MultiStorey Car Parks Investigation, Repair & Maintenance

Aston University June 2!

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MULTI-STOREY CAR PARKS

Investigation, Repair & Maintenance

Chris Atkins PauI Lambert

Introduction
#$e co%%onest construction %aterial &or %ultistorey car parks in t$e U' is steel rein&orce(
concrete) *ura+ility pro+le%s associate( ,it$ rein&orce( concrete are typically t$e result o& eit$er
loss o& alkalinity (ue to car+onation o& t$e cover or t$e ingress o& signi&icant levels o& c$lori(e
ions &ro% so%e e-ternal source) As rein&orce( concrete %ultistorey car parks spen( %uc$ o&
t$eir lives e-pose( to t$e ele%ents in a((ition to ,et an( salty %otor cars, it is little ,on(er t$at
t$ey su&&er so %any o& t$ese pro+le%s so visi+ly)
.y e%ploying a co%+ination o& e-perience, goo( engineering sense an( t$e &in(ings o& ot$er
,orkers as reporte( in t$e literature, it is usually possi+le to i(enti&y t$e areas in a rein&orce(
concrete structure ,$ere (estructive re+ar corrosion is %ost likely to +e occurring)
/$ere t$e pri%ary cause o& corrosion is t$e ingress o& c$lori(e ions t$en clearly any (etail ,$ere
saltla(en ,ater can gat$er an( concentrate is at greater risk) 0ittle can +e ac$ieve( ,it$out
actually e-a%ining t$e structure an( per&or%ing si%ple tests to target t$e risk areas an( select
appropriate tec$ni1ues &or &urt$er e-a%ination) #$is is not possi+le ,it$out a &ull un(erstan(ing
o& t$e %ec$anis%s o& car+onation an( c$lori(e ion ingress)
Si%ilarly, t$ose areas un(er t$e greatest t$reat o& loss o& structural integrity can usually +e
i(enti&ie( in a(vance so allo,ing any investigation to +e correctly targete() /$ere +ot$ t$e risk
o& corrosion an( t$e loss o& structural integrity coinci(e, t$e potential &or serious &ailure is so $ig$
t$at t$e prospective investigator %ust ensure t$e pro+le% can +e a(e1uately i(enti&ie( an(
1uanti&ie()
2aving i(enti&ie( ,$at is corro(ing, ,$y it is corro(ing an( $o, &ast it is corro(ing it is t$en
necessary to (eci(e ,$at, i& anyt$ing, can +e (one to stop t$e corrosion an( %akegoo( t$e
(a%age)
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/$en selecting a %et$o( o& repair it is essential to kno, ,$et$er t$e 3o,ner3 e-pects t$e
renovate( structure to +e4
+etter t$an ne,5
as goo( as ne,5
not 1uite as goo( as ne, +ut +etter t$an it ,as5
prevente( &ro% going ,orse, or
%a(e to (egra(e %ore slo,ly)
All too o&ten t$e last option is speci&ie( an( t$e &irst option e-pecte() All t$ese approac$es are
vali( in t$e correct conte-t an( a large part o& t$e skill in concrete repair is in correctly i(enti&ying
an( %atc$ing %et$o(s an( service re1uire%ents, usually ,it$in t$e con&ines o& $ig$ly restricte(
+u(gets)
Types of Construction
Multistory car parks can +e split into t,o +asic types) #$ose t$at are 6a((ons7, an( t$ose t$at
are inco%e generating) I& a %a8or s$opping centre is +eing constructe(, it ,ill re1uire parking &or
s$oppers) #$e parking is an 6a(( on7, in t$at it is not t$e %ain purpose o& t$e (evelop%ent) It is
likely to +e +uilt un(er a (esign an( +uil( package, su+ contracte( an( %a(e up o& stan(ar(
(etails) Aest$etic consi(erations are i%portant, as t$e tenants o& t$e (evelop%ent are likely to
(e%an( a $ig$ speci&ication &inis$) .ecause aest$etics are i%portant t$e car park is likely to +e
%aintaine( to a reasona+le stan(ar()
I& a car park is +eing +uilt to generate inco%e, it ,ill +e close to an attraction, suc$ as an airport
or city centre) Again it is likely to +e constructe( un(er a (esign an( +uil( contract, +ut t$e +asic
re1uire%ent ,ill +e to get t$e car park constructe( an( open as rapi(ly as possi+le to generate
inco%e) Aest$etics are only i%portant i& t$ere is co%petition &ro% ot$er parking structures)
.ecause aest$etics are o& lo,er i%portance, an( %aintenance costs %oney, t$ese are less likely
to +e %aintaine() Construction o& ne, inco%e generating car parks is less co%%on t$an
construction o& ne, a((ons)
#$e +asic ai% o& any car park, is to provi(e a sa&e an( secure place to park cars) As suc$ t$e
%ain re1uire%ent is to provi(e as %uc$ colu%n &ree space as possi+le, ,it$ as lo, $ea( roo%
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as possi+le) #$is lea(s to large spans an( lig$t,eig$t (ecks) #$e (esign an( +uil( approac$
also pro(uces stan(ar(i:e( ele%ents) #$is co%+ine( ,it$ a nee( &or rapi( construction ten(s to
&avour si%ply supporte( precast ele%ents t$at can +e li&te( into place ,it$ a %ini%u% o& &uss)
#ypically to provi(e a running sur&ace, ,it$ appropriate &alls an insitu concrete topping is applie(,
,$ic$ can provi(e a((itional structural capacity +y increasing t$e overall (ept$ o& t$e ele%ents,
an( +y acting co%positely ,it$ +ea%s)
As insitu concrete is re1uire( &or t$e sur&acing a natural alternative ,oul( +e to construct t$e car
park entirely out o& insitu rein&orce( concrete) ;ne co%%on approac$ is to use ,a&&le sla+s)
#$ese $ave signi&icant ,eig$t savings co%pare( ,it$ insitu &lat sla+s) 0i&t sla+ construction is
also an alternative) Colu%ns are cast in place, an( &loors are cast at groun( level an( ,inc$e(
up t$e colu%ns into t$eir &inal resting place) #$ese are t$en pinne( into place ,it$ si%ple
connections)
DurabiIity Concerns
#$e +oo% in car park construction coinci(e( ,it$ t$e +oo% in concrete construction in general,
i)e) t$e "!<=s) A typical (esign li&e &or a +uil(ing structure is > years, $ence increasing
nu%+ers are reac$ing t$e en( o& t$eir t$eoretical (esign li&e) In t$e interi% perio( +etter
un(erstan(ing o& structural issues suc$ as punc$ing s$ear an( ro+ustness $ave co%e a+out,
an( in(ee( corrosion o& steel in concrete $as only +een stu(ie( since t$e early "!?=s) *ue to
t$e &act t$ey are lig$t,eig$t an( t$e (esign is typically stan(ar(ise(, rat$er t$an per&or%e( in
(etail &or eac$ structure, car parks ten( to +e lively an( so structural %ove%ent, i& it $as +een
consi(ere( at all, (oes not ten( to &ollo, stan(ar( prescri+e( patterns) #$is pro(uces a large
nu%+er o& lig$t,eig$t structures nearing t$e en( o& t$eir (esign li&e, ,it$ oversi%pli&ie( structural
(esigns, an( li%ite( consi(eration o& corrosion, t$at are likely to +e cracke( an( leaking)
Defects From New
2istorical car parks are likely to $ave +een constructe( to (esigns t$at ,oul( +e consi(ere( to
+e su+ stan(ar( +y current co(es) A goo( e-a%ple o& t$is is parapets) ;riginally t$ey %ay $ave
+een inten(e( as e(ge protection &or pe(estrians, or si%ply to provi(e an aest$etic i%prove%ent
to t$e e-terior o& t$e car park) #o(ay=s co(es e-pect t$e% to ,it$stan( ve$icle i%pact) Si%ilarly
t$e re1uire%ent to inclu(e no%inal s$ear links into +ea%s only ca%e into +eing in "!<?, an(
ro+ustness only +eca%e a structural concern a&ter t$e Ronan Point inci(ent ,$ere a gas
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e-plosion cause( progressive collapse o& a corner o& a +lock o& &lats) Aven stan(ar(s &ro% as
late as "!B>, are reporte( t$us4
6#$e Cgenerally applica+le= sa&eguar(s against progressive collapse in .SB"" are not su&&icient
&or &lat sla+s an( can result in an increase( risk o& an initial punc$ing &ailure (ragging (o,n %ore
o& a &lat sla+ structure)7
(from the Pipers Row report, available at http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/misc/pipersrow.htm)
In a((ition to t$e structural concerns t$e %aterials use( ,ere o&ten not o& $ig$est 1uality) #$e in
situ concrete use( &or toppings ,as o&ten a lo, ce%ent %i- ,it$ a relatively $ig$ ,ater ce%ent
ratio to ena+le easy placing, an( ,as likely to $ave +een poorly cure(, t$is results in a large
nu%+er o& car parks su&&ering &ro% plastic cracking occurring ,it$in ,eeks o& casting) Du%erous
e-a%ples also e-ist o& ina(e1uate co%paction resulting in $oneyco%+ing, an( poorly place(
rein&orce%ent giving lo, cover)
Degradation over time
Most car parks are likely to $ave +een constructe( ,it$ so%e &or% o& ,aterproo&ing on t$e top
(eck, typically asp$alt) #$is ,ill (egra(e ,it$ ti%e, as a result o& UE e-posure, tra&&ic an(
general ,eat$ering) Do ,aterproo&ing %aterial ,ill last &orever)
#$e 8oints are unlikely to $ave +een &or%ally (esigne(, an( even i& t$is is not t$e case t$e
%ove%ent pro+a+ly ,ill not represent t$at in t$e (esign calculations) #ypical 8oint sealants are
$ot poure( +itu%en onto an appropriate +acking %aterial Finclu(ing, $istorically, as+estos ropeG)
#$ese are unlikely to provi(e any signi&icant lengt$ o& service) Aven properly (esigne( 8oints
,$ic$ are ina(e1uately %aintaine( ,ill pick up (irt an( (e+ris ,$ic$ ,ill result in &ailures)
.earings &or si%ply supporte( +ea%s ,ill o&ten +eco%e &i-e( a&ter a signi&icant perio( o& ti%e,
suc$ t$at t$ey no longer allo, t$e re1uire( %ove%ent) A co%%on pro+le% ,it$ one type o& pre
cast car park is t$at t$e +ea%s continue to %ove an( t$e +earings trans&er t$is %ove%ent into
t$e cor+els) #$is results in t$e cor+el supporting t$e +ea% +eco%ing (a%age()
*rainage on car parks is o&ten poorly (etaile( an( %aintaine(, &or e-a%ple, ina(e1uate &alls to
t$e outlets) #$is results in pon(ing, ,$ic$ in turn is o&ten a((resse( +y coring t$roug$ t$e (eck
to allo, (isc$arge onto lo,er levels ,it$out consi(eration o& t$e structural conse1uences) In
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so%e cases, to %a-i%ise t$e clear space availa+le t$e (rainage runs t$roug$ t$e %i((le o&
colu%ns) ;nce again ina(e1uate %aintenance lea(s to t$ese +eco%ing +locke()
#$e +asic pro+le% ,it$ ,ater in a car park is t$at (uring t$e ,inter %ont$s it is conta%inate(
,it$ (eicing salts) #$ese percolate into t$e concrete an( cause corrosion o& t$e rein&orce%ent)
Stan(ing ,ater, &aile( 8oints +locke( (rainage an( any cracking all e-acer+ate t$is pro+le%, +ut
even ,it$out t$ese t$e c$lori(es ,ill (rip o&& cars an( penetrate t$e concrete)
Steel in concrete nor%ally (oes not corro(e (ue to t$e $ig$ levels o& alkalinity present, $o,ever
i& t$e level o& alkalinity (rops or c$lori(es get into t$e concrete, corrosion can occur) ;nce
c$lori(es reac$ t$e level o& rein&orce%ent in su&&icient 1uantities corrosion ,ill initiate)
A((itionally, calciu% c$lori(e %ay $ave +een (eli+erately cast into concrete as a set accelerator
an( t$is ,as only (iscontinue( in "!?? once t$e link ,it$ corrosion $a( +een i(enti&ie()
#$e ot$er cause o& corrosion o& steel in concrete is (ue to car+onation, ,$ere at%osp$eric
car+on (io-i(e penetrates into t$e concrete) ;nce t$is reac$es t$e (ept$ o& t$e rein&orce%ent
corrosion can co%%ence) I& calciu% c$lori(e is present in t$e %i-, car+onation can release t$e
c$e%ically +oun( c$lori(es so t$at t$ey can participate in t$e corrosion process)
In a((ition to t$e loss o& structural rein&orce%ent (ue to corrosion, t$e volu%e o& rust is
signi&icantly +igger t$an t$e steel it replaces) As a result concrete (ela%inates, resulting in loss
o& concrete section, an( a risk o& &alling (e+ris) /$ere concrete in t$e (eck (ela%inates it
pro(uces tripping $a:ar(s)
;ne &urt$er cause o& (istress t$at a&&ects users o& t$e car park is as a result o& ,ater passing
t$roug$ concrete) As ,ater percolates t$roug$ cracks an( (e&ects in concrete calciu% $y(ro-i(e
in t$e concrete (issolves into t$e ,ater) As t$e alkaline ,ater passes out o& t$e concrete it
car+onates, an( calciu% car+onate precipitates as a calcite (eposit) #$is can result in t$e
&or%ation o& stalactites an( stalag%ites ,$ic$ are unsig$tly) It also results in $ig$ly alkaline
,ater (ripping onto cars, ,$ic$ can result in (egra(ation to t$e paint,ork)
Structural Vandalism
As state( a+ove, (rainage can o&ten +e recti&ie( +y coring t$roug$ t$e (eck in areas ,$ere
stan(ing ,ater is a pro+le%) #$is is o&ten (one ,it$out (ue regar( to t$e structural
conse1uences o& cutting rein&orce%ent) A si%ilar approac$ is o&ten taken ,it$ services, suc$ as
lig$ting an( CC#E, ,$ere ca+ling nee(s to +e run across t$e car park, or ,$ere in(uction loops
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are &itte( to (etect tra&&ic in t$e car park) #$ese can involve cutting >%% (eep slots in t$e (eck
an( ra%ps) I& t$e car park serves anot$er (evelop%ent, t$is can encroac$ into t$e car park to
provi(e plant roo%s an( o&&ices, +ot$ o& ,$ic$ a&&ect t$e loa(ing an( t$er%al gra(ients ,it$in t$e
structure)
Hinally as pro+le%s are i(enti&ie( ,it$ structural ele%ents suc$ as parapets, repairs an(
upgra(es can +e atte%pte( ,$ic$ are not t$oroug$ly consi(ere() It is all very ,ell to +olt +arrier
upgra(es to t$e (eck, +ut t$is %ay trans&er t$e &ailure %o(e &ro% a parapet +eing pus$e( o&& on
i%pact to signi&icant (a%age to t$e (eck or support structure)
Factors InfIuencing Rates of Deterioration
#$e environ%ent provi(e( +y goo( 1uality concrete &or t$e e%+e((e( steel rein&orce%ent is one
o& $ig$ alkalinity Fgenerally Ip2 "9G, pro(uce( +y t$e $y(ro-i(es o& so(iu%, potassiu% an(
calciu% release( (uring t$e various $y(ration reactions) In a((ition, t$e +ulk o& surroun(ing
concrete acts as a p$ysical +arrier to %ost o& t$e su+stances t$at %ay lea( to (egra(ation o& t$e
rein&orce%ent)
Provi(e( t$is environ%ent is %aintaine(, t$e steel re%ains passive an( any s%all +reaks in t$e
sta+le protective o-i(e &il% are soon repaire() 2o,ever as previously (iscusse( i& t$e alkalinity
o& t$e surroun(ings is re(uce(, &or e-a%ple +y reaction ,it$ at%osp$eric car+on (io-i(e
Fcar+onationG, or i& (epassivating c$lori(e ions are %a(e availa+le at t$e sur&ace o& t$e steel
t$en corrosion %ay +e initiate(, resulting in loss o& steel section an( spalling o& cover concrete)
It is also possi+le to lose t$e passive o-i(e &il% in con(itions o& lo, o-ygen availa+ility, suc$ as
%ay +e encountere( in +urie( or su+%erge( structures, alt$oug$ rates o& %etal loss are
negligi+le)
Depth of Cover
Ina(e1uate cover is invaria+ly associate( ,it$ areas o& $ig$ corrosion risk (ue to +ot$
car+onation an( c$lori(e ingress) .y surveying t$e sur&ace o& a structure ,it$ an
electro%agnetic cover%eter an( pro(ucing a cover contour plot, t$e $ig$risk areas can +e
easily i(enti&ie() A cover survey o& ne,ly co%plete( structures ,oul( rapi(ly i(enti&y likely
pro+le% areas an( per%it a((itional protective %easures to +e taken)

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Cracked Cover
/$ile t$is re%ains an ill(e&ine( area, t,o &or%s o& crack are o& interest ,$en evaluating t$e
con(ition o& a rein&orce( concrete structure5 t$ose present +e&ore t$e onset o& corrosion ,$ic$
%ig$t assist t$e corrosion processes Flarge s$rinkage an( %ove%ent cracksG, an( t$ose
pro(uce( as a (irect conse1uence o& corrosion Fe-pansive corrosion pro(ucts lea(ing to
cracking an( spallingG)
It s$oul( +e re%e%+ere( t$at concrete is intrinsically a cracke( %aterial an( only t$ose cracks
a+ove a critical ,i(t$ ,$ic$ intersect t$e steel are lia+le to assist t$e corrosion processes)
Presence of ChIoride Ions
As previously (iscusse(, c$lori(e ions can enter concrete in t,o ,ays, iG t$ey %ay +e a((e(
(uring %i-ing eit$er (eli+erately as an a(%i-ture or as a conta%inant in t$e original constituents,
or iiG t$ey %ay enter t$e set concrete &ro% an e-ternal source suc$ sea ,ater)
;nce c$lori(e ions $ave reac$e( t$e rein&orce%ent in su&&icient 1uantities t$ey ,ill (epassivate
t$e e%+e((e( steel +y +reaking (o,n t$e protective o-i(e layer nor%ally %aintaine( +y t$e
alkaline environ%ent) #$e concentration o& c$lori(e ions re1uire( to initiate an( %aintain
corrosion is (epen(ant upon t$e alkalinity an( it $as +een s$o,n t$at t$ere is an al%ost linear
relations$ip +et,een $y(ro-yl ion concentration an( t$e respective t$res$ol( level o& &ree
c$lori(e)
In practice t$e evaluation o& &ree Fun+oun(G c$lori(e an( $y(ro-yl ion levels is i%practical on a
regular +asis) It is %ore usual to e%ploy total c$lori(e ion levels to evaluate t$e likely corrosion
state o& t$e steel ,it$ t$e assistance o& e%pirically (eter%ine( relations$ips o+taine( &ro%
si%ilar structures) Sa%ples are easily o+taine( +y (rilling $oles an( collecting t$e (ust +ut t$ere
is generally a spatial (i&&erence +et,een t$e site ,$ere t$e (ust sa%ple ,as collecte( an( t$e
position ,$ere a $al&cell %easure%ent ,as taken or a corro(e( +ar e-pose()
#$is partly e-plains t$e pro+le%s t$at $ave +een encountere( ,$en trying to i(enti&y si%ple
relations$ips +et,een c$lori(e levels, $al&cell potentials an( rein&orce%ent corrosion)
Carbonation
Car+on (io-i(e present in t$e at%osp$ere co%+ines ,it$ %oisture in t$e concrete to &or%
car+onic aci() #$is t$en reacts ,it$ t$e ce%ent $y(ration pro(ucts resulting in a re(uction in t$e
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alkalinity o& t$e concrete) #$e rate at ,$ic$ t$is neutralisation occurs is in&luence( +y &actors
suc$ as %oisture levels an( concrete 1uality) #$e (ept$ o& car+onation in a structure can +e
1uite easily esta+lis$e( +y t$e use o& p$enolp$t$alein in(icator on &res$ly e-pose( %aterial)
#$e (istinctive colour c$ange, &ro% (eep pink in una&&ecte( concrete to clear in t$e car+onate(
region, is su&&iciently accurate &or %ost practical purposes provi(e( a nu%+er o& %easure%ents
are o+taine( to allo, &or local variations)
EnvironmentaI Considerations
#$e %icrocli%ate to ,$ic$ t$e rein&orce( concrete %e%+er is e-pose( (irectly a&&ects t$e
likeli$oo( an( e-tent o& rein&orce%ent corrosion) Hactors suc$ as c$lori(e ion levels an( p2 $ave
alrea(y +een (iscusse( +ut t$e %ost i%portant aspect o& t$e local environ%ent is t$e %oisture
level) Car+onation, c$lori(e ion ingress, resistivity an( corrosion rate are all greatly in&luence( +y
t$e (egree o& saturation)
Identification of Corroded Areas
C$lori(e in(uce( corrosion is a (istinct &unction o& te%perature, $u%i(ity an( cycles o& ,etting
an( (rying) /$ere c$lori(e ions $ave +een present in t$e concrete &ro% t$e ti%e o& %i-ing, t$e
ti%e to initiation %ay +e :ero) #$e %ain purpose o& %onitoring is to try an( i(enti&y corrosion
sites t$at $ave not yet reac$e( t$e point ,$ere cracking an( spalling $ave occurre() .y
co%+ining t$e in&or%ation o+taine( &ro% t$e %any %et$o(s availa+le, it is possi+le to isolate t$e
$ig$risk regions ,it$ a goo( (egree o& con&i(ence, e)g)
2ig$ c$lori(e J large negative $al&cell potentials J lo, cover J lo, resistivity K $ig$ corrosion
risk)
Lreater accuracy is ac$ieve( +y cali+rating t$e structure t$roug$ t$e use o& ,ater 8etting as an
e-ploratory tool in areas ,$ic$ $ave s$o,n +ot$ lo, an( $ig$ risks o& corrosion as a result o&
testing) /$ere e-tre%e con(itions o& very lo, or very $ig$ corrosion risk $ave +een i(enti&ie(
t$ere is pro+a+ly no nee( &or actual corrosion rates to +e (eter%ine()
HaIf-CeII Surveys
#$e site (etection o& re+ar corrosion +y (irect %eans is co%pletely (o%inate( +y t$e $al&cell
tec$ni1ues ,$ere potentials are %easure( +et,een t$e steel an( a stan(ar( re&erence electro(e
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an( t$en relate( to t$e likely corrosion state o& t$e re+ar) /$ile t$e tec$ni1ue $as re%aine(
largely unc$ange(, t$e e1uip%ent $as (evelope( signi&icantly)
#$e tra(itional an( si%ply constructe( copperMcopper sulp$ate electro(e ,it$ its leaky an(
reactive electrolyte is gra(ually +eing replace( +y co%%ercially pro(uce( silverMsilver c$lori(e
types) *ata loggers are replacing note pa(s an( t$e electro(es are +eing %ounte( in arrays an(
,$eels to per%it rapi( surveying o& large areas)
#$e apparent si%plicity o& t$e $al&cell survey tec$ni1ue can lea( to a great %any pro+le%s)
/i(ely space( rea(ings, (ry concrete, sur&ace laitance an( ina(e1uate or poorly %aintaine(
e1uip%ent $ave all +een kno,n to pro(uce %eaningless or %islea(ing results) Hurt$er%ore, any
%etalMelectrolyte 8unction in contact ,it$ t$e %easuring circuit, suc$ as a ,et galvanise( clip or a
silver +racelet on a (a%p ar%, can i%pose an a((itional potential lea(ing to %uc$ con&usion)
A signi&icant (evelop%ent o& t$e stan(ar( $al&cell survey is t$e (o,n$ole or in(ept$ tec$ni1ue
,$ic$ %akes use o& c$lori(e sa%pling $oles to pro(uce a t$ree(i%ensional or crosssectional
%ap) In t$is ,ay, t$e $al&cell survey is not li%ite( to t$e layer o& rein&orce%ent nearest t$e
sur&ace an( t$e con(ition o& ot$er,ise inaccessi+le re+ars can +e evaluate()
/$ile t$e application o& $al&cell tec$ni1ues +eco%es easier t$roug$ a %i-ture o& tec$nology an(
ingenuity, t$e interpretation o& t$e (ata pro(uce( re%ains co%ple- an( repetitious) 0ess reliance
is +eing place( upon t$e AS#M gui(elines ,$ic$ are +ase( on A%erican e-perience an( %ay
not al,ays +e relevant un(er (i&&erent con(itions o& te%perature an( $u%i(ity) /$ile suc$ +asic
risk +an(s are a use&ul starting point, t$ey are not a su+stitute &or a &ull an( proper
un(erstan(ing o& t$e principals o& t$e corrosion o& steel in concrete)
Any use o& alternatives to conventional plain steel rein&orce%ent, &or e-a%ple epo-y coate(,
galvani:e( or stainless steel re+ar, re1uires %ore care to +e applie( ,$en carrying out an(
interpreting $al&cell potential surveys an( t$ere is a clear nee( &or gui(ance in t$e selection o&
inspection tec$ni1ues &or suc$ structures)
Resistivity
#$ere is a (egree o& interest in o+taining resistivity %easure%ents to assist in t$e interpretation
o& t$e $al&cell survey) Eery si%ply, t$e $ig$er t$e resistance o& t$e concrete, t$e s%aller t$e
%agnitu(e o& corrosion current &or a given potential (i&&erence)
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Resistivity can +e %easure( insitu using t$e /enner &ourpro+e tec$ni1ue, provi(e( care is
taken to avoi( $ig$ly resistive sur&ace layers an( t$e close pro-i%ity o& a(8acent re+ars, +ot$ o&
,$ic$ %ay (isrupt t$e %easure%ents)
Hor an area ,$ere $al&cell %easure%ents in(icate corrosion activity, a resistivity o& over "2
kNMc% ,oul( suggest little or no corrosion to +e occurring ,$ile a resistivity o& less t$an > kNMc%
is consistent ,it$ a $ig$ corrosion risk)
As an alternative to t$e /enner %et$o(, resistivities can +e o+taine( &ro% concrete cores) #$e
a(vantages o& t$is tec$ni1ue are t$at it is less prone to %easure%ent errors an( rea(ings can +e
o+taine( &or t$e cores in t$e asreceive(, saturate( an( air(ry con(ition so t$at t$e sensitivity to
%oisture content %ay +e evaluate()
Suc$ in&or%ation %ay +e o& greater value ,$en atte%pting to pre(ict t$e longter% per&or%ance
o& a structure an( ,$en (eveloping %et$o(s o& %o(elling t$e corrosion processes in rein&orce(
concrete) *irect %easure%ent o& t$e circuit resistivity +et,een t$e re&erence electro(e an( t$e
rein&orce%ent can +e $elp&ul +ot$ in ter%s o& corrosion %o(elling an( in ensuring t$e vali(ity o&
t$e rea(ings, particularly in areas o& (ry, $ig$ly resistive concrete)
Determining Loss of Section
/$ile t$e site %easure%ent o& corrosion rates %ay see% an i%portant step in evaluating t$e
con(ition o& rein&orce( structures, it %ay +e o& li%ite( value unless (irectly associate( ,it$ a
speci&ic area, in kno,n con(itions an( over a certain ti%escale) #$e true re1uire%ent is &or an
in(ication o& t$e loss o& rein&orce%ent crosssection ,it$ its (irect conse1uences on t$e integrity
o& t$e structure)
A range o& la+oratory(evelope( syste%s e-ist &ro% very si%ple resistance tec$ni1ues to
ela+orate e%+e((a+le pro+es containing alkali+ase( re&erence electro(es capa+le o&
%easuring potentials, currents an( p2) /$ile an entire structure coul( never +e e&&ectively
%onitore(, a li%ite( nu%+er o& pro+es can +e positione( in $ig$risk areas) #$e %a8or tec$nical
(i&&iculty ,it$ suc$ syste%s is ensuring t$at t$ey are provi(ing (ata t$at relates to t$e structure
an( not 8ust to t$e %easuring (evice)
A nu%+er o& la+oratory(evelope( electroc$e%ical %et$o(s $ave +een a(apte( &or use on site)
Suc$ tec$ni1ues inclu(e linear polarisation, electroc$e%ical noise, AC i%pe(ance, $ar%onic
analysis an( galvanostatic pulse analysis) /$ile all t$ese tec$ni1ues per&or% ,ell in t$e
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la+oratory environ%ent, it is still to +e proven conclusively t$at t$ey can +e as relia+le in t$e
%ore co%ple- site environ%ent)
#$ere is a continuing interest regar(ing %et$o(s o& %o(elling an( calculating corrosion rates
&ro% e-isting (ata suc$ as $al&cell potentials an( resistivity, using a range o& tec$ni1ues &ro%
si%ple t,o(i%ensional calculations to co%ple- t$ree(i%ensional &inite ele%ent analysis) .y
applying t$is approac$ to in(ept$ $al&cell (ata it is possi+le to o+tain corrosion rate in&or%ation
&or any layer o& rein&orce%ent)
#rue non(estructive tec$ni1ues t$at $ave +een evaluate( &or t$eir a+ility to (eter%ine re+ar
crosssection inclu(e ra(ar, ultrasonics, ra(iograp$y, e((y currents an( %agnetic in(uction)
Suc$ tec$ni1ues ,ere originally (evelope( &or use ,it$ $o%ogeneous %aterials an( generally
provi(e poor resolution ,$en applie( to t$e $eterogeneous structure o& concrete) I& t$e
sensitivity o& t$ese %et$o(s can +e i%prove(, &or e-a%ple t$roug$ t$e use o& (igital &iltering an(
en$ance%ent, t$en t$ey %ay (evelop into i%portant site evaluation tec$ni1ues)
Concrete Society #ec$nical Report #R < gives (etails o& %any o& t$ese tests)
Inspection Regimes
Most current gui(ance reco%%en(s t$at car park structures s$oul( +e inspecte( regularly) #$e
ICA reco%%en(s t$e pro(uction o& 60i&e Care Plans7, t$e ;*PM ,ork reco%%en(s si%ilar
routine inspections +enc$%arke( against current con(ition an( risk, t$e IStructA gui(ance
reco%%en(s t$at t$e $an(over package &or ne, structures contains gui(ance on inspection
regi%es) #$is ,oul( +e e-pecte( un(er C*M regulations, an( is ,$at s$oul( +e $appening on
li&ts, &ire syste%s, lig$ting an( electrical syste%s any,ay)
In or(er to per&or% inspections t$ere are a nu%+er o& risks t$at nee( to +e consi(ere() As note(
previously, (eterioration o& concrete is governe( +y t$e ingress o& aggressive agents suc$ as
c$lori(es an( car+on (io-i(e) #$is is likely to occur in t$e vicinity o& (rainage, in areas ,$ere salt
is tracke( into t$e structure, or in areas ,$ere cracks or 8oints $ave allo,e( t$e aggressive
agent into t$e concrete) #$e areas o& %a-i%u% structural stress are governe( +y t$e loa(ing
patterns in t$e car parks) Hortunately t$e (eterioration is not (irectly linke( to t$e loa( an( so
su((en structural &ailure is rare)
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#$ere ,ill +e areas t$at are all +ut uninspecta+le) In t$ese locations it ,ill +e possi+le to
1uanti&y t$e structural risk +ut it ,ill not +e possi+le to accurately 1uanti&y t$e (eterioration risk,
in anyt$ing ot$er t$an general ter%s regar(ing visi+le cracking an( staining)
#$ere ,ill +e %any areas ,$ere t$e conse1uences o& (eterioration are structurally insigni&icant,
+ut &ro% a $ealt$ an( sa&ety point o& vie, t$ey %ay result in p$ysical in8ury) A s$allo, spall in t$e
(eck %ay $ave al%ost no structural i%pact, +ut ,ill result in a trip $a:ar() *ela%inating concrete
on t$e so&&it ,oul( al%ost certainly +e consi(ere( unaccepta+le +ut t$e pro+a+ility o& an isolate(
area &alling o&& at t$e sa%e ti%e as so%e un&ortunate in(ivi(ual ,as passing un(erneat$ is
e-tre%ely s%all) Regar(less o& t$is +ot$ o& t$ese issues ,oul( still +e consi(ere( +y %any as an
unaccepta+le risk)
Liven t$e a+ove, it +eco%es clear t$at it is in everyone=s interest to carry out regular inspections
o& car parks)
Baselines
I& no previous &or%alise( inspection routine e-ists, it ,ill +e necessary to carry out a +aseline
inspection) #$is ,ill involve a revie, o& all FanyG previous inspection (ata, as+uilts, an( (etails o&
%o(i&ications t$at $ave +een un(ertaken) It is likely t$at signi&icant gaps ,ill e-ist in t$is
in&or%ation, an( t$ese %ay +e supple%ente( ,it$ $ear say)
A&ter revie,ing t$e in&or%ation availa+le, it ,ill +e necessary to get appropriate personnel to
inspect t$e structure) #$ere are %any engineers ,$o kno, %uc$ a+out structural inspections,
an( t$ere are %any t$at kno, a+out (eterioration in concrete) #o inspect a car park you nee(
+ot$ t$ese skills For t,o engineers, ,$o cover itG)
#$e inspection itsel& s$oul( look t$oroug$ly at t$e car park) #$is s$oul( inclu(e looking &or
(e&ects in (rainage, ,aterproo&ing an( sur&acing, evi(ence o& (eterioration o& t$e concrete an(
rein&orce%ent, structural cracking an( vulnera+le areas, evi(ence o& previous repairs, an(
i(enti&ying areas t$at cannot +e inspecte( si%ply) Issues suc$ as lig$ting, parapets, pe(estrian
separation an( &alls &ro% $eig$t s$oul( also +e consi(ere()
/$ere necessary t$e output o& t$is inspection %ay reco%%en( a((itional testing to &urt$er
1uanti&y t$e con(ition o& t$e car park, inclu(ing (ust sa%pling &or c$lori(es, car+onation testing,
$al&cell testing, or even coring &or strengt$ or petrograp$ic analysis)
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;nce a +aseline $as +een esta+lis$e( less rigorous inspections can t$en +e carrie( out) #$ere
is no re1uire%ent &or specialist engineering input to i(enti&y ,$en (rainage is +locke(, or t$ere is
stan(ing ,ater, an( +ot$ t$ese ite%s %ay ulti%ately result in (egra(ation o& t$e concrete i& not
a((resse() Si%ilarly a si%pli&ie( routine inspection %ay +e a+le to i(enti&y spalls in t$e concrete
,$ic$ are in(icative o& greater pro+le%s)
#$e Dational Steering Co%%ittee on t$e Inspection ;& MultiStorey Car Parks $as pro(uce(
gui(ance on inspections)
Loss of StructuraI Integrity
#$ree 1uestions nee( to +e consi(ere( +e&ore structure %anage%ent an( t$e appropriateness
o& re%e(ial actions can +e &inalise(4
") /$at is t$e cause o& t$e (eteriorationO
2) Can steps +e taken to slo, or stop t$e processO
9) /$at are t$e structural conse1uences o& t$e e-isting an( pro8ecte( (a%ageO
Muc$ researc$ an( &iel( trials $ave +een (irecte( at (iagnostic tec$ni1ues as illustrate( earlier)
#$ere are a ,ealt$ o& proprietary repair %aterials an( tec$ni1ues suc$ as cat$o(ic protection
syste%s an( realkalisation o& concrete ,$ic$ are use( to arrest t$e corrosion process, as
(iscusse( later) 2o,ever, very little researc$ $as +een (irecte( at t$e pro+le% o& strengt$
assess%ent o& (eteriorating structures)
#$is is re&lecte( in t$e range o& assess%ent co(es ,$ic$ are availa+le to practising engineers in
,$o% 1uantitative %et$o(s o& pre(icting t$e loa(ing e&&ects give ,ay to 1ualitative assess%ent
o& t$e structural e&&ects o& (eterioration)
Structural e&&ects o& corrosion generally %ani&est as loss o& steel section or loss o& +on( +et,een
rein&orce%ent an( concrete) #$e signi&icance o& suc$ (a%age ,ill +e (iscusse( in relation to
rein&orce( an( posttensione( concrete structures)
Assess%ent o& t$e strengt$ o& rein&orce( concrete &le-ural %e%+ers su&&ering corrosion to t$e
tension rein&orce%ent is a co%%on occurrence ,$ic$ is %a(e (i&&icult +y t$e a+sence o& strain
co%pati+ility at t$e rein&orce%ent level)
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0oss o& strain co%pati+ility arises +ecause o& a +reak(o,n in +on( +et,een t$e steel an(
concrete upon ,$ic$ t$e ulti%ate %o%ent o& resistance is (epen(ent at all sections along t$e
%e%+er)
It is i%portant to note t$at (e+on(ing %ay occur ,ell in a(vance o& signi&icant loss o&
rein&orce%ent section an( t$ere&ore incipient spalling presents t$e &irst contri+ution to a re(uce(
&actor o& sa&ety against collapse)
S$ear &ailures are generally +rittle an( can +e triggere( ,it$ little visual ,arning) Co(i&ie( rules
&or %o(elling s$ear action, even ,it$out (eterioration, $ave no rational +asis) *eterioration,
,$ic$ is co%%on in :ones o& $ig$ s$ear, i)e) t$e en(s o& (ecks a(8acent to leaking e-pansion
8oints, &urt$er co%plicates structural assess%ent) In trying to 1uanti&y t$e e&&ects o& corrosion
(a%age in :ones o& $ig$ s$ear it is o&ten necessary to separate t$e (i&&erent contri+utions o&
rein&orce%ent an( concrete to s$ear resistance)
In %any cases it is t$e loss o& cover ,$ic$ $as t$e %ost signi&icant re(uction on s$ear capacity
+y eli%inating (o,el action) Increase( risk o& anc$orage &ailure cause( +y loss o& +on( also
nee(s to +e c$ecke( as t$is can +e t$e trigger &or collapse)
Assess%ent o& prestresse( concrete %e%+ers ,it$ a lack o& (ra,ings an( stressing recor(s
presents a serious pro+le% in esta+lis$ing t$e level o& prestress an( $ence loa( carrying
capacity) Co%+ine t$is ,it$ concern over (ura+ility o& t$e ten(ons in (ucts t$at $ave not +een
properly groute( an( t$e para%ount nee( &or sa&ety can result in (ecisions to strengt$en or
replace +eing taken as a %atter o& pru(ence)
#$e structural conse1uences o& (eteriorating concrete an( corro(ing rein&orce%ent or ten(ons
are potentially (isastrous i& t$ey are allo,e( to procee( unc$ecke()
.y t$e care&ul application o& an appropriately selecte( suite o& t$ese test proce(ures it is
possi+le to +uil( up a (etaile( picture o& t$e con(ition o& even t$e %ost inaccessi+le rein&orce(
concrete ele%ents an( $ence t$eir structural integrity)
Options for Repair and DurabiIity Enhancement
#$e &irst an( %ost regularly e%ploye( concrete repair option is to (o not$ing at all)
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Provi(e( t$e structure an( t$ose ,$o use it are not put at risk t$en %any rein&orce( concrete
ele%ents can +e allo,e( to 1uietly (egra(e an( (isintegrate F$ope&ully su+8ect to so%e &or% o&
%onitoring or perio(ic inspectionG, until t$eir eventual replace%ent)
#rue repair starts ,it$ patc$ing t$e re%oval o& cracke(, (ela%inate( an(Mor conta%inate(
concrete an( reinstate%ent ,it$ a FusuallyG ce%entitious %aterial) In t$eir si%plest &or%, patc$
repairs %ay +e little %ore t$an aest$etic e-ercises)
Success&ul repair o& car+onate( or c$lori(ela(en concrete re1uires t$e co%plete re%oval o&
e&&ecte( %aterial a(8acent to rein&orce%ent) C$lori(es are particularly (i&&icult to (eal ,it$ as
corrosion ten(s to occur in t$e areas o& %a-i%u% c$lori(e concentration ,$ic$ in turn protect
a(8acent areas)
Repairs to areas o& corrosion an( (ela%ination o&ten result in su+se1uent corrosion to t$e
a(8acent, previously protecte( areas t$e socalle( incipient ano(e e&&ect) Patc$ repairing
c$lori(e conta%inate( concrete can t$ere&ore +eco%e an e-pensive option, ,it$ large volu%es
o& soun( +ut c$lori(e conta%inate( %aterial $aving to +e re%ove( ,it$ possi+le structural
i%plications)
#$e li%itations o& patc$ repairs, particularly ,it$ respect to c$lori(e attack, $ave +een i%portant
in (riving &or,ar( t$e (evelop%ent o& alternative approac$es to repair) A nu%+er o& t$ese
approac$es are (iscusse( +elo,)
Cathodic Protection
Cat$o(ic protection FC)P)G is a %eans o& protecting steel &ro% aggressive c$lori(ela(en
environ%ents) It is also less co%%only use( &or car+onate( concrete) #$e steel is %aintaine( as
t$e cat$o(e in an electrical circuit (riven +y eit$er an i%presse( current or a galvanic Fsacri&icialG
ano(e) Cat$o(ic protection syste%s %ust +e care&ully (esigne( an( account %ust +e taken o&
%any (i&&erent &actors suc$ as t$e aggressiveness o& t$e environ%ent5 t$e area o& steel to +e
protecte(5 t$e resistivity o& t$e surroun(ing %aterial5 t$e positioning o& any e-ternal %etallic
o+8ects ,$ic$ coul( +e a&&ecte( +y t$e syste%5 t$e type o& ano(e use( etc)
#$e initial (esign re1uire%ents an( t$e application o& a current t$roug$out t$e service li&e o& t$e
structure +eing protecte( can %ake cat$o(ic protection e-pensive an( co%ple- in co%parison to
conventional repair syste%s) A care&ul evaluation o& cat$o(ic protection syste%s relative to ot$er
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repair options s$oul( +e %a(e in or(er to ascertain ,$et$er cat$o(ic protection is t$e +est route
to &ollo,)
In a((ition to using cat$o(ic protection as part o& a repair strategy &or corrosion (a%age(
concrete, t$e tec$ni1ue is also +eing (evelope( &or t$e protection o& ne, structures, inclu(ing
posttensione( %e%+ers) .ecause passive steel re1uires less polarisation to ac$ieve protection,
stresse( ten(ons can +e inclu(e( ,it$out t$e usual concerns o& $y(rogen e%+rittle%ent)
Continuing (evelop%ents in t$e %et$o( o& application an( availa+le ano(e syste%s, suc$ as
spraye( con(uctive overlays, pro%ise to e-ten( t$e use o& t$is tec$ni1ue in +ot$ ne, an(
e-isting structures)
Corrosion Inhibitors for Reinforced Concrete
Corrosion in$i+itors are ,i(ely use( in t$e protection o& %etals) #$ere $as long +een interest in
t$eir potential use &or t$e protection o& concrete rein&orce%ent, generally as a(%i-tures o&
calciu% nitrite)
A %ore recent (evelop%ent $as +een in t$e availa+ility o& in$i+itor syste%s t$at can +e applie(
to t$e sur&ace o& rein&orce( concrete or in8ecte( into t$e +o(y o& t$e concrete an( t$en %igrate to
an( protect t$e steel)
#$ese %aterials are typically +ase( on a%inoalco$ols an( are capa+le o& %igrating t$roug$
concrete to &or% a &il% covering t$e sur&ace o& t$e rein&orce%ent an( t$ere+y protect it) #$ere is
particular interest in t$eir use ,it$ prestresse( an( AARsuscepti+le structures ,$ere t$e use o&
cat$o(ic protection %ay +e un(esira+le) Recent &or%ulations e%ploying a silane +ack+one
appear to o&&er service lives o& at least ten years ,$en appropriately e%ploye()
Protective Coatings
Coatings can +e use( to protect concrete su+strates in a nu%+er o& ,ays) #$ey can &or% an
i%per%ea+le +arrier +et,een t$e environ%ent an( t$e su+strate an( in t$is ,ay a&&or( al%ost
co%plete protection, assu%ing t$e coating is continuous) Coatings can also protect t$e su+strate
+y slo,ing (o,n t$e rate o& penetration o& aggressive co%ponents &ro% t$e environ%ent into t$e
su+strate, i)e) t$ey provi(e partial protection, ,$ic$ %ay +e a(e1uate to allo, t$e structure to
&ul&il its (esign li&e)
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#$ere are at present a large nu%+er o& %ainly organic coatings availa+le to protect structural
%aterials suc$ as rein&orce( concrete &ro% %any (i&&erent service environ%ents) In a((ition to
epo-ies, polyuret$anes an( +itu%inous syste%s t$ere is no, an increasing use o& penetrating
,ater repellent pore liners) /ater repellents in current use are generally +ase( on silanes an(
silo-anes an( gui(elines $ave +een pro(uce( &or t$eir application to U)') $ig$,ay structures)
SiIane and SiIoxane Treatments
/ater repellents +ase( on organic silicon co%poun(s o&&er a convenient route to en$ancing t$e
(ura+ility o& ne, an( e-isting rein&orce( concrete structures, particularly ,$ere e-pose( to
c$lori(e environ%ents)
Alkylalko-ysilo-anes or silo-anes are pro(uce( ,$en silane is reacte( ,it$ ,ater) ;ligo%erous
Fless t$an @ groupsG an( poly%eric Fgreater t$an @ groupsG &or%s o& silo-ane can +e pro(uce(,
+ut t$e large si:e o& t$e poly%eric &or% %akes it (i&&icult to apply an( prone to re%ain tacky an(
attract (irt)
;ligo%erous silo-anes retain %ost o& t$e a(vantages o& silanes ,it$ regar( to penetration an(
%oisture tolerance) #$ey $ave t$e a((e( a(vantage o& a lo, vapour pressure un(er nor%al
con(itions o& application ,$ic$ results in &ar lo,er evaporation losses co%pare( ,it$ silanes)
/$ile conventional silo-anes still re1uire an alkaline environ%ent &or &ull reaction to occur,
%o(i&ie( %aterials are no, availa+le ,it$ a suita+le catalyst alrea(y a((e() Suc$ %aterials ,ill
react even in neutral %aterials provi(e( %oisture is present)