PSYCH 111 Review Sheet for Exam #2 Ch.

5 Consciousness Sleep Circadian rhythm- cyclical changes that occur on a 24-hour basis in biological processes. 5 stages of sleep and how we measure them (EEG ! Stage "- light sleep# Stage 2slower wa$es% sleep spindles% & comple'es# Stage ()4- deep sleep% delta wa$es# Stage 5- *E+ sleep% high brain acti$ity. ,iological necessity of *E+ sleep- rats died after being depri$ed of *E+. *E+ rebound where after sleep depri$ation more intense *E+ sleep. -heories of why we sleep! o *estoration theory- sleeping is essential for re$itali.ing and restoring the physiological processes that &eep the body and mind healthy and properly functioning. o /reser$ation)protection theory- sleep ser$es an adapti$e function. 0t protects the animal during that portion of the 24-hour day in which being awa&e% and hence roaming around% would place the indi$idual at greatest ris&. 1isorders of sleep! 0nsomnia- most common)ha$ing trouble falling asleep)wa&ing in the night)trouble returning to sleep% narcolepsy- rapid)sudden onset of sleep% sleep apneabloc&age of airway during sleep% nightmares- bad dreams% night terrorsscreaming)yelling) confused child while in deep sleep% sleepwal&ing- wal&ing while fully asleep. Effects of sleep depri$ation (/eter -ripp $ideo ! Change in mood% hallucinations% 1reaming Common contents of dreams- chased% falling% lost% flying% se'ual% na&ed% in2ury. 3ucid dreaming- e'perience of becoming aware that one is dreaming. Sleep thought- thin&ing irrationally while dreaming. -heories of dreaming o 4reud and wish fulfillment- se'ual and aggressi$e impulses symboli.ed in dreams. o 5cti$ation-synthesis- theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain acti$ation originating in the pons% which the forebrain then attempts to wea$e into a story. 6ther alterations of consciousness 7ypnosis o +yths and misconceptions of hypnosis (for e'ample as in Friends - mind control o 8se of hypnosis in clinical practice (the woman who wanted to 9uit smo&ing gi$es people:s subconscious the suggestions for alternating their perceptions% thoughts% feelings% and beha$iors. o -heories of hypnosis! Sociocogniti$e- hypnosis based on people:s attitudes%

beliefs% and e'pectations. 1issociation theory- hypnosis based on separation between personality functions that are usually integrated. 1rugs and consciousness Classes of drugs (for each% thin& of e'amples and effects o 1epressants- 1ecreases acti$ity of the central ner$ous system. 5lcohol. o Stimulants- drugs that increase acti$ity in the central ner$ous system% heart rate% respiration% and blood pressure. -obacco- reduces stress% tension% and an'iety. o 6piate narcotics- drugs that reduce pain and induce sleep. +orphine. o /sychedelic- 5lters perception% mood% thoughts. +ari2uana% 3S1. 7oc& reading ; < (5serins&y = >leitman# 1ement 0mportance of *E+ sleep and dreaming- /atients actually e'perienced *E+ while awa&e.

Ch. 6 Learnin Conditioned stimulus (CS - initially neutral stimulus. 8nconditioned stimulus (8CS - stimulus that causes automatic response. 8nconditioned response (8C* - automatic response to unlearned stimulus. Conditioned response (C* - response associated with 8CS elicited by CS 7abituation- responding less strongly o$er time to repeated stimulus. 5$ersi$e conditioning- classical conditioning to an unpleasant 8CS. -ypes of reinforcement! o /ositi$e reinforcement- positi$e outcome or conse9uence of a beha$ior that strengthens the probability of the beha$ior. o ?egati$e reinforcement- remo$al to negati$e outcome of a beha$ior that strengthens probability of the beha$ior. /unishment- outcome or conse9uence of a beha$ior that wea&ens probability of the beha$ior. 5c9uisition- leaning phase where a conditioned response is established% e'tinctionreduction)elimination of conditioned response% and spontaneous reco$ery- reemergence of e'tinct C* after a delay in CS. Stimulus generali.ation- similar CS elicits the C* $s. stimulus discrimination- less pronounced C* to a CS different from original CS. 7igher order conditioning- de$eloping a C* to a CS by associating it to another CS. -he law of effect- if a stimulus followed by a beha$ior results in a reward% the stimulus is more li&ely to cause the beha$ior in the future. Schedules of reinforcement o 4i'ed ratio (4* schedule- reinforcement after a number of responses. o 4i'ed inter$al (40 schedule- reinforcement after a specific time inter$al. o @ariable ratio (@* schedule- reinforcement after a random number of responses. o @ariable inter$al (@0 schedule- reinforcement after a random time inter$al. Shaping- conditioning beha$ior by reinforcing beha$iors that comes closer and closer to target. Chaining- lin&ing a number of unrelated beha$iors that form a longer series. /remac& principle- less fre9uently performed beha$ior can be increased in fre9uency by reinforcing it with a more fre9uent beha$ior. -o&en economies (secondary and primary reinforcers - patients who beha$e in a desired fashion recei$e secondary reinforcers% which can be trade for primary reinforcers. 7igher-order conditioning and addictions- conditioning a response to a conditioned stimulus by $irtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus. 5ssociation to things that cause a dri$e for those things causes addictions. 5c9uisition of phobias- through classical conditioning.

Cogniti$e +odels of 3earning 3atent learning- learning that isn:t directly obser$able.

6bser$ational learning (,andura - learning by watching others. Children learn to act aggressi$ely by watching aggressi$e role models. 0nsight learning- all of the sudden learning of something through an aha moment.

,iological 0nfluences on 3earning Conditioned taste a$ersion- only ta&es one trial to de$elop where one learns a condition an associated between taste and illness. /reparedness- e$olutionary predisposition to learning pairing of feared stimuli o$er others due to their sur$i$al $alue. 3earning fads A popular techni9ues that state with radical learning techni9ues. e.g. sleepassisted learning- learning new materials while asleep. 7oc& reading ; (4 (Bolpe ! o 1e$elopment of phobias o *eciprocal inhibition- when you response inhibit each other only one may e'ist at a gi$en moment. Systematic desensiti.ation- decreasing your le$el of an'iety or fear gently and gradually. Ch. ! "emor# -hree systems of memory i Sensory memory 0conic- $isual sensory information and echoic- auditory sensory information +ethod of partial report- we ha$e the a$ailability of all the letters in each row% but usually only can remember one row. ii Short-term memory Capacity- how much we can maintain in our short-term memory. +agic number- span of short term memory! C plus or minus 2 *ehearsal- repeating information to e'tend he duration of short-term memory. +aintenance- repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them Elaboration- lin&ing stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to impro$e retention of information 1epth of processing- the more deeply we transform information the better we remember it. 1ecay- fading of information from memory 0nterference- loss of information due to competition of new information *etroacti$e and proacti$e inhibition iii 3ong-term memory E'plicit)declarati$e (Semantic-&nowledge of facts about the world% Episodice$ents of life 0mplicit (/rocedural- memory of how to do things% /riming- ability to identify a

stimulus more easily and 9uic&ly after we:$e encountered a similar stimuli. 4orgetting in long-term memory /rimacy- remember the words at the beginning of a list well% recentcy- remember words at the end of a list% @on *estroff Effect- tendency to remember stimuli that are distincti$e or stic& out from other stimuli. Serial position cur$e- graph depicting the effect of both primacy and recentcy on people:s ability to recall items on a list. (*e$iew the chart that you reorgani.ed for the +y/sych3ab assignmentD -hree stages of memory i Encoding- process of getting memory into our memory ban&s. +nemonics- a learning aid% strategy% or de$ice that enhances recall. ii Storage Schemas- process of &eeping information in memory. +ista&es caused by schemas- can cause us to remember things that ne$er happened or to o$ersimplify things. iii *etrie$al *ecall- generating pre$iously remember information. *ecognition- selecting pre$iously remembered information from an array of options *elearning- reac9uiring &nowledge that we:d pre$iously learned by largely forgotten o$er time. 1epth of processing- the le$el to which information is processed after being introduced into the memory. Elaborati$e rehearsal- deep sematic processing of a to-be-remembered item resulting in the production of durable memories. 1istributed $ersus massed practice- studying information in small increments o$er time $ersus large increments o$er a brief amount of time. Conte't-dependent- superior retrie$al of memories when the e'ternal conte't of the original memories matched the retrie$al conte't. and state-dependent learning- superior retrie$al of memories when the organism is in the same psychological state as it was during encoding. ,iology of memory o 7ippocampus- after strong stimulus hippocampal cells respond at an enhanced le$el to ordinary stimuli. 3-/ o 5mygdala- 3-/ lie response in the amygdala following the creation of a fear memory o 3-/ (3ong A-erm /otentiation - gradual strengthening of the connection among neuron form repetiti$e stimulation. Clinical disorders of memory 5mnesia (*etrograde- loss of memories from our past# 5nterograde- inability to create

new memories from our e'periences Cli$e Bearing 5l.heimer:s disease (causes and effects - pla9ue and neurofibrally tangles cause memory loss and intellectual decline

/roblems with memory 4lashbulb memories- emotional memories that are e'traordinarily $i$id and detailed. Source monitoring- ability to identify the origins of a memory. Eyewitness testimony- isn:t accurate when conditions aren:t e'act = leading 9uestions9uestion% which ha$e bais toward one response. 7oc& reading ;"< (3oftus ! 4alse presuppositions (implanting information into a 9uestion /roblems of memory reconstruction and eye witness testimony

Lan ua e$ %hin&in $ an' Reasonin Language- system that combines symbols in rule-based ways to create meaning 8nits of language! /honemes- categories of sound our $ocal apparatus produces. +orphemes- smallest meaningful units of speech. Synta'- grammar rules that go$ern how words are composed into meaningful stings. Semantics -heoretical accounts of language ac9uisition! what does each account say about language ac9uisition% and what is the ma2or problem)shortcoming of each oneE 0mitation account- children lean language through imitation. ?ati$ist account- children are born &nowing how language wor&s. Social-pragmatics account- children infer what words and sentences mean from conte't and social interactions. General cogniti$e processing account- language learning is result of general s&ills that children apply across a $ariety of acti$ities. 6ther important topics for language)reading! 1ifferences between animal and human communication- animals don:t ha$e same $ocal apparatus. Second language ac9uisition- different learning potential of a second language as age differs% Critical period for language- windows of time in de$elopment during which an organism must lean a ability if its going to lean it at all. ?icaraguan Sign 3anguage- the inhabitants created their own sign language% which became more comple' after each generation. 5rtificial intelligence)machine language learning- study and design of computer system created to mimic human cogniti$e abilities. 3inguistic determinism- language defines our thin&ing% linguistic relati$ity- $iew that characteristics of language shape our thought processes. Stroop effect (what it is% and its significance - reading comes natural% interference when thin&ing of colored words. Thinking and Reasoning Cogniti$e economy -op down processing-ta&ing information from related e'perience and using it to organi.e information. Categories- collections of real or imagined ob2ects% actions% and characteristics that share core properties. Schemas- categories we:$e stored in memory that organi.e relations among actions%

ob2ects% and ideas. /roblem sol$ing methods! -rial and error- is a method of problem sol$ing based on e'perience with no e'plicit use of insight or theory building. 5lgorithm- Set of instructions for sol$ing a problem 7euristics- estimation of how probable an e$ent is based on the ease of generating an e'ample. 0mportant concepts in problem sol$ing)reasoning! Salience of surface similarities- how attention grabbing something is on the surfacele$el. +ental sets- phenomenon of becoming stuc& in a specific problem-sol$ing strategy inhibiting our ability to generate alternati$es. 4unctional fi'edness- difficulty conceptuali.ing that an ob2ect typically used for one purpose can be used for another. 5nalogical reasoning 0nsight- grasping the nature of a problem Cultural differences E'periential differences E'pertise differences 7euristics and biases 5$ailability heuristic- prominence of idea in someone:s memory *epresentati$eness heuristic- /eople tend to 2udge the probability of an e$ent

by finding a Fcomparable &nownF e$ent and assuming that the probabilities will be similar.
7indsight bias- tendency to o$erestimate how well we could ha$e successfully forecasted &nown outcomes Confirmation bias- tendency to see& e$idence that supports our hypotheses and neglect information that contradicts them.

(Some of this is in Chapter "G and some is in Chapter 2# all of it was co$ered in either lecture or discussion section ?o 7oc& reading for this chapterDD

Ch. ( )nte**i ence an' )+ %estin

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-heories of intelligence! Sensory capacity- the amount of sensory information we can process. g (General intelligence - hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people and s (specific abilities - particular ability le$el in a narrow domain. -riarchic +odel- ( &inds of intelligence! practical% analytical% and creati$e. +ultiple intelligences- ideas that people $ary in their ability le$els across different domains of intellectual s&ill. ?ature $ersus nurture in intelligence 0ntelligence testing +ental age- measured intelligence% minus intelligence age ?on-intelligence (en$ironmental based e'planations for 0H differences between ,lac&s and Caucasians E'pectancy effect and self-fulfilling prophecies related to teaching and learning Stereotype threat 7oc& reading ;"4 (Gardner -heory of +ultiple 0ntelligences Bhat are the I types of intelligence and how they 9ualify as intelligences

Ch. 11 Human 2eve*o3ment Pia et4s Co nitive 2eve*o3ment %heor# 4 stages of cogniti$e de$elopment- sensorimotor- no thought beyond immediate physical e'periences% preoperational- able to thin& beyond the here and now% but unable to perform mental transformations% concrete- able to perform mental transformations bun only on concrete physical ob2ects% formal operations- hypothetical and abstract reasoning. 6b2ect permanence- ob2ects continue to e'ist e$en when out of $iew. Egocentrism- inability to see world form other peoples perspecti$es. Conser$ation- transform in the shape of an ob2ect with the same amount of water/iaget. 5ssimilation- asorbing new e'perience into current &nowledge structures%

5ccommodation- altering belief to ma&e it more compatabile with e'perience. 5# ots&#4s Socia* an' Cu*tura* %heor# Scaffolding- learning mechanisms were parents pro$ide initial assistance in children:s learning but gradually remo$e structure as children become more competent. Jone of pro'imal de$elopment- phase in learning where children can benefit from instruction. 6oh*7er 4s %heor# of "ora* 2eve*o3ment ,text 7oo& an' Hoc&0 ( stages of moral thin&ing Criticisms for >ohlberg:s theory Eri&son4s %heor# of )'entit# 2eve*o3ment 0dea of psychosocial crisis and how it relates to personality growth 4ocus on the 5th stage (5dolescence! 0dentity $s. *ole Confusion 8ow#*7#4s 9ttachment %heor# 5ttachment styles o Secure- after mom:s departure upset but greets return with 2oy% secure base. o 0nsecure a$oidant- indifference to mom:s departure and little reaction with return. o 0nsecure an'ious-panics with departure and mi'ed reaction on return. o 1isorgani.ed- inconsistent and confused responses with mom:s departure and return. Bhat influences the de$elopment of these attachment stylesE -he en$ironment of the baby. Bhat outcomes are associated with each attachment typeE Secure babies usually grow up well ad2usted% helpful% empathetic. :ther im3ortant conce3ts; 0mprinting- baby birds follow and attach themsel$es to any large mo$ing ob2ect they see in the hours immediately after being born. 5insworth:s stranger an'iety- fear of strangers de$eloping at I or K months of age. 7arlow:s mon&ey studies (contact comfort - contact comfort pre$ails o$er nourishment. Social-emotion learning ($ideo on &ids learning social and emotional s&ills in school Gender identity de$elopment- indi$iduals sense of being male or female% gender rolesbeha$iors that tend to be associated with being male or female% gender stereotypesstereotyping certain acti$ities as male or female. Bhat cogniti$e abilities decline and what e$en impro$e in aging adults Bhat are 4 concepts of age in addition to years li$ed

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