Composites: Part B 50 (2013) 279289

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Composites: Part B
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Temperature uniformity analysis and development of open lightweight composite molds using carbon bers as heating elements
N. Athanasopoulos, G. Koutsoukis, D. Vlachos, V. Kostopoulos
Applied Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
One of the most critical steps in developing new composite products is the design and the manufacturing of molds. Especially in the high end composite materials manufacturing sector, the design of molds and tools comprises a major challenge. As far as the manufacturing of CFRPs is concerned, liquid composite molding processes and autoclave techniques are highly temperature-sensitive. The ability of carbon bers (CFs) to conduct electric current can be used in heat transfer applications in the composites manufacturing industry. Using CFs as heating elements, ultra-light carbon ber reinforced plastic (CFRP) sandwich-structured molds can be developed, in order to accelerate the resin ow via the Joule effect. In the present study, the manufacturing procedure of such CFRP sandwich-structured molds is provided. Using the thermal and electrical properties of the constituent materials, numerical models were built up to study the temperature eld uniformity and the heatingcooling rates of the molds. A thermal camera as well as thermocouples were used in order to verify the numerical models, in the case of a at mold and a hat-shaped mold for different applied power levels. 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 11 June 2012 Received in revised form 13 December 2012 Accepted 23 February 2013 Available online 14 March 2013 Keywords: A. Carbon ber E. Tooling E. Cure E. Preform

1. Introduction Liquid composite molding (LCM) and autoclave processes for the manufacturing of CFRPs are highly temperature sensitive. Complex mold setups and large ovens for resin ow acceleration and laminate curing are currently being used by the composites manufacturing industry. These techniques result in heavy and expensive molds that are inefcient, as far as energy consumption is concerned, thus increasing the operation cost. An innovative mold concept is presented in this work, which combines the electrical conductivity of carbon bers (CFs) and the Joule heating effect. The aforementioned concept dismisses the need of ovens and complex heating systems of the mold, since the heating of the CFRP mold is achieved through the use of CFs as heating elements. By applying electric potential to the CFs, the surface temperature of the composite material rises due to the Joule heating effect. The CFs are used as heating elements, completely and almost homogeneously covering the molds surface, resulting in a uniform heating layered type source. This advantage combined with the very low CTE of the CFRP, makes this material an excellent choice for the mold manufacturing industry. Heated CFRP molds using CF fabrics for heating have already been developed for the resin infusion manufacturing, featuring low energy consumption and high mold dimensional sta Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2610 969443; fax: +30 2610 969 417.
E-mail address: kostopoulos@mech.upatras.gr (V. Kostopoulos). 1359-8368/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.02.038

bility [1]. Arney et al. [2] have presented an initial study of an electrically-heated mold using a heater fabric from Plastech (exible cloth made by cotton and Lycra which has copper conducting bus bars along two parallel edges). Also Grove et al. [3] have presented some available technologies and numerical models for the direct application of heat to tooling for composites manufacturing. These innovative molds present the following advantages: low weight, temperature uniformity at large surface molds, high heating rate, low-cost processing of advanced resin systems and dimensional stability. The industry of composite materials mainly uses as mold material the steel A-36, stainless steel, aluminum 6061-T6, Invar 42, Invar 36, Nilo, monolithic graphite, ceramics, E-glass prepreg and CF prepreg [46]. The material choice of the mold depends upon the manufacturing process used and the number of pieces required. The CTE is one of the most important mold design criterion. It is known that both CTE values of the mold and the product should be as close as possible in order to avoid the development of residual stresses, distortions and dimensional inaccuracies. Oliveira et al. [7] have shown that CFRP samples cured on aluminum or steel molds exhibited large residual strains, whereas the CFRP samples cured on CFRP-based molds exhibited almost no strain. Invar and Nilo have low CTEs, but they are of high cost, both in terms of purchasing and processing, also having a signicant thermal inertia [5]. Steel metal molds have two main disadvantages: high processing cost and signicantly very high thermal inertia (low heatingcooling rates).

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The advantages of composite tools are: low weight and low thermal inertia. The fact that several composite molds can be reproduced from one master model is also of signicant importance. On the other hand, CFRP molds present three major disadvantages: (a) low surface wear resistance, (b) matrix microcracking because of the humidity inuence, especially when they do not operate constantly [5] and (c) matrix micro-cracking because of thermal fatigue. The surface wear resistance of the mold can be improved by using nano-dopants (e. g. nano-SiC [8]) in the surface layer of the mold. Another option is the application of a metal coat (Nickel-coat), which is signicantly wear resistant. The problem of micro-cracking can be tackled with the use of resins which have higher temperature endurance as well as high humidity resistance (cyanate ester resins) [9]. As far as the heating methods are concerned, the current industrial heating systems are based on the following basic principles: integral circulation with water or oil, direct heating with electric blanket cartridge, external oven with air convection and radiation [6]. Closed and open molds can be placed inside ovens, but for large molds the heating rate can be remarkably low. Referring to the thermoplastics industry, the rotation molding one of the most innovative types to have emerged in recent years, where large ovens are used is an electrically heated system in which a network of ne electric wires are embedded in a cast, nonmetallic mold. This concept has the advantage of directly heating the mold, which makes it very energy efcient. It is claimed that up to 80% of the energy being input to the system is consumed to melt the plastic, compared to the respective percentage in hot air ovens which is about 1040% [10]. This study concentrates on the investigation of the resistive heating method (temperature eld, heating and cooling rates) of the sandwich structured CFRP molds. Firstly, a study of the CF prepreg volume resistivity (VR) behavior in relation to the thickness of the heating element is conducted. Following the characterization of the materials of the molds (thermal and electrical properties), the temperature eld uniformity and the heatingcooling rate of two different molds is studied using the nite element method (Comsol software). All numerical results are veried by experimental measurements using thermocouples and a thermal camera. There are certain standards that dene the composite materials quality, depending on the specications of the CFRP product manufactured. As far as the tools temperature eld is concerned, the ideal case would be to achieve temperature uniformity at the whole surface of the CFRP part manufactured. The manufacturing process which is best for high-standard composite manufacturing parts is the autoclave process, as well as the RTM. The autoclave process dictates strict standards, where the temperature deviation is of approximately 2.6 C [11]. For this reason, an effective area, where the temperature variation of the mold surface is less than a strict predened value of DT = 2.6 C was identied. This predened value (temperature deviation window) was selected because the autoclave process has similar deviation. Similar temperature deviation (2 C) has been reported for steel molds in RTM process [6]. Depending on the manufacturers standards, it is possible to set a certain temperature deviation (or an effective area) based on the level of curing degree and the residual strains of the part being manufactured. No study has been conducted on the molds deformation and its surface wear resistance on the molds.

mold manufacturing method using CFs as heating elements does not present signicant differences compared to the classical manufacturing method of open CFRP molds. The mold structure (cross section) that uses CFs as heating elements is presented in Fig. 1. The mold consists of a gel coat layer (or thin GFRP), the CF heating element, an electrical insulated material and the sandwich structure in order to make the mold rigid. After the manufacturing of the master model (by machining a block of metal, plastic or special foam material) the steps of the mold manufacturing procedure are presented in Fig. 2. The manufacturing process steps include: Step (1). The application of a gel coat layer (or thin glass fabric layer) on the master model and placement of the CF heating element, Fig. 2a and b. A gel coat layer is applied on the surface of the master model, which forms the top layer of the innovative mold, Fig. 2a. The top layer gel coat can be easily repaired, if needed, and offers an excellent surface nish quality (quality class A). This also electrically insulates the CF heating element of the mold, from the carbon reinforcing preform of the manufacturing CFRP component. After the curing of the gel coat at room temperature the CF prepregs (heating element) are placed, and the copper connections are attached at the edges and between of the heating element layers, Fig. 2b. By applying pressure using the vacuum bagging technique on the heating element, Fig. 2c and electric potential difference at the copper electrodes, the CF heating element temperature rises due to the Joule heating effect, Fig. 2d. Using CF prepregs as heating elements, the temperature prole proposed by the manufacturer of the resin system is being followed providing an almost uniform temperature prole as shown in Fig. 2d. It can easily be observed that the area where the electrodes are attached does not develop higher temperature compared to the remaining area. This signies good contact between the bers and the electrodes. Oppositely, the area in question would have a distinctive temperature increase. Step (2). The application of a non-conductive layer in the form of a lm or a thin glass fabric, and placement of the CF fabrics and the core material, Fig. 2e. A non-conductive layer in the form of a thin lm or a very thin glass fabric should be applied after the placement of the CF heating element. This is a compulsory step, in order to prevent a short-circuit from the direct contact of the conducting element with the CF skin of the sandwich structure. The required reinforcing CFRP layers, the cooling tubes and the necessary pre-cut core material needed for stiffness and strength are being placed as shown in Fig. 2e and f. The whole structure is cured under the pressure application of 1 atm, using the Joule heating effect, Fig. 2g and h. Insulation layers are placed on top of the structure, in order to achieve a relatively uniform temperature distribution through the mold. Step (3). The nal step comprises the demolding of the mold structure, Fig. 2i and the development of the supporting structure, Fig. 2k. The nal form of the mold is presented in Fig. 2g and the development temperature in Fig. 2l. The resin curing temperature prole (proposed by the manufacturer) can be achieved by accurately providing the required electric power. The manufacturers temperature prole versus the one succeeded in the present study during the manufacturing phase of the hat-type molds heating element, is presented in Fig. 3. In this study, two different sandwich-structured molds were manufactured and studied using the resistive heating method. The at mold has an area of 0.045 m2 (having a total thickness of 12 mm) and weights 350 g, while the hat type mold has an area

2. Mold architecture and manufacturing CFRP molds are commonly used for open mold processes, such as hand lay-up, vacuum bagging, resin infusion and autoclave. The

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281

Fig. 1. Architecture of the mold structure.

Fig. 2. Manufacturing steps of the mold and measured temperature eld.

of 0.0975 m2 (and a total thickness of 12 mm) and weighs 800 g. The materials that were used are the following: (a) Molds surface: gelcoat EP/EPH161 or epoxy resin L20/ EPH161 and glass fabric 105 g/m2, cross twill 1/3). (b) CFRP heating element: Sigrall/Sigratex, epoxy HT unidirectional prepreg, 12 K, 242 g/m2, Tg = 150 C.

(c) Electrical insulation cloth: epoxy resin L20/hard EPH161 and glass fabric 280 g/m2, twill 2/2, Tg = 130 C or epoxy resin MP advanced/Hard MP advanced, Tg = 238 C. (d) Sandwich structured material: epoxy resin L20/EPH161 carbon ber unidirectional inlay 80 g/m2 PVC 75 kg/m3 or honeycomb for higher temperatures.

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3.2. Thermal properties measurements The mold structure is made by using many different layers of CF in different directions as well as using the structural foam. For each layer the following thermal properties were measured; thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity and specic thermal capacity, Table 1. Along the bers the thermal conductivity for a single CFRP layer is (k11 = 4.09 W/m K), transverse to the bers (k22 = 0.64 W/ m K) and through the thickness (k33 = 0.64 W/m K). For that reason, samples representative of each material were prepared. In order to introduce the thermal conductivity to the numerical model we have two options: (a) the thermal conductivity for each layer of the stacking sequence can be introduced separately (k11 = k0, k22 = k90); (b) an equivalent thermal conductivity for each stacking sequence can be calculated. The above is valid using the assumption that the layers are thin in comparison to the other dimensions. For at mold (0,903)s the equivalent thermal conductivity is: keq11 = (2k90 + 6k0)/N, keq33 = k33, (detail of Fig. 5a), where N is the number of layers (N = 8). For the hat-type mold (02) the equivalent thermal conductivity is: keq11 = k90, keq33 = k33, (detail of Fig. 5a). Also, we assume that the thermal conductivity through the CFRP thickness is constant and equal to (k33 = k22). The difference of the temperature eld between the two options is negligible. All the thermal properties were measured using a thermal conductivity analyzer (Mathis TCi). This measurement procedure is a non-destructive one and the samples remain intact and can be used again.

Fig. 3. Prepregs curing prole (heating element) of the hat mold.

3. Materials characterization 3.1. Electrical volume resistivity measurements The volume resistivity (VR) of CF prepregs was studied versus the laminate thickness (number of layers) for ber orientations of both 0 and 90 respectively. The dimensions of the specimens used for the measurements were 30 mm 240 mm. The CF prepreg specimens were heated up at 130 C according to the manufacturer specications (Sigrall/Sigratex, epoxy HT unidirectional prepreg, 12 K, 242 g/m2, Tg = 150 C). After curing, the top resin rich layer was removed from the edges of the samples and a conductive top layer of silverpaint was applied to them, in order for the bers to be in contact with the conductive paint. The copper electrodes were welded on the specimens with the aid of a highly conductive tape (silvertape). Using a very sensitive multimeter (Keithley 2002), the specimens resistivity was measured using the 4-point method. A clear observation based on the specic resistivity diagram presented in Fig. 4 is that the specic resistivity of the specimens having ber reinforcement in the direction 90 orientation, decreases as the thickness of the specimen increases. Similar observation has been also drawn in [12]. On the other hand, the VR of the specimens having reinforcing bers in the direction of 0 is almost independent of the thickness.

4. Governing equations The heating element can consist of layers of different direction. The highly anisotropic behavior of the electrical conductivity (EC) of unidirectional CFs occurs due to the two different electron pathways [13]. In the case where the material around the bers is an insulator, the electrical conductivity of the UD preform depends upon the electrical conductivity of CFs. Also, the EC of the CF heating element is a function of temperature according to [14,15]. After the calculation of the electrical conductivity of the CFRP material (r), the electric potential eld in an anisotropic continuous media can be expressed by the following elliptic partial differential equation.

r rr/ 0

where (r) is a symmetric (r12 = r21) electrical conductivity tensor (EC tensor) [16,17] and (/) is the electric potential led. The electric eld (E) is the gradient of the electric potential eld (E = r/). In the present study, the thermoelectric effect is not considered. Therefore, the current density (J) is expressed by the simplest form:

J rE

Fig. 4. Volume resistivity of the CFRP heating element as a function of thickness in the case of reinforcing bers in the 0 and 90 direction.

The above equation is the Ohms law in a continuous form. In the specic case the stacking sequence of the heating element is (0/903)s for the at mold and (02) for the hat-type mold. The electrical conductivity of each heating element can be calculated simply for each principal direction: at mold (8 layers): 1 6 N1 1 N6 1 rL11 rN rN =8, rL22 rN rN 0 90 r0 90 r0 90 =8 N 2 N 2 and hat-type mold (2 layers): rL11 r0 =2, rL22 r90 =2, where (r0) is the electrical conductivity at the ber direction, r90 is the electrical conductivity transverse to the ber direction and (N) is the number of layers (see Fig. 4). The typical boundary conditions for the general anisotropic medium are described by a combination of a Dirichlet boundary condition at the constant electric potential regions and a Neumann boundary condition at the electrical insulated regions (Jn = 0).

N. Athanasopoulos et al. / Composites: Part B 50 (2013) 279289 Table 1 Thermal properties of the molds materials. Material Glass epoxy PVC foam UD CFRP Glass epoxy Skin Core Skin and heating element Surface layer Direction Density,

283

q (kg/m3)
1967.32 75.00 1490.00 1490.00 1967.32

Effusivity, e (J/m2 s1/2 K) 835.03 72.07 1012.70 2560 835.03

Conductivity, k (W/m K) 0.47 0.05 0.64 4.09 0.47

Specic heat capacity, cp (J/kg K) 748.80 1384.96 1075.50 1075.50 748.80

k22, k33 k11

90 0

Fig. 5. Geometry of the different molds. (a) Flat mold, (b) hat type shape mold, (c) hat type mold shape with CFRP manufactured part.

Considering an elementary volume of the heating element, the heat transfer energy equation of an electrical anisotropic medium is given by Eq. (3), where the thermoelectric effect is omitted [18,19].

qcp

@T r krT E J @t

where (T) is the temperature, (t) is the time, (k) is the thermal conductivity tensor, (E J) is the dot product of the electric eld and the current density which is the generated heat per unit time and volume, (q) and (cp) is the density and the specic heat capacity of the CFRP material respectively. If the geometry of the heating element is simpler and the electrodes have been placed along the heating elements width the electrical current can be calculated using Ohms law (I = V/R) and the generated heat per unit volume can be expressed by:

tion using cooling. For the examination of the case of natural cooling, the introduced cooling tubes were not in use. For the examination of the forced cooling, the cooling tubes were in use and different air-ow rates can be applied. In all the cases the cooling tubes are considered to be made out of copper having an internal diameter of 5 mm and a wall thickness of 0.5 mm. Boundary conditions of natural convection have been applied to all external surfaces in both cases. It has to be noted that the energy transfer via natural convection is dependent upon the surfaces slope/inclination. Consequently, the horizontal mold surfaces are cooled in higher rate than any other mold surface (higher heat transfer coefcient h). It is imperative that heat transfer coefcient (h) be calculated for every mold surface (analytically or automatically by using suitable software).

P E J ID/=WLH

5.1. Calculated temperature eld through the molds thickness in steady state The numerical models were developed using linear free triangular elements (linear free triangular meshing). In the case of the at mold, we used 25,800 elements, in the case of the hat mold we used 36,889 elements whereas in the last case we used 57,471 elements. The same numerical models were developed using free quadrilateral elements, presenting no signicant differences. The at mold is of rectangular shape, having dimensions of 0.15 m 0.30 m. After the calculation of the VR of the heating element, Fig. 4, and by applying an electric potential to it, the produced electrical power could be determined, based on the input data given in Table 2. Using an input electrical power of Q1 = 10.8 W, the resulted maximum surface temperature is 53 C. Furthermore, using an input electrical power of Q2 = 44.79 W, the resulted maximum surface temperature in this case is 118 C. Fig. 6a, presents the calculated temperature eld at the steady state for the rst power level. The second mold is a hat-type mold, having dimensions 0.5 m 0.2 m. The produced electrical power could be determined, based on the input data given in Table 3. Using an input electrical power of Q1 = 13.2 W, the resulted

where (P) is the generated heat per unit time and volume, (I) is the electric current, (D/) is the electric potential, (W), (L) and (H) is the width, the length and the thickness of the CFRP heating element. 5. Results and discussion Two different sandwich-structured molds were manufactured and studied using the resistive heating method. The rst mold is a at-surfaced mold, Fig. 5a while the second one is a female, hat-type shape mold, as shown in Fig. 5b. In addition, a study was conducted for the manufacturing of a stringer type component, using the aforementioned female, hat-type shape mold, shown in Fig. 5c. All dimensions are presented in Fig. 5. The goal of the present study is to study the uniformity of the temperature eld on the surface of the mold both during the heating and cooling phase using the Joule effect. At the heating phase the cooling tubes are inactive. During the cooling phase, there were two cases examined and compared to each other: (a) natural convection (without the use of cooling tubes) and (b) forced convec-

284 Table 2 Electric power input data for the at mold. Electric potential (V) 2 4 Current (A) 7.89 16.93 Cables resistance (X) 0.08 0.08

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Power VI-RcircI2 (W) 10.80 44.79

Max temperature (K) 326 391

Total area (m2) 0.045

Areal power density (W/m2) 240 995

Power density (W/m3) 2.307 105 9.571 105

Fig. 6. Calculated temperature eld through the mold thickness at steady state for the Q1 power level.

Table 3 Electric power input data for the hat mold. Electric potential (V) 5 8 Current (A) 13.12 21.37 Cables resistance (X) 0.08 0.08 Power VI-RcircI2 (W) 51.83 134.43 Max temperature (K) 345 410 Total area (m2) 0.0975 Areal power density (W/m2) 531.6 1378.8 Power density (W/m3) 1.83 106 4.752 106

maximum surface temperature is 72 C, Fig. 6b. Furthermore, using an input electrical power of Q2 = 21.37 W, the resulted maximum surface temperature in this case is 137 C. It is concluded that the deviation of the temperature eld on the surface of the mold is due to heat losses at the edges. On the other hand, the temperature deviation between the operating surface of the mold and its back surface, which is shown in Fig. 6, is directly related to its structure and reects the use of the core material, which controls the through thickness heat losses. 5.2. Calculated temperature eld and experimental validation of the surface of the mold in transient state Figs. 7 and 8, present the calculated temperature distribution on the surface of the at-mold and the hat-type mold at 100 s, 500 s, 1000 s, 2000 s as well as at the steady state condition which has been reached at 2500 s for the second heating power level (Q2). The top dash line in Figs. 7a and 8a and c correspond to the analysis of the problem without the presence of the embedded copper cooling tubes. As one can be noticed, during the heating phase, the presence of the cooling tubes only minimally affects the calculated temperature eld. In this case the copper tubes have been regarded as internally isolated (no radiation effect was considered internally). Based on the calculated results presented in Fig. 7a it is concluded that during the heating phase as well as at the resulted steady state conditions the temperature distribution on the surface of the at mold is almost uniform, having a limited temperature gradient at the edges of the mold. In the case of the hat-type molds

we observe that the temperature deviation is higher at the middle of the mold, Fig. 8a and c. This temperature deviation appears because the value of the heat transfer coefcient (h) is a function of the molds surfaces inclination (this problem can be eliminated simply if we place an insulated material on the surface of the mold). Using four insulation layers (4 1.2 mm thickness, k = 0.05 W/m K) above the molds surface, the temperature distribution at the middle tends to be uniform, Fig. 9. The cooling phase of the molds was studied in two different cases (1) the embedded cooling tubes are in use and an air stream is owing (forced convection has been considered in the analysis) within the tubes with an air ow speed of 65 m/s (red1 marked curve), (2) the cooling tubes are not being in use again for the two heating power levels used during the heating phase (black curve). The temperature distribution on the surface of the mold at 100, 250, 500, and 2000 s is presented for both cases in Figs. 7b and 8b and d. As it is expected, during the cooling phase the achieved cooling rates using forced convection via the copper tubes are much higher compared against the respective using natural convection. In this case the temperature uniformity of the surface of the mold is not valid anymore. Uniformity of the cooling rate is required throughout the mold surface, and it can be achieved by controlling the cooling rate in a closed loop scheme, where the heating elements can be also used.

1 For interpretation of color in Figs. 7 and 10, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.

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Fig. 7. Surface temperature eld of the at mold as a function of time (Q2). (a) Heating stage, (b) cooling stage.

Fig. 8. Surface temperature of the hat-type mold as a function of time. Heating and cooling stage of the: (a and b) Power level (Q2), (c and d) mold and the manufactured part (stringer).

The analysis presented earlier was experimentally validated in the case of the at and the hat-type mold. Four thermocouples

have been placed on the at surface of the mold at a distance of 40 mm from the edges, symmetrically with respect to the two axis

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Fig. 10b. The rst part of the curves represents the heating phase (black lines), whereas the second part represents the cooling phase with (blue lines) or without (red lines) the use of cooling tubes. The lines represent the thermocouples temperature values where the markers represent the calculated temperatures. The numerical results are in very good agreement with the respective experimentally measured results, both during the heating as well as the cooling phase of the process. In all the cases studied numerically, experimental set ups were built up and precise experiments were conducted. The concluded numerically mold surface temperature distributions were veried against experimental results. In the case of experimental set ups developed, the electric potential was applied using a DC power supply (QPX1200L), while thermocouples were placed into the molds (close to the surface) as shown in Fig. 5. Additionally, a thermalcamera (Trotech IC 80L) was used in order to record the surface temperature. The thermal camera temperature range is (20 C to + 600 C) with very high thermal sensitivity of (0.08 C). In active thermography, a heat source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the measured body and the environment. In passive thermography, the measured body is naturally at a higher temperature (or lower) than the environment. Since the body is heated due to the Joule effect, we used the technique of passive thermography. Accuracy in thermal-camera temperature measurements is achieved by spraying black mat paint (with total hemispherical emissivity e  0.96) on the surface of the molds. Knowing the total hemispherical emissivity of the radiant surface, we can record a clearer picture and keep more accurate temperature measurements. 5.3. Effective area During the manufacturing process of a composite part, the accepted surface temperature deviation is dened by the used equipment and controls the quality of the part. This means that taking into account the required surface temperature and the imposed temperature tolerances, it is not always possible to use the complete surface of the mold as the operating area of the mold. In this case we may dene the effective area of the mold which fullls the imposed requirements. In the specic case of the at mold studied earlier, an accepted temperature tolerance of 2.6 C is demanded,

Fig. 9. (a) Thermal camera image of the hat mold in free convection, (b) thermal camera image using thermal insulation layers, (c) temperature eld of the molds surface at L1 region with and without using thermal insulation layers.

of symmetry, Fig. 5a. In the case of the hat-type mold, a thermocouple, has been placed at the middle of the mold (250 mm) and 38 mm from the edge, Fig. 5b. Fig. 10 presents both calculated and measured temperature as a function of time for the points on the surface of the mold where the thermocouples have been placed, in the case of the at mold, Fig. 10a and the hat type mold,

Fig. 10. Numerical results and temperature measurements as a function of time at the thermocouples points (heating phase, cooling phase with or without the use of cooling tubes).

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Fig. 11. Calculated temperature deviation and effective area on the (a) at mold surface, (b) hat mold surface.

Fig. 12. Thermal camera measurements and effective area of the at mold at the steady state. (a) Temperature eld on the at mold (and temperature gradient at the edge of the mold because of the presence of the copper braid electrodes, (b) effective area on the at mold.

Fig. 13. DSC results and curing degree using the innovative mold and a conventional method (oven).

the effective area of the mold is given in Fig. 11a, where the surface temperature difference is plotted versus the width of the mold, for

the two different surface temperatures of the mold. It is obvious that in case the operating temperature is higher, the effective area

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Table 4 Degree of curing using DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry). Curing method Curing degree (%) 1st Specimen 2nd Specimen 3nd Specimen Innovative mold 91.63 Oven 93.60 92.71 91.52 91.19 92.85 91.84 92.65 Average curing degree (%)

is smaller. As we mentioned before this predened value (temperature deviation window) was selected because the autoclave and RTM processes have similar deviation [6,11]. Fig. 11b presents the temperature deviation of the surface of the hat-type mold versus the width of the mold. We can see that the accepted temperature tolerance of 2.6 C is no more valid. However, if we examine the temperature deviation in the case where the CF preform (manufactured part-stringer) is placed on the molds surface we can observe that the accepted temperature tolerance of 2.6 C is valid again. Fig. 12 shows the thermal camera measurements and the corresponding effective area in the case of the at mold. It is imperative that an effective area be determined, since the molds edges present a certain disruption in temperature uniformity. This area denes the location where the temperature eld is assumed uniform, and also is the area that remains in contact with the manufactured part, Fig. 12b. Final, the surface temperature distribution, Fig. 12a can show any temperature deviation at the area where the electrodes are attached. In the case where the copper wire-CF contact was faulty, the temperature would increase locally as a result of faulty conduct. As far as the case in question is concerned, the temperature at the contact area is lower. This signies that the contacts are very good and that the copper cables act as a heat-sink. 5.4. Quality of the manufactured part As far as the degree of curing is concerned, it depends on the resin standards (or manufacturer standards). If the applied temperature eld is uniform and the applied temperature prole is the one recommended by the manufacturer, then the curing degree will be the same for the entire CFRP part. Three samples (detail of Fig. 13) for each case (oven and innovative mold) were tested using DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) in order to examine the degree of curing, Table 4. It is observed that the level of curing of the CFRP part which has been manufactured with the innovative mold is similar to the level of curing of the respective conventional method (oven), Fig. 13. The CFRP part was manufactured using infusion process and (L1100/EPH294) epoxy resin. It is commonly known that molds made by materials of CTE close to the respective CFRP CTE, create less residual strains. It has been already mentioned that CFRP samples cured on aluminum or steel molds exhibited large residual strains, whereas the CFRP samples cured on CFRP-based molds exhibited almost no strain after cooling-down [7]. Therefore the materials mechanical properties using a CFRP mold are expected to be similar or better. 6. Conclusions Two lightweight sandwich structured molds, a at one and one of hat type shape, having CFRP skins, were manufactured without any external conventional heating element or heating system based on heated uids embedded channels. The CF reinforcements of the outer CFRP skin of the mold were used as heating elements with 130 C maximum operating temperature.

The characterization of the thermo-physical properties of the CFRP materials that is used for building the molds is of paramount importance in order to design the mold and to secure via the numerical modeling the requested (Tmax) and the uniform temperature eld as a function of time and the selected DC power supply (applying electric potential). It was shown that the heated area of the mold in all the cases concludes in a thermal gradient at the edges. This leads to the necessity for the determination of an effective area on which the temperature distribution remains almost uniform. The resulted temperature distribution on the top surface of the mold is dependent upon the geometry of the mold, since the heat transfer coefcient is a function among others of the molds surfaces inclination. At the heating phase, the temperature eld uniformity and the effective area of the mold depend upon the maximum requested temperature of the mold surface. The succeeded temperature deviation in the presently studied mold cases was satisfactory in all cases although strict limits of 2.6 C were considered. The deviation of the temperature eld during the cooling phase, when the cooling tubes are in use, is relatively high, as expected, close to the cooling tube region. The control of the temperature uniformity during the cooling phase demands further more sophisticated elaboration. The level of curing of the CFRP product which has been manufactured with the innovative method, is similar to the level of curing of the respective conventional method. Acknowledgments This work is supported by the Innovative smart composite moulds for cost-effective manufacturing of plastic and composite components, 246256. COEUS-TITAN is a Collaborative Project under the Seventh Framework Programme, co-funded by the European Commission, www.coeus-titan.eu. We would like to thank Ms. Christina Kostagiannakopoulou for her valuable help. References
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