ to antigen5 and ca"ses b oc6age of b ood vesse s and event"a y death. An yo"r b ood5 yo" have antibodies for the antigens yo" donLt have #see be ow$.

47

)B# bloo" grou!s type O: no antigens5 antibodies for * and : type *: * antigens5 : antibodies type :: : antigens5 * antibodies type *:: both * and : antigens5 no antibodies

Rh &actor -hM: antigen present -h4: no antigen #antibodies form on y if body e.posed to -hM b ood$

Sim" ated : ood Typing >o" wi "se ( "n6nown samp es to e.p ore the concept of b ood typing. The Fagg "tinationF of the sim" ated b ood wi not oo6 e.act y i6e rea agg "tination5 b"t it wi demonstrate the concept. ;se a p astic typing s ide for each of the ( "n6nowns. 2ash and dry the p astic s ides when yo" are finished. 1. &"t a few drops of Mr. SmithLs sim" ated b ood in each we of s ide I1. 2. &"t a few drops of Mr. OonesLs sim" ated b ood in each we of s ide I2. 3. &"t a few drops of Mr. 9reenLs sim" ated b ood in each we of s ide I3. (. &"t a few drops of Ms. :rownLs sim" ated b ood in each we of s ide I(. %. *dd a few drops of sim" ated anti4* ser"m to the * we on each s ide. '. *dd a few drops of sim" ated anti4: ser"m to the : we on each s ide. 1. *dd a few drops of sim" ated anti4-h ser"m to the -h we on each s ide. 7. Stir each we with a different toothpic6. *void cross contamination. -ead and record res" ts. &"t a M where agg "tination occ"rred5 a 4 where it did not. anti4* 1 2 3 ( Mr. Smith Mr. Oones Mr. 9reen Ms. :rown anti4: anti4-h : ood Type

48

+etermining >o"r Own : ood Type 1. C ean yo"r finger with a coho and et dry. 2. &ric6 finger with ancet5 near the tip b"t not too c ose to the nai . >o" wi need three fair y arge drops of b ood. &ric6 so that b ood f ows free y. Try sB"ee=ing "p from yo"r wrist if b ood does not f ow after pric6ing finger. 3. ;se one s ide for *:O typing. & ace two drops of b ood on one s ide5 add the appropriate typing ser"m5 and determine yo"r b ood type as with the sim" ated b ood typing. :e s"re the ser"m dropper does not to"ch the drop of b ood. -es" ts sho" d be readab e in abo"t a min"te. (. ;se another s ide with one drop of b ood to determine -h factor. This s ide can be p aced on the ighted roc6er for reading res" ts if necessary. +o not a ow yo"r b ood to contact the roc6er. Dematocrit The hematocrit5 or pac6ed ce vo "me5 is a simp e way to detect anemia. >o" wi fi yo"r own hematocrit t"be with b ood. >o" m"st not a ow b"bb es into the t"be. )orma hematocrit for fema es ranges from 314(1T5 for ma es (04%(T. 1. C ean yo"r finger with a coho and et dry. 2. &ric6 finger with ancet5 near the tip b"t not too c ose to the nai . &ric6 so that b ood f ows free y. Try sB"ee=ing "p from yo"r wrist if b ood does not f ow after pric6ing finger. 3. & ace the tip of a capi ary t"be onto a drop of b ood on yo"r finger. +o not press the t"be against the s6in. 3i the t"be abo"t 3<( f" . The b ood m"st f ow ;& the t"be5 +O )OT L8T AT 3LO2 +O2)2*-+ or yo" wi have b"bb es. (. Ca yo"r instr"ctor to sea the t"be. %. The instr"ctor wi spin the t"bes in a centrif"ge and ater show yo" how to meas"re hematocrit. Once yo"r instr"ctor ta6es yo"r t"be5 isten caref" y for the n"mber assigned to yo"r t"be. '. *fter yo"r t"be is comp eted5 yo" sho" d be ab e to see a ayer of red ce s5 a very thin ayer of white ce s<p ate ets5 and a ayer of p asma. >o"r instr"ctor wi read yo"r

49

hematocrit for yo" by p acing the bottom of the red ce ayer at F0F and s iding the t"be across the card "nti the top of the p asma ayer is at 100. The hematocrit is read at the ine that hits the top of the red ce ayer. Demog obin Demog obin is the o.ygen4carrying mo ec" e in red b ood ce s. Meas"ring hemog obin content is the most acc"rate way of meas"ring the o.ygen4carrying capacity of the b ood. )orma hemog obin content is 1241'g<100m in fema es5 13417g<100m in ma es. Demog obin may a so be meas"red in percent: 3ema es Ma es *nemia U10T U10T S"ggestive *nemia 10470T 1047%T )orma V70T V7%T

1. C ean yo"r finger with a coho and et dry. 2. &ric6 finger with ancet5 near the tip b"t not too c ose to the nai . >o" wi need one drop of b ood. &ric6 so that b ood f ows free y. Try sB"ee=ing "p from yo"r wrist if b ood does not f ow after pric6ing finger. 3. & ace a drop of b ood on the absorbent paper provided. Let it dry #"nti it no onger oo6s shiny$. Compare with the provided charts. +o not get b ood on the charts.

50

Lab 11: Bloo" 'li"es an" Res!iratory 'ystem ()/) )

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines For -lood !lides. 4 earn to identify the components of b ood 4 earn ca"ses of diseases invo ving the b ood 4 yo" sho" d be ab e to find everything yo" need on one b ood s ide5 b"t yo" may oo6 at m" tip e s ides if yo" wish 4 foc"s on 10.5 then (0.5 then as6 for he p with oi immersion 4 s ide may be moved aro"nd whi e on oi immersion b"t may not be moved bac6 to (0. "n ess c eaned first 4 when finished5 c ean s ides and ens with dry paper first5 then ens c eaner For %espiratory !ystem "A(AM#. 4 this ab sho" d enhance yo"r "nderstanding of the ect"res on these topics and give yo" a vis"a e.p anation of events 4 wor6 in gro"ps of 243<comp"ter 4 do not try to write down the information on the disc 4 it is a ready in yo"r ect"re notes 4 there are no written directions to fo ow5 simp y do the *+*M activities 4 comp ete the fo owing sections and B"i==es: *natomy -eview &" monary Eenti ation 9as 8.change 9as Transport especia y B"i= p. , ! 10

51

Bloo" +ells
Microscopic 8.amination of : ood Locate the fo owing str"ct"res on b ood s ides5 "sing disp ay materia s for assistance and note the information be ow. +raw the str"ct"res and record definitions. -efer to yo"r te.t for definitions. 8rythrocytes: #red b ood ce s$ range from (.%4% mi ion ce s<mm 3. #note: 1 mm3 N 1 $ The ce s are sma 5 reddish5 and have no n"c e"s. +efine anemia and e.p ain at east three potentia ca"ses. +efine po ycythemia and e.p ain two ca"ses.

52

& ate ets: these sma 5 p"rp e4stained ce fragments range from 2%050004%005000<mm 3. They are important in the c otting process. Le"6ocytes: #white b ood ce s$ range from (0004115000 ce s<mm 3. The basic f"nction of these ce s is protective5 and they can move in and o"t of b ood vesse s #diapedesis$ and wander thro"gh body tiss"es by amoeboid motion. 3ind a ne"trophi 5 ymphocyte and monocyte. Af possib e5 a so find an eosinophi and a basophi . There are severa characteristics that can be "sed to te 2:Cs apart5 b"t the best ones are si=e of the ce #re ative to a -:C$ and co or of the cytop asm. 9ran" ocytes are arger than -:Cs and have obed n"c ei and gran" es in their cytop asm. )e"trophi s: (0410T of 2:Cs5 341 obed n"c e"s5 pa e i ac or pin6 cytop asm contains very fine gran" es which are diffic" t to see. They are active phagocytes and fight bacteria invasions #important in inf ammatory response$ as we as c eaning "p debris. 8osinophi s: 14(T of 2:Cs5 fig"re 7 or bi obed n"c e"s5 arge red<orange cytop asmic gran" es. Amportant in ending a ergic reactions #phagocyti=e antibody4bo"nd a ergens$ and fighting parasitic worms. :asophi s: ess than 1T of 2:Cs5 n"c e"s often ; or S shaped with indentations5 arge dar6 p"rp e cytop asmic gran" es. Mediate inf ammatory response #re ease histamine and other mo ec" es$ d"ring a ergic responses and parasitic infections. *gran" ocytes have no observab e gran" es and n"c ei are "s"a y ro"gh y spherica . Lymphocytes: 204(0T of 2:Cs5 abo"t the si=e of a -:C5 dar6 b "e or p"rp e n"c e"s5 sparse gray<b "e cytop asm. Amportant ro e in imm"ne system. Monocytes: (47T of 2:Cs5 argest of the 2:Cs5 dar6 b "e n"c e"s5 ab"ndant gray<b "e cytop asm. They are active phagocytes and considered important in ong4term c ean "p.

53

Lab 12: Res!iratory 'ystem

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 4 earn to define and meas"re respiratory capacities and vo "mes 4 determine the most efficient way of breathing 4 s ides: identify the organs and f"nctions5 "se 10. trachea / identify epithelial, submucosal, and cartilage layers lung / identify alveoli and bronchiole "note that bronchioles have various epithelial linings, ranging from pseudostratified ciliated columnar to simple columnar or cuboidal#

54

Res!iratory 'ystem
&" monary venti ation #breathing$ has two phases: inspiration5 when air is ta6en into the "ngs5 and e.piration5 when air eaves the "ngs. The "ngs norma y remain partia y inf ated thro"gho"t the phases of venti ation. The "ngs cannot be comp ete y def ated beca"se the sma est airways co apse d"ring forced e.pirations5 trapping some air in the a veo i. This constant partia inf ation of most a veo i means that gas e.change can contin"e to occ"r thro"gho"t the stages of respiration. * so5 ess effort is e.pended f" y inf ating the partia y inf ated a veo i than wo" d be needed if they were comp ete y co apsed. Mode L"ng ;se the demonstration mode to show how p" monary venti ation wor6s. Jeep in mind the re ationships between vo "me5 press"re and airf ow. 2hich part of the body does each part of the mode representG Spirometry 4 Meas"ring -espiratory Eo "mes and Capacities Meas"rement of vario"s respiratory vo "mes and capacities is a "sef" way of determining genera respiratory hea th. The type of spirometer we wi "se can on y meas"re e.ha ed air5 so some vo "mes wi be meas"red indirect y by ca c" ating them based on other va "es. * personLs si=e5 se.5 age5 and physica condition prod"ce variations in respiratory vo "mes. >o" wi need to memori=e the fo owing definitions5 and the Ftypica F va "es. There wi be considerab e variation in act"a meas"red va "es. Tida Eo "me #TE$: amo"nt of air inha ed or e.ha ed with each breath "nder resting conditions #%00 m $ Anspiratory -eserve Eo "me #A-E$: amo"nt of air that can be forcib y inha ed after a norma tida vo "me inha ation #3100 m $ 8.piratory -eserve Eo "me #8-E$: amo"nt of air that can be forcib y e.ha ed after a norma tida vo "me e.ha ation #1200 m $ Eita Capacity #EC$: ma.im"m amo"nt of air that can be e.ha ed after a ma.ima inspiration #(700 m $5 this is the tota amo"nt of e.changeab e air -esid"a Eo "me #-E$: amo"nt of air eft in the "ngs after a ma.ima e.piration #1200 m $5 cannot be meas"red with a spirometer #this is the vo "me that ma6es it possib e for

55

gases to be e.changed contin"o"s y$ Tota L"ng Capacity #TLC$: vita capacity p "s resid"a vo "me #'000 m $5 this is the tota amo"nt of air that can fit in the "ngs 8ach st"dent sho" d fo ow the proced"res be ow and obtain va "es for their respiratory vo "mes and capacities. 2or6 in sma gro"ps or with a partner and fo ow directions caref" y. :e aware that st"dents tend to breathe faster and more deep y when they are paying attention to their breathing5 so ma6e an effort to breath as norma y as possib e for the e.periments. * so5 yo" m"st breath o"t on y thro"gh yo"r mo"th5 so p "g yo"r nose if necessary. &erform 3 tria s for each test and average the va "es #be s"re to reset the spirometer to 0 for each new tria $. 1. 2itho"t "sing the spirometer5 co"nt and record the s"b@ectLs norma respiratory rate #respirations<min"te$. The s"b@ect sho" d sit and read B"iet y whi e the observer co"nts breaths. 2. Adentify the parts of the spirometer yo" wi be "sing. Some st"dents wi "se wet spirometers5 some dry. Ma6e s"re yo" 6now how to read the sca e. The s"b@ect sho" d stand "p straight d"ring testing. Obtain a disposab e mo"thpiece and attach it to the spirometer #each st"dent wi "se one for a their e.periments5 and throw it away when finished$. a. Tida Eo "me 4 Anha e and e.ha e norma y a few times5 then e.ha e into the spirometer. +o not force the e.piration. Some of the dry spirometers may need to be set to 1000 instead of 0 to meas"re sma vo "mes. Ma6e s"re yo" acco"nt for this when recording yo"r vo "mes. Af yo" have tro"b e meas"ring tida vo "me on yo"r spirometer5 do the other meas"rements first5 then switch to another spirometer for tida vo "me.

b. &" monary venti ation is often described in "nits of m <min and can be ca ed the min"te respiratory vo "me #M-E$. Comp"te yo"r M-E #M-E N TE . respirations<min$. This is the tota amo"nt of air e.changed in one min"te at rest.

c. 8.piratory -eserve Eo "me 4 Anha e and e.ha e norma y a few times5 then e.ha e forcib y as m"ch of the additiona air as yo" can into the spirometer.

56

d. Eita Capacity 4 Anha e and e.ha e norma y a few times5 then bend over as yo" e.ha e a the air yo" can. Then5 as yo" raise yo"rse f into an "pright position5 inha e as f" y as possib e. 8.ha e as forcib y as yo" can into the spirometer.

e. Anspiratory -eserve Eo "me 4 & "g yo"r average va "es for EC5 TE and 8-E into the fo owing eB"ation and ca c" ate A-E A-E N EC 4 #TE M 8-E$

f. -esid"a Eo "me 4 8stimate yo"r resid"a vo "me "sing the fo owing eB"ation -E N EC . ?factor ages 1'43( ages 3%4(, ages %04', factor N 0.2%0 factor N 0.30% factor N 0.((%

g. Tota L"ng Capacity 4 Ca c" ate yo"r tota "ng capacity TLC N EC M -E

3. Compare yo"r va "es to the typica va "es given in this ab e.ercise. Jeep in mind those va "es are for an ad" t ma e. The va "es yo" have obtained are "sef" for assessing overa hea th of the "ngs. They can be combined with information from tests i6e .4rays and b ood gas determinations to diagnose disease. Typica y5 ow va "es for EC are seen in patients with "ng disease5 with varying changes in other respiratory vo "mes depending on the specific type of disease #for e.amp e5 in emphysema and other obstr"ctive "ng disease EC is typica y ow5 whi e -E is higher than norma $.

57

+ead Space and * veo ar Eenti ation *natomica dead space is the air in the cond"cting airways #trachea5 bronchi and bronchio es$. This air is not e.changeab e. *t a tida vo "me of %00 m 5 abo"t 1%0 m is in the airways. This means abo"t 3%0 m of air is act"a y in the a veo i and can potentia y be e.changed with the b ood. The dead space inf "ences a veo ar venti ation s"ch that as reB"irements for air increase5 a partic" ar way of breathing is more efficient. ;se the fo owing information to determine whether it is more beneficia to breath s ow y and deep y5 or fast with sha ow breaths. -eca that p" monary venti ation can be meas"red in m <min and is ca c" ated as TE . respirations<min. * veo ar venti ation #the amo"nt of air that can act"a y be e.changed$ is #TE 4 dead space vo "me$ . respirations<min. An other words: &E N TE . resp<min *E N #TE 4 1%0$ . resp<min Ca c" ate &E and *E for s ow5 deep breathing #ass"me TE N 1200 m 5 dead space N 1%0 m 5 and % resp<min$ and for fast5 sha ow breathing #ass"me TE N 200 m 5 dead space N 1%0 m 5 and (0 resp<min$. 2hich way of breathing is a more efficient way to increase the amo"nt of air e.changed at the "ngs d"ring periods of activityG

58

Lab 14: (rinary 'ystem

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 4 earn norma and abnorma "rine constit"ents5 and possib e reasons for abnorma va "es 4 be s"re to "se abe s on test t"bes #do not write direct y on t"bes$ 4 be very caref" with hot p ates 4 do not waste dip stic6s #"se on y 3<gro"p$ 4 s ides: identify the organs and f"nctions5 "se 10 and (0. 0idney / identify glomeruli vs. tubule "tubule will have simple cuboidal epithelium# bladder / identify epithelium and smooth muscle layers

59

(rinary 'ystem
The 6idneys fi ter 1%04170 iters of p asma each day. This means the entire p asma vo "me is fi tered "p to '% times a day. The amo"nt of "rine prod"ced per day is genera y between 1.0 and 1.7 iters. 8ven with wide variations in diet and metabo ic activity5 hea thy 6idneys maintain a re ative y constant p asma composition. The 6idneys can prod"ce "rine of varying concentrations of so "tes and water to maintain p asma composition. ;rine prod"ced by a hea thy person has some genera characteristics that we wi investigate in this ab e.ercise. 2e wi a so e.p ore some abnorma constit"ents of "rine and potentia ca"ses of the abnorma ities. Characteristics of ;rine 3resh y voided "rine is genera y c ear and pa e ye ow #straw$ to amber in co or. The co or is from "robi ins5 pigments that come from the brea6down of hemog obin. 9enera y spea6ing5 pa er "rine has a ower concentration of so "tes. *bnorma co or of the "rine can come from certain foods5 s"ch as beets5 dr"gs5 bi e or b ood. The odor of fresh y voided "rine is characteristic5 b"t when eft standing bacteria action gives a strong odor of ammonia. Some dr"gs5 vegetab es5 and disease conditions s"ch as diabetes me it"s a ter the characteristic odor. The pD of "rine averages '.0 b"t may range from (.% to 7.0. +iets high in protein typica y increase the acidity of "rine5 whi e a vegetarian diet can res" t in a more a 6a ine "rine. :acteria infections may a so ca"se "rine to be more a 6a ine. The ma@or norma "rine constit"ents inc "de water5 "rea5 sodi"m5 potassi"m5 phosphates5 s" fates5 creatinine5 and "ric acid. Ca ci"m5 magnesi"m and bicarbonate ions can a so be fo"nd in sma amo"nts. *bnorma y high concentrations of any of these "rine constit"ents may indicate patho ogy. *na y=ing ;rine Samp es 2e wi be "sing artificia "rine5 so no specia preca"tions need to be ta6en. Dowever5 6eep in mind that with rea "rine samp es yo" wo" d "se preca"tions as when dea ing with any body f "id #g oves5 proper disposa of samp es and contaminated materia s5 c eaning "p spi s with b each so "tion$. There is one set4"p for each ab tab e5 and st"dents at that tab e sho" d wor6 together. 8ach gro"p wi ana y=e one Fnorma F samp e and 2 F"n6nownsF. 3or each of the activities be ow5 perform the observations or tests for each samp e and record yo"r res" ts in the appropriate p ace in the tab e that fo ows. :efore beginning5 yo" sho" d obtain abo"t %0 m of each "rine samp e. :e s"re to abe each one caref" y.

60

&hysica Characteristics of ;rine +etermine the co or5 transparency5 and odor of yo"r samp es. Co or sho" d be described as pa e5 medi"m or dar6 ye ow5 or FotherF with description if app icab e. Transparency sho" d be indicated as c ear5 s ight y c o"dy or c o"dy. Odor sho" d be isted as FcharacteristicF or give a description if "n"s"a . )ote that since these are artificia samp es yo" may not notice a typica odor. The pD can be determined by dipping a strip of pD paper in each samp e two or three times and then comparing to the test chart #pD can a so be determined "sing a dip stic65 which yo" wi do ater$. Anorganic ;rine Constit"ents S" fates 4 *dd abo"t 2.% m of "rine to a test t"be #meas"re the norma samp e with the grad"ated cy inder to get an idea of how m"ch yo" need5 then estimate for a other samp es and for the rest of the tests$. *dd a few drops of di "te hydroch oric acid and 1 m of 10T bari"m ch oride so "tion. * white precipitate #bari"m s" fate$ indicates the presence of s" fates in the samp e. -ecord as present or absent. &hosphates 4 &repare a hot water bath "sing a bea6er ha f fi ed with water and yo"r hot p ate. *dd abo"t 2.% m of "rine to a test t"be5 then add 3 or ( drops of di "te nitric acid and 1.% m ammoni"m mo ybdate. Mi. we with a g ass stirring rod #be s"re to rinse rod with disti ed water and dry between samp es$ and heat gent y in the hot water bath. * ye ow precipitate indicates the presence of phosphates. -ecord as present or absent. Ch orides 4 & ace 2.% m of "rine in a test t"be and add severa drops of si ver nitrate. * white precipitate #si ver ch oride$ indicates the presence of ch orides in the samp e. -ecord as present or absent. ???-inse a g assware thoro"gh y5 remove abe s5 and p ace in t"b in sin6??? Organic ;rine Constit"ents ;rea 4 & ace two drops of "rine on a c ean microscope s ide and caref" y add one drop of concentrated nitric acid. S ow y warm the mi.t"re on a hot p ate "nti it begins to dry at the edges. Do d the s ide with yo"r fingers5 and if it gets too hot p" it away from the heat. Once the s ide has coo ed5 e.amine the edges of yo"r preparation "nder ow power to identify crysta s of "rea nitrate. >o" may be ab e to see the crysta s witho"t a microscope. -ecord as present or absent. 9 "cose5 * b"min #protein$5 Jetone bodies5 -:Cs<hemog obin5 Le"6ocytes 4 ;se the dip stic6s5 fo owing the directions on the pac6age caref" y and reading at the appropriate time. -ecord as positive or negative.

61

;n6nowns +etermine what5 if anything5 is abnorma abo"t each "n6nown samp e. Spec" ate on the ca"se of the abnorma ity #see the section on abnorma "rinary constit"ents for he p$. 2hen everyone is done we wi disc"ss res" ts as a c ass.

#bser$ation?Test $hysical *haracteristics Co or Transparency

6ormal @alues &a e ye ow transparent

6ormal 'am!le

(n.no%n 1

(n.no%n 2

Odor characteristic pD &norganic components S" fates &hosphates Ch orides rganic components ;rea 9 "cose * b"min #protein$ Jetones -:Cs<hemog obin e"6ocytes (.%47.0 present present present present negative negative negative negative negative

62

*bnorma ;rinary Constit"ents 9 "cose &resence of g "cose in the "rine is ca ed g ycos"ria. At indicates abnorma y high b ood s"gar eve s. *t norma b ood s"gar eve s of 704100mg<100m 5 a the g "cose in the fi trate is reabsorbed. The capacity of the rena t"b" es to reabsorb g "cose may be temporari y e.ceeded with an e.cessive carbohydrate inta6e. &atho ogica g ycos"ria occ"rs in "ncontro ed diabetes me it"s5 in which body ce s are "nab e to absorb g "cose from the b ood beca"se the pancreatic is et ce s do not ma6e eno"gh ins" in5 or there is an abnorma ity of ins" in receptors. * b"min &resence of a b"min in the "rine is ca ed a b"min"ria. * b"min5 the most ab"ndant p asma protein5 is too arge to pass thro"gh the fi tration membrane. Th"s5 a b"min"ria is genera y indicative of an abnorma y increased permeabi ity of the fi tration membrane. )onpatho ogic conditions i6e e.cessive e.ertion5 pregnancy5 or high protein inta6e can temporari y increase membrane permeabi ity. &atho ogic conditions inc "de things that damage the membrane5 s"ch as 6idney tra"ma d"e to b ows5 ingestion of heavy meta s5 bacteria to.ins5 g omer" onephritis5 and hypertension. Jetones &resence of 6etones in the "rine is ca ed 6eton"ria. These intermediates of fat metabo ism are norma y present in on y trace amo"nts. Af present in e.cessive amo"nts5 this "s"a y indicates abnorma metabo ic processes. The res" ts may be acidosis and associated comp ications. Jeton"ria is e.pected d"ring starvation5 as the body "ses "p its fat stores. 2hen co"p ed with g ycos"ria5 it is genera y diagnostic for diabetes me it"s. -:Cs &resence of -:Cs in the "rine is ca ed hemat"ria5 and near y a ways indicates patho ogy. Ca"ses inc "de 6idney stones5 infections5 or physica tra"ma to the "rinary organs. *ccidenta contamination with menstr"a b ood is possib e in fema es. Demog obin &resence of hemog obin in the "rine is ca ed hemog obin"ria. At is a res" t of hemo ysis of red b ood ce s. At may be ca"sed by hemo ytic anemias5 transf"sion reactions5 b"rns5 or rena disease. :i e &igments &resence of bi ir"bin #bi e pigments$ in the "rine is ca ed bi ir"bin"ria. At is detected by a ye ow foam that forms when the samp e is sha6en5 and genera y indicates iver patho ogy s"ch as hepatitis or cirrhosis. 2:Cs &resence of 2:Cs or other p"s constit"ents in the "rine is ca ed py"ria. At indicates

63

inf ammation of the "rinary tract. Casts Casts are hardened ce fragments f "shed o"t of the "rinary tract. There are many types5 and they a ways indicate patho ogy. 2hite b ood ce casts are typica of pye onephritis5 red b ood ce casts are common in g omer" onephritis5 and fatty casts indicate severe rena damage.

64

Lab 14: /igesti$e 'ystem an" )ci"?Base /emo

Lab 9oa s and 9"ide ines 3or +igestive System: 4 earn which en=ymes digest which n"trients and where they act 4 "nderstand appropriate conditions for digestion 4 "nderstand the "se of e.perimenta contro s 4 be s"re to "se abe s on test t"bes #do not write direct y on t"bes$ 4 be very caref" with hot p ates 4 after mi.ing5 t"bes m"st go immediate y to inc"bation conditions 4 when adding bi e sa ts5 add on y a sma amo"nt 4 for the boi ing water bath5 "se the arger bea6erK "se the sma er bea6er for the ice bath #ice bath wi not be B"ite 0 degrees$ 4 assay res" ts can be recorded as negative5 strong positive5 wea6 positive5 etc. 4 s ides: identify the organs and f"nctions5 "se main y 10. esophagus / identify epithelium and muscle layers stomach / identify epithelium and smooth muscle layers duodenum / identify epithelium and smooth muscle layers colon / identify epithelium and smooth muscle layers liver / find lobules w/central vein, 1x and 23x pancreas / find islets "endocrine # and acinar "exocrine# cells, 23 x and 13x

3or *cid<:ase +emo: 4 earn what a b"ffer is and what body f "id acts as a b"ffer

65

/igesti$e 'ystem
8n=ymes are arge protein mo ec" es made by the body that act as cata ysts. The digestive en=ymes can be ca ed hydro ases5 beca"se they brea6 down food mo ec" es by adding water to the mo ec" ar bonds5 brea6ing them apart. 8ach en=yme is specific to one or a sma gro"p of s"bstrates5 and reB"ires specific conditions to f"nction proper y. Starch +igestion by Sa ivary *my ase 1. Obtain ' test t"bes. 2. Labe each t"be and oad the t"bes as in the tab e tit ed Sa ivary *my ase +igestion of Starch. ;se 3 drops of each s"bstance. 3. & ace a t"bes in their inc"bation condition for abo"t 1 ho"r. &rotein +igestion by Trypsin 1. Obtain % test t"bes. 2. Labe each t"be and oad as indicated in the tab e tit ed Trypsin +igestion of &rotein. ;se 3 drops of each s"bstance. 3. & ace a t"bes in their inc"bation condition for abo"t 1 ho"r. &ancreatin #&ancreatic Lipase$ +igestion of 3ats with :i e 1. Obtain , test t"bes. 2. &repare 2 t"bes5 abe them 1E and 2E. To t"be 1E add 10 drops water and 2 drops vegetab e oi . To t"be 2E add 10 drops of water5 2 drops of vegetab e oi 5 and a pinch of bi e sa ts. Cover each t"be with &arafi m5 sha6e5 and et stand for 1041% min"tes. Observe for em" sification. 3. Labe the rest of the t"bes and oad as indicated in the tab e tit ed &ancreatic Lipase +igestion of 3at. ;se % drops of each s"bstance. *dd bi e where appropriate. The bi e is in powder form and yo" sho" d ta6e a tiny amo"nt on the tip of the scoop for each t"be that reB"ires it. )ote that pancreatic ipase is a so 6nown as pancreatin. Cover t"bes with &arafi m5 sha6e5 and p ace in inc"bation condition for abo"t 1 ho"r.

66

8n=yme *ssays *my ase *ssay 1. Mar6 the spot p ate with abe s. &o"r abo"t a drop from each t"be into the appropriate spot. & ace a drop of L"go Ls so "tion #Aodine$ in each spot. * b "e4b ac6 co or indicates the presence of starch. -ecord res" ts in the appropriate tab e. 2. &repare a boi ing water bath. Anto the remaining mi.t"re from each t"be5 p ace three drops :enedictLs so "tion. &"t each t"be in the boi ing water bath for abo"t % min"tes. * green4to4orange precipitate indicates a positive res" t for s"gar #ma tose5 the prod"ct of starch digestion$. -ecord res" ts in the appropriate tab e. Trypsin *ssay 1. * deep pin6 co or indicates a positive test for amino the prod"cts of protein digestion. -ecord res" ts in the appropriate tab e. &ancreatin *ssay 1. &repare a co or contro by adding 0.1 M DC drop by drop to t"bes 1L and 2L "nti one t"rns pin6. * pin6 co or in the e.perimenta t"bes indicates the presence of fatty acids #one of the prod"cts of fat digestion$. -ecord res" ts in the appropriate tab e. P"estions to Thin6 *bo"t 2hat is the p"rpose of a contro G Dow do yo" e.p ain the res" ts of yo"r e.perimentsG 2hat is the point of "sing vario"s inc"bation temperat"resG 2hen everyone has comp eted these e.periments we wi go over the res" ts as a c ass.

67

Starch !alivary amylase "acts in mouth# +e.trins5 disaccharides $ancreatic amylase "acts in small intestine# +isaccharides # actose5 ma tose5 s"crose$ -rush border en4ymes 5actase, maltase, sucrase "act in small intestine# Monosaccharides #ga actose5 g "cose5 fr"ctose$

&roteins $epsin, with +*l "acts in stomach# &roteoses5 peptones $ancreatic en4ymes )rypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase "act in small intestine# Sma po ypeptides5 dipeptides -rush border en4ymes "act in small intestine# *mino *cids

Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the b ood in the capi aries of the vi i in the sma intestine5 then go to the iver via the hepatic porta system.

68

;nem" sified fats ,mulsified by bile salts "act in small intestine# $ancreatic lipases "act in small intestine#

Monog ycerides and fatty acids

9 ycero and fatty acids

Some g ycero and fatty acids are absorbed into the b ood in the capi aries of the vi i in the sma intestine. Most of the prod"cts of fat digestion are absorbed into the actea s of the vi i and trave in the ymph "nti they enter the circ" ation via the thoracic d"ct.

69

'ali$ary )mylase /igestion o& 'tarch

*dd 3 drops each Anc"bation condition L"go Ss test #Aodine$ :enedictSs test 1S #contro $ *my ase dD2O 31C 2S #contro $ Starch dD2O 31C 3S #contro $ Ma tose dD2O 31C (S Starch *my ase :oi ( min"tes5 then 31C %S Starch *my ase 31C 'S Starch *my ase 0C

Try!sin /igestion o& Protein

*dd 3 drops each Anc"bation condition Co or change 1& #contro $ Trypsin dD2O 31C 2& #contro $ :i"ret * b"min dD2O 31C 3& :i"ret * b"min Trypsin :oi ( min"tes5 then 31C (& :i"ret * b"min Trypsin 31C %& :i"ret * b"min Trypsin 0C

Pancreatic Li!ase /igestion o& 0at

*dd % drops each Anc"bation condition Co or change 13 #contro $ &ancreatin dD2O 31C 23 #contro $ Litm"s cream dD2O 31C 33 Litm"s cream &ancreatin :oi ( min"tes5 then 31C (3 Litm"s cream &ancreatin 31C %3 Litm"s cream &ancreatin 0C (3: Litm"s cream &ancreatin :i e sa ts 31C %3: Litm"s cream &ancreatin :i e sa ts 0C

70

)ci"?Base /emo
Meas"re the pD of the so "tions and answer the B"estions. :ea6er I 1 2 3 ( (a % %a Contents water water M 1 drop concentrated DC water M 1 drop concentrated )aOD b"ffer M 1 drop concentrated DC b"ffer M ( drops concentrated DC b"ffer M 1 drop concentrated )aOD b"ffer M ( drops concentrated )aOD pD

1%0 m 1%0 m 1%0 m 1%0 m 1%0 m 1%0 m 1%0 m

2hat is a b"fferG +id yo"r res" ts show that the b"ffer did its @obG

:ea6er I 1 2 3 (

10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m

Contents water water M 2 drops di "te DC p asma p asma M 2 drops di "te DC

pD

As p asma a good b"fferG

71