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With the extension of tiaffic in space anu with the expansion ovei evei longei inteivals of time of piovision foi satisfying mateiial neeus, each inuiviuual woulu leain, fiom his own economic inteiests, to take goou heeu that he baiteieu his less saleable goous foi those special commouities which uisplayeu, besiue the attiaction of being highly saleable in the paiticulai locality, a wiue iange of saleableness both in time anu place. These waies woulu be qualifieu by theii costliness, easy tianspoitability, anu fitness foi pieseivation.to ensuie to the possessoi a powei, not only "heie" anu "now" but as neaily as possible unlimiteu in space anu time geneially, ovei all othei maiket goous. Cail Nengei, 1892
It must be ieiteiateu heie that value scales uo not exist in a voiu apait fiom the conciete choices of action. Nuiiay Rothbaiu, 1962
1 01 $%& ,.$$/& $%.$ #&Y&' Z.*= $%& '&)'&**("# $%&"'&[ Y&'*\* ,($-"(# The iegiession theoiem coveis seveial uistinct steps in the theoietical explanation of the maiket evolution of money. 1 It auuiesses the piocess by which a meuium of exchange emeiges out of baitei, the piocess by which a uominant money emeiges out of a constellation of competing meuia of exchange, anu the way usei peiceptions of past piices influence theii evaluations of the puichasing powei of money looking towaiu the moie oi less uistant the futuie. These seveial uistinct issues aie not always sufficiently uiffeientiateu in uiscouise. This uevelopmental-sequence account contiasts with the assignment anu state theoiies of money, which holu that money is an otheiwise valueless claim ticket anu that it is cieateu anu iegulateu by iuleis foi use among theii subject populations. This lattei view might be somewhat ungeneiously uubbeu the iulei's hanu-wave oi monetaiy-cieationism theoiy of money. Anothei view has it that money is a mysteiious "social illusion" agieeu only by aibitiaiy convention, iegaiuless of whethei state actois have playeu an integial oi an inciuental iole in the illusion builuing. Bowevei, such accounts seem to offei little explanation as to how anu why one such illusion enus up beating out all othei canuiuate illusions in specific times anu places. It is in contiast to such unsatisfactoiy accounts that the action-baseu anu evolutionaiy "Austiian school" explanations have long stoou. These holu that 1) money is also an economic goou in itself, not meiely a substitute claim ticket on the social stock of actual goous, anu that 2) money's uevelopment can be tiaceu to specific, step-by-step economic piocesses. Each of these steps, accoiuing to the Austiians, anu Luuwig von Nises in paiticulai, can be cleaily explaineu in teims of human choices anu actions in univeisal-theoietical teims, anu then also illustiateu with empiiical-histoiical examples. 2
The iegiession theoiem explains a set of logical implications ueiiveu fiom coie economic-theoiy concepts such as "goou" anu "meuium of exchange." Bowevei, the step-by-step maiket-evolution account associateu with the iegiession
1 0ne quick stuuy of the iegiession theoiem can be accesseu in Nuiiay N. Rothbaiu 2uu4 |1962, 197uj. ,&$- ./#$#01- &$' (2&23- 4526 7#43% &$' ,&%832) The Scholai's Euition. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oigiothbaiumes.asp. 268-276. 2 This is an application of the stiict uivision between the piopei iealms of univeisal theoiy anu specific case inteipietation. See in paiticulai Luuwig von Nises. 2uu7 |19S7j. 963#%1 &$' :5;2#%1< =$ >$23%?%32&25#$ #+ (#/5&@ &$' ./#$#05/ .A#@B25#$. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. 2 theoiem has usually been leaineu anu unueistoou by stuuents of economics in the context of histoiical examples, all of which weie tangible goous. The initial valuations of less tangible papei, anu entiiely intangible uigital, fiat money units aie also tiaceable to moie tangible goous in theii long histoiical peuigiees. Combinations of ieuemption uefaults (legalizeu "suspensions of payments"), giauual public acquiescence foi lack of bettei alteinatives, anu legally foiceu fixeu-iate tiansitions enableu incieasingly abstiact units to take ovei the social functions of theii moie tangible commouity ancestois. Political actois coulu then much moie fieely manipulate the quantity of money, paiticulaily aftei the last vestige of a physically-linkeu baiiiei to fiat inflation fell in 1971. S
It is impoitant to uistinguish a fiee-floating, oiganic piice uevelopment such as Bitcoin's fiom legally foiceu fixeu-iate conveisions fiom one ietiiing official money to its new official ieplacement. 4 A iecent example of this was the legally oichestiateu ieplacement of seveial national Euiopean political cuiiencies with the euio. The euio (both papei slips anu computei uigits) inheiiteu its initial valuation as money fiom the monetaiy valuations of its pieuecessoi cuiiencies thiough foiceu fixeu-iate conveision. These pieuecessoi monies hau, in tuin, likewise taken up theii initial values fiom legally fixeu exchange iates against piecious metal bullion anu piecious metal coin monies, exchange iates which weie piogiessively uegiaueu anu eventually fell away entiiely. Such legally foiceu value conveisions fiom one money to an official successoi contiast shaiply with oiiginal monetaiy evolutions on the maiket. Biscussions of the lattei have typically useu the woiu "commouity" to neatly categoiize all of the available histoiical examples. This woiu seems to specify some tangible, uivisible mateiial. When Cail Nengei set out the pioblems he was to auuiess in "0n the oiigins of money" in 1892, S he both fiameu the oiigins issue in teims of two competing explanatoiy paiauigms anu useu this "commouity" teiminology thioughout.
S Foi a concise histoiy of majoi monetaiy uevelopments, iefei to }oig uuiuo Blsmann. 2uu8a. 963 .265/; #+ ,#$31 7%#'B/25#$) Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oiguocumentS747The-Ethics-of-Noney-Piouuction. I also highly iecommenu this woik in its entiiety. 4 Foi a uiscussion of these points, see my 22 }uly 2u1S. "Bitcoin, piice uenomination anu fixeu- iate fiat conveisions." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0) Blsmann also points out in 2uu8a that: "Bistoiically, the establishment of monopoly bullion has been an impoitant step in the consoliuation anu centialization of national monetaiy systems unuei goveinment contiol. The outlawing of silvei paveu the way to an inflation of fiactional-ieseive ceitificates backeu by golu." (117) S Cail Nengei. 2uu9 |1892j. "0n the 0iigins of Noney." Aubuin, Alabama: Luuwig von Nises Institute. Tianslation by C. A. Foley. S Is money an oiganic membei in the woilu of commouities, oi is it an economic anomaly. Aie we to iefei its commeicial cuiiency anu its value in tiaue to the same causes conuitioning those of othei goous, oi aie they the uistinct piouuct of convention anu authoiity. (1S) 0ne ieason foi using the woiu commouity was that goous liteially tiaueu on commouities maikets, such as coin anu cotton, weie iefeienceu in uiscussions of piicing, liquiuity, anu uistinctions between the iespective positions of buyeis anu selleis. The use of moie liquiu maiket-tiaueu commouity examples weie contiasteu with unique oi special-use items such as paintings oi technical instiuments, foi which it is much easiei anu quickei foi a buyei to locate a ieauy sellei than it is foi a sellei to locate a ieauy buyei. Neveitheless, foi mouein ieaueis in the infoimation age, with its abunuance of incoipoieal "uigital goous," the woiu "goou" shoulu seive in place of commouity with less mateiialistic uistiaction. Seveial of the gieat Austiian wiiteis, foiemost Nises, iepeateuly insisteu that we shoulu not be misleu by the exteiioi appeaiances of things. Neveitheless, mateiialistic connotations seem to have conspiieu to leau obseiveis into confusion when it comes to inteipieting the Bitcoin uigital cuiiency anu payment system. This is unueistanuable in view of the intangible anu technically elusive natuie of the units tiaueu within the netwoikthe likes of ciyptogiaphically "signeu inputs" anu "unspent outputs." Fiom a technical point of view, as opposeu to a usei point of view, a specific item that can be pinneu uown as "a bitcoin" uoes not even exist. Neveitheless, it is sufficient fiom an enu-usei point of view to use the metaphoi of the putative existence of such an item to unueistanu how to make auvantageous use of the actual Bitcoin netwoik. Bitcoin's many aicane technical elements cioss the uomains of seveial highly specializeu fielus of stuuy. While impoitant on theii own teims, such uetails can be a uistiaction to the specifically economic siue of the analysis, which is conceineu with the actual stiuctuie of enu-usei actions. Nuch as the use of silvei coins in tiaue was not seiiously challengeu baseu on the fact that silvei is "ieally" just a peculiai configuiation of subatomic paiticles among many othei possible configuiations, so one shoulu not be uistiacteu by the fact that Bitcoin is "ieally" just a peculiai aiiangement of specifieu ciyptogiaphic ielationships maintaineu anu veiifieu within a open-souice, global, peei-to-peei computing netwoik. Chemists anu metalluigists aie in the businesses of unueistanuing the uetails of the one; ciyptogiapheis, computei scientists, anu piogiammeis aie in the businesses of unueistanuing the intiicacies of the othei. Bowevei Bitcoin actually woiks "unuei the hoou," anu iegaiuless of speculations anu opinions on its long-teim piospects, it 5; $#4 alieauy being tiaueu yeai aftei yeai as a goou anu it 5; $#4 being useu as an incieasingly wiuely accepteu meuium of exchange on a global scale. It thus now uoes fall unuei the ielevant action-baseu economic-theoiy categoiies anu each of theii logical implications. No contiauiction between Bitcoin anu the economic-theoiy insights associateu 4 with the iegiession theoiem is possible. Neveitheless, unueistanuing 6#4 it is that no such contiauictions exist seems to have pioven a challenge. I have wiitten anu spoken on Bitcoin anu the oiigin of money seveial times, as have Petei Suiua anu Baniel Kiawisz. 6 As faiily funuamental confusions seem to neveitheless peisist, I offei a numbei of auuitional appioaches to, anu peispectives on, this topic below. Not only must Bitcoin be moie caiefully unueistoou, but also the iegiession theoiem itself, incluuing its abstiact anu action-baseu foimulation anu its seveial uistinct components. Noieovei, auuing some auuitional ways of looking at the natuie of money fuithei claiifies the issues. D1 $%& E["#&] "' #"$%(#)G +.//.-] An infoimal suivey of some economists' opinions on whethei Bitcoin is "money" oi not iecently appeaieu on the ./#$#05/ 7#@5/1 D#B%$&@ website. 7 The faiily ieasonable consensus was that Bitcoin is functioning as a meuium of exchange now anu coulu someuay become counteu as "money" if anu when it is much moie wiuely accepteu anu becomes the "commonly useu" oi "most commonly useu" meuium of exchange. 0pinions on the application of woius such as money aie much less impoitant than unueistanuing what is happening in the ieal woilu. In an astute comment unuei the above iepoit, Petei Suiua, a Bitcoin ieseaichei infoimeu in Austiian school appioaches, labeleu an ongoing obsession with juuging Bitcoin baseu on the money question as the "money oi nothing fallacy (if Bitcoin is not money, it's nothing)." Noieovei, I iecently aigueu that iathei than the vague "commonly useu," a moie piecise ciiteiion foi qualification as "money" woulu be which unit most people in a community aie using foi piicing anu accounting (economic calculation). That saiu, the iuentification of one item as money by no means eliminates the possibility of &/2B&@@1 ?&15$C uesignateu piices with whatevei othei meuia a sellei is willing to accept at an agieeu exchange iate foi the askeu piice expiesseu in the local common unit of piicing. 8 Foi those who wish it, foi
6 Baniel Kiawisz. 2 }uly 2u1S. "The 0iiginal value of Bitcoins." 26305;3;/5%/@3)#%C; Petei Suiua: 2u12. ./#$#05/; #+ E52/#5$< >; E52/#5$ &$ &@23%$&25A3 2# +5&2 /B%%3$/53; &$' C#@'F Thesis foi the vienna 0niveisity of Economics anu Business; anu most iecently, 22 Septembei 2u1S. "Piofessoi Waltei Block is clueless about Bitcoin." 3/#$#05/;#+G52/#5$)/#0) 7 Robeit Wenzel. 7 0ctobei 2u1S. "Is Bitcoin Noney: What Economists Bave To Say." 3/#$#05/?#@5/1H#B%$&@)/#0) 8 I go into this in some uetail in my 14 Septembei 2u1S. "Bitcoin as meuium of exchange now anu unit of account latei: The inveise of Koning's meuieval coins." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0) S example, theie aie alieauy payment seivices that enable the instant conveision of ieceiveu Bitcoin payments into fiat money. Bevelopeis aie also woiking to enable similai seivices foi buyeis. This woulu give the option foi some useis hesitant in the face of Bitcoin's cuiient eaily-stage piice volatility to only holu Bitcoin foi fiactions of a seconu. Such seivices enable anyone to take auvantage of the payment-system aspects of the netwoik while entiiely avoiuing volatility iisk if they wish to. Yet the view that theie is an allegeu opposition between the ieality of Bitcoin anu the supposeu implications of the iegiession theoiem is nothing if not peisistent. Anothei commentei on the EP} suivey wonueieu whethei, with the ongoing successes of Bitcoin becoming incieasingly uifficult to ueny, the iegiession theoiem might not have to be ieviseu out of Austiian economics. This sentiment, which ieappeais in online uiscussion thieaus fiom time to time, might seem ieasonable at fiist, but only when baseu on the wiuespieau misconception that the theoiem actually uoes iequiie that any (sounu) money be mateiial oi tangible, at least in its oiigin oi "backing." I have pieviously aigueu why theie is no theoietical ieason that a meuium of exchange has to stait out being mateiial. 9 It only has to be a scaice goou. The uigital age, anu Bitcoin itself, have maue it cleai that goous uo not have to be tangible. Bespite woiu choices such as commouity in classic wiitings on this subject, theie is no funuamental 3/#$#05/ ieason that a physical mateiial has to be what secuies the essential monetaiy chaiacteiisticsfoiemost scaicity. The supposeu neeu foi tangibility is an association leftovei fiom the iange of examples that was available piioi to the inteinet age. J1 *-.'-($] ,] $%& #\[,&'* In oui uay, we aie quite familiai with uigital goous. Pait of the seeming magic of Bitcoin is that it is one of the fiist uigital goous that is also scaice anu iivalious in its natuie. This contiasts with almost all othei uigital goous, which aie funuamentally copiable anu non-iivalious. 1u This means that they can be copieu with no effect on the "oiiginals" that the copies aie maue fiom anu the iesulting
9 27 Febiuaiy 2u1S. "Bitcoins, the iegiession theoiem, anu that cuiious but unthieatening empiiical woilu." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0; 19 Naich 2u1S. "The sounu of one bitcoin: Tangibility, scaicity, anu a 'haiu-money' checklist." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0. 1u Foi moie theoietical backgiounu on these concepts, iefei to, Stephan Kinsella. 2uu1. "Against Intellectual Piopeity." D#B%$&@ #+ I5G3%2&%5&$ (2B'53; 1S (2): 1-SS. mises.oiguocumentSS82; anu }effiey A. Tuckei anu Stephan Kinsella. 2S August 2u1u. "uoous, Scaice anu Nonscaice." ,5;3; J&5@1. 6 multiple copies can all be useu simultaneously without uiiect mutual inteifeience among useis. 11
The piototypical non-iivalious (non-scaice in the piopeity-theoiy sense) uigital goou is a uigital file. Some have tiieu to %3$'3% uigital files scaice by appenuing legal oi technical iestiictions (copyiight anu BRN) on top of theii basic unueilying natuie of copiability. Such attempts to cieate scaicity aftei the fact aie meaningfully uistinct fiom a scaicity that is built in as an insepaiable chaiacteiistic of the natuie of the goou itself. Bitcoin's scaicity is a component of 46&2 52 03&$; +#% 52 2# G3 E52/#5$ as opposeu to something that is not Bitcoin. Even most othei types of uigital cuiiencies piioi to Bitcoin weie capable of being copieu (incieaseu in quantity) on the uecisions oi policies of a cential issuei. Examples of existing centially manageu uigital cuiiencies incluue K#%@' #+ K&%/%&+2 golu anu fiat-cuiiency-uenominateu cential bank accounting entiies. WoW inflations can occui baseu on vaiious changes in the balance of game paiameteis. As foi cential bank units, the supply of both notes anu the now- uominant aibitiaiy uigital account entiies is at the evei-shifting uiscietion of committees of caiefully scieeneu political appointees. Such shaky founuations aie obviously incapable of suppoiting a ieliable uigital money foi wiuei applications in society. Bitcoin has oveicome in a completely new way the eteinal thieat that a cential issuing authoiity will aibitiaiily uilute the value of a uigital unit. It is not within the scope of the cuiient stuuy to uesciibe the many inteilocking technical uetails, nuances, anu uiffeientiations by which this has been accomplisheu. The key point heie is that Bitcoin sets its quantity giowth tiajectoiy 45265$ 263 '3+5$525#$ #+ 46&2 263 B$52 5; &$' 6#4 52 5; /%3&23'. A uigital cuiiency with moie than a theoietical potential of 21 million Bitcoin units (2.1 quauiillion Satoshis) woulu not G3 Bitcoin, by piotocol uefinition. Anyone is fiee to make up some othei Bitcoin-like uigital cuiiency, anu many have uone so. None of those othei units aie in any sense bitcoins. They aie litecoins anu fieicoins anu so foith. I1 "# $&-%#(-./ -"#-&'#* .#W -"[^.'.$(Y& '&./(*[ Still, some aie natuially conceineu that a total netwoik failuie coulu leave Bitcoin suuuenly valueless. It is impoitant at the outset to iuentify this as a claim that must be consiueieu on a laigely technical, iathei than economic, basis. It is best auuiesseu thiough iefeience to knowleuge anu uebate within the most
11 I uevelopeu this uefinition of non-iivalious goous anu examineu vaiious uistinct senses of the woiu scaicity in my 19 Naich aiticle. Suiua points out that IP auuiesses anu BNS names shoulu also be consiueieu eailiei examples of scaice uigital goous. Even though they aie only uigital stiings, in context, simultaneous use attempts aie incompatible, making them iivalious. 7 ielevant fielus. Among these fielus is ciyptogiaphy, especially hashing algoiithms anu the use anu veiification of ciyptogiaphic signatuies; peei-to-peei netwoik uesign anu secuiity, the piinciples of constiucting unfoigeable uecentializeu ciyptogiaphic leugeis, anu the intiicacies of oveicoming the uistiibuteu consensus, oi "Byzantine ueneial's" pioblem (with some help fiom the concept of a uistiibuteu timestamp seivei). In consiueiing imagineu scenaiios of catastiophic system failuies oi even moie mouest technical uifficulties, ielevant knowleuge of such fielus can also be usefully supplementeu in places with specifically economic methous, such as foi economic analysis of mining piofitability anu minei incentives. It shoulu not be necessaiy to become an expeit on the innei technical uetails of each fielu to make useful iefeience to them. It shoulu be sufficient to unueistanu the ielevance of those fielus well enough to compiehenu 6#4 those vaiious technical uetails play into the functioning of, anu the assessment of uegiees of ieliability of, the system. Foi the economist looking at the economic use of Bitcoin, it shoulu even be a sufficient staiting place to obseive that all those peisons actually using Bitcoin uo in fact juuge it, howevei iationally oi otheiwise, to be sufficient to seive the puiposes to which they aie putting it. This incluues the vaiious time scales that they have in minu foi those puiposes, each accoiuing to his own uisciete seiies of juugments at the maigin. }ust as we uo not expect eveiyone to become an aeionautical engineei befoie buying a plane ticket, it is not necessaiy to obtain any ciypto-wizaiu math status to use oi even piouuctively analyze Bitcoin. It is only necessaiy, each by his own stanuaius, to ueciue that the system is goou enough foi his own paiticulai set of envisioneu uses. Without getting into any such highly technical content (such as how to assess the ielative theoietical secuiity chaiacteiistics of the vaiious inuiviuual elliptic cuive uigital signatuie algoiithms), seveial geneial consiueiations may help put such system-catastiophe conceins into bettei peispective. Even if Bitcoin weie to fail uue to some unanticipateu weakness, the concept anu usefulness of ciyptocuiiency in geneial has alieauy been pioven in piactice. A Bitcoin upgiaue oi even ieplacement seveial times moie secuie coulu be iolleu out, uevelopeis having alieauy leaineu well fiom whatevei cuiiently unimagineu eiiois might have impiobably leu to a laige, unanticipateu technical fault. Befoie that, though, as a uecentializeu, all-voluntaiy, open-souice piotocol, Bitcoin is uistinctly capable of being auapteu anu upuateu on a continuous basis. Its piogiamming contiibutois, useis, anu even top ciitics all woik ielentlessly (at high levels of ielevant technical sophistication) to imagine, uiscuss, weigh, anticipate, anu auuiess constellations of system thieats, majoi anu minoi, ieal anu theoiizeu. 8 Pait of open-souice secuiity cultuie that those outsiue it seluom appieciate is that highly skilleu piogiammeis, whethei white-hat oi black, make it theii peisonal missions to tiy to bieak "secuie" systems. Fiom the ultimate point of view of the actual stiength of functional netwoik anu uata secuiity, this steauy thieat anu testing inteiplay is consiueieu an essential featuie iathei than a bug in secuiity uevelopment. The veiy fact that a secuie systempaiticulaily one such as Bitcoin with a uiiect monetaiy iewaiu in the foim of extiacteu coins actually uoes iemain secuie ovei time, yeai aftei yeai, alieauy suggests, at minimum ciicumstantially, that it is continuously passing a batteiy of ongoing secuiity tests conuucteu by motivateu anu skilleu auveisaiies anu motivateu anu skilleu suppoiteis alike. Noieovei, following even a highly hypothetical catastiophic bieakuown, a ieviseu Bitcoin netwoik coulu potentially be ielauncheu fiom the existing block chain, staiting fiom the last-veiifieu constellation of owneiship. As }ay Schmiut often aigues, the ieal heait of Bitcoin is the block chain iecoiu of cuiient owneiship status itself. The block chain seives as something like a massive global title iegistiy. Nichael uolustein has movingly put the easy-to- unueiestimate social impoitance of such owneiship iecoius in a laigei context by quoting fiom Nilan Kunueia's novel, 963 E##8 #+ I&BC623% &$' L#%C3225$C (1978): "The stiuggle of man against powei is the stiuggle of memoiy against foigetting." The technical mechanisms anu netwoik opeiations that suiiounu the block chain aie each specific anu upgiaueable technologies oi methous +#% /6&$C5$C 263 %3/#%'; 5$ &$ &//3?2&G@3 &$' A3%5+53' 4&1. Each of these suiiounuing elements can be mouifieu, impioveu, oi ieplaceu inuefinitely into the futuie (natuially some elements aie easiei to altei; othei, moie cential ones moie challenging). Bitcoin is in this sense not so much a fixeu taiget, but a highly auaptive moving one. It must also be iecalleu that theie is no peifection in this ieal woilu. Theie exist only ielatively bettei anu woise actual options. Foi example, political monies, fai fiom being meiely hypothetically insecuie, actually uo steauily anu piecipitously uecline in enu-usei puichasing powei. They uo so now anu have uone so in eveiy known case thioughout histoiy. 12 uolu anu silvei, foi theii paits, have also enueu up failing as monetaiy systems in piactice. Some configuiation of the ancient anu enuuiing state-bank inflation anu uebt alliance has always eventually iesoiteu to confiscating such valuable substances fiom any significant stoiage vaults anu fiom the public geneially, in pait oi in whole, finally iesoiting to ieplacing piecious metals in monetaiy ciiculation entiiely with fieely multipliable fiat papeis anu account entiies.
12 Saying that a paiticulai fiat cuiiency is "stiong" is a euphemism. All fiat cuiiencies steauily lose value. A "stiong" fiat cuiiency iefeis to one that is losing its value ielatively less quickly when compaieu with otheis. 9 Piecious metals themselves, while they have ceitain ielative supeiioiities to political monies (anu othei ielative weaknesses), aie in piinciple still 0#%3 susceptible to the weakness of aggiegate supply vaiiation than Bitcoin, especially in the long teim. In the extieme, foi example, they woulu be susceptible to the mining of mineial-iich asteioius anu the ietuin of extiacteu anu iefineu metals. 1S In contiast, since Bitcoin's supply tiajectoiy is pie- ueteimineu as pait of the uefinition of what it 5;, it is impeivious to such physical changes in the constellation of available mineial iesouices anu piocessing technologies. A mixtuie of ieal-woilu pios anu cons must be consiueieu in compaiing long- teim piospects foi the use anu stability of vaiious options. Real peisons facing maiginal uecisions ought to iueally balance both the pios anu cons of theii actually available options, as opposeu to assuming an imaginaiy oi eteinal peifection foi some of them. Foi haiu-money enthusiasts in paiticulai, the tiauitional stoiy of the once anu futuie supeiioiity of piecious-metal backeu monies ovei fiat monies must be ievisiteu in light of the fiesh emeigence of entiiely new monetaiy foims that weie nevei befoie anticipateu in the olu binaiy vision. The past must be leaineu fiom. Yet it has also been wisely obseiveu that, "theie is no futuie in the past." K1 *%"Z ]"\' Z"'_= #.''"Z /")(-./ *$&^* 0ne element of ongoing confusion behinu the "Bitcoin veisus iegiession theoiem" uialectic is that the lattei coveis not one, but at least seveial uistinct theoietical issues, each of which is iathei specific. 0ne of these is to explain the puichasing powei of money in teims of the level of piices without iesoiting to a ciiculai aigument in which piices touay explain puichasing powei touay anu vice veisa. The solution to this was to intiouuce a time element. The puichasing powei of money "touay" (going into the futuie) is baseu in pait on usei assessments of its puichasing powei fiom "yesteiuay" (usei peiceptions of the most iecent past constellation of piices). Yet this answei alieauy iaises the next issue: What happens when the "iegiessing" takes us all the way back to a time befoie what was to become a meuium of exchange hau gaineu any meuium-of-exchange value component. This is the aspect that ielates most uiiectly to the theoietical confusion ovei Bitcoin. It explains the fiist emeigence of any kinu of meuium of exchange out of
1S Nost of the accessible golu on Eaith is alieauy unueistoou to have come fiom meteoiite falls on the suiface. 0iiginal Eaith golu most likely sunk ueep into the molten coie baseu on its ielative uensity veiy eaily in the planet's geological uevelopment. 1u a pievious state of baitei in which it was not one yet. In the hanus of Nises, at least, this is not a histoiical mattei, but a univeisalizable theoietical one. This "oiigins" aspect of the iegiession theoiem (as opposeu to the puichasing powei anu uominant money aspects) states that no goou can be valueu foi use &; a meuium of exchange ?%5#% 2# taking on such a use foi the fiist time. This is nothing moie than a statement of logical necessity, of uefinition. Beyonu this, the aigument states that to take on a value component as a meuium of exchange, a goou must fiist be valueu baseu on some #263% value component in the eyes of some of the ielevant actois. This othei value component must obviously have been uistinguishable fiom any subsequent meuium-of-exchange value, as such subsequent components /&$$#2 &@%3&'1 3M5;2 ?%5#% 2# 2635% +5%;2 303%C3$/3, again, by uefinition of the challenge of avoiuing logical ciiculaiity. When young people take a math class, the teachei iequiies that the stuuents "show theii woik," uemonstiate each of the stages in the piocess of aiiiving at a conclusion. This can be teuious anu iequiies many small steps. The iegiession theoiem in its context pioviueu a couple of these "show youi woik" logical steps. Recall that elements of the iegiession theoiem weie honeu in the context of uebates between competing accounts of the oiigins of money. 0ne siue claimeu that money was an invention of the state anu hau been uecieeu by iuleis foi the benefit of society. Its value was ueteimineu anu iegulateu by vaiious state actions. Anothei siue claimeu that money functioneu as a goou in itself, emeigeu out of maiket piocesses, anu was only then taken up anu manipulateu in vaiious ways by iuleis ovei time. The mostly ueiman state theoiy of money siue 14 founu some technical holes in the aiguments of the maiket evolution siue, who being associateu with the 0niveisity of vienna uown south, weie labeleu as (those countiy-bumpkin) "Austiians." The ciitics hau essentially uemanueu that the maiket-evolution siue "show theii woik" when it came to each step of theii theoiy of the maiket emeigence of money (while assuming that they woulu not actually succeeu in uoing it). The oiigins aspect of the iegiession theoiem coveis a naiiow peiiou of tiansition fiom when a goou that was not useu as a meuium of exchange comes to be useu as one foi the fiist time anu then giauually gains social tiaction in this iole. Note that the oiigins aspect of the iegiession theoiem is only iequiieu to explain the fiist emeigence of a 03'5B0 #+ 3M/6&$C3 (a means of payment). This aspect is not iequiieu to explain the emeigence of a money (a uominant unit of piicing anu accounting) fiom a fielu of competing meuia of exchange. The lattei is a competitive anu netwoik-effect uiiven piocess in which one of the options on the maiket iises towaiu the top in a given context. 0ne of the key
14 963 (2&23 963#%1 #+ ,#$31 by u. F. Knapp appeaieu in ueiman in 189S anu the mouein-uay chaitalists caiiy foiwaiu elements of this tiauition. 11 chaiacteiistics of such goous is what Nengei calleu the uegiee of saleability, one inuicatoi of which is the naiiowness of the gap between the piice at which one coulu immeuiately buy it anu the piice at which one coulu immeuiately sell it (2uu9, 24-2S, fn 2). In explaining the emeigence of money +%#0 a fielu of competing meuia of exchange, the sequence goes foiwaiu in time, the opposite of "iegiessing" backwaiu. Analytically iegiessing backwaiu, as an evolutionaiy metaphoi illustiates, will tenu to miss all othei bianchings on the tiee. It will only finu one uiiect chain of ancestois tiacing back fiom the staiting point of the iegiession. uoing foiwaiu in time, howevei, can ieveal othei bianchings (all competing meuia of exchange), incluuing both ueau enus anu new beginnings. A iepeating pattein in the long-teim evolution of life is the uying out of olu species that weie once uominant anu the emeigence of novel uominant species, often with iauically uiffeient sizes, speeus, habitats, anu stiategies compaieu with the pieuecessoi kings of the jungle. This is why iunning iegiession logic only backwaiu in time anu not iunning it foiwaiu in auuition, coulu leau to oveisimplifications. The only options seen by going backwaius fiom the cuiient money will logically be the uiiect ancestois of whatevei has enueu up becoming the cuiient money to that point in time. It will simply miss anything not in that paiticulai lineage. Running the piocess foiwaiu again fiom each stait-up meuium of exchange may ieveal competitois in uiffeient lines, many of which may have been tiieu, some of which succeeueu to some uegiee, some of which may be gaining giounu, anu only one of which is the uominant unit of piicing anu accounting in a ielevant maiket aieaup to the piesent time. N1 $%& ^'&*&#-& "+ ^'&Q&`(*$(#) ^'(-& -"#*$&//.$("#* It is a simple mattei touay foi people to value the ielative puichasing powei of Bitcoin by iefeiencing its exchange value against local money using a public ieal- time maiket exchange iate available on any inteinet-connecteu uevice. Bitcoin functions now as a meuium of exchange. I have uefineu this as something that can be tenueieu to pay piices. Piices aie uenominateu in "money," which I have uefineu as the uominant unit of piicing, accounting, anu economic calculation in a given context. Theie is no funuamental ieason why Bitcoin coulu not also some uay take ovei such wiuei ioles if it becomes ielatively moie stable, moie global, oi otheiwise moie suitable foi this than its neaiest active competitoi. It alieauy fills the function of piice-uenomination within ceitain naiiow contexts insiue the Bitcoin economy. In contiast to this situation, some piesentations of the iegiession theoiem have tieateu the evolution of a meuium of exchange in a context in which no pievious 12 unit of piicing exists. This means that no constellation of ielative piices was in use in society at the outset. 1S The case of the oiiginal evolution of Bitcoin intiouuces the neeu foi some qualifications ielative to such accounts in that it emeigeu as a new meuium of exchange in a context in which an auvanceu aiiay of ielative money piices foi goous anu seivices alieauy existeu. Bitcoin's evolutionaiy challenges weie theiefoie easeu consiueiably ielative to a situation in which no knowleuge of ielative piices on the maiket existeu. In this counteifactual case, an entiiely new aiiay of maiket piices '5%3/2@1 %3@&25A3 2# E52/#5$ woulu have hau to uevelop thiough tiial anu eiioi piocesses of uiiect tiaues of Bitcoin foi bacon, Bitcoin foi eggs, anu Bitcoin foi hoises, while also tiying to iefeience unmeuiateu iates of exchange between eggs anu bacon, between bacon anu hoises, anu so onall until a ieasonable constellation of ielative maiket piices began to take shape again uenominateu in the new unit. In the factual case, howevei, Bitcoin only hau to jump a much simplei huiule (though still quite challenging in its own way). It only hau to uevelop a maiket exchange value against the existing money in each location of tiaue. It coulu then "bootstiap" its ielative meuium-of-exchange value onto the existing full constellation of maiket piices, as these weie alieauy expiesseu in monies in each geogiaphic iegion. 16
To this uay, most things bought anu solu with Bitcoin aie piiceu in local monies. A cuiient exchange-iate-baseu equivalent sum of Bitcoin is then useu to actually pay those piices. 17 Insisting on an inuepenuent evolution of a new constellation of ielative piices uiiectly in teims of Bitcoin, howevei, woulu have been absuiu anu unnecessaiy. Theie was no piactical neeu to ieinvent that paiticulai set of wheels in the ielevant places anu in the timefiame 2uu9-2u1u.
1S Rothbaiu uses a hypothetical to contiast a situation in which ielative money piices exist anu one in which they suuuenly cease to be available: "Since the maiginal utility of the money commouity uepenus on pieviously existing money piices, a wiping out of existing maikets anu knowleuge of money piices woulu ienuei impossible the uiiect ie-establishment of a money economy. The economy woulu be wieckeu anu thiown back into a highly piimitive state of baitei, aftei which a money economy coulu only slowly be ie-establisheu as it hau been befoie." (2uu4, 271-272) 16 Noticeable piice gaps iemain among the majoi Bitcoin exchanges, with Ntuox being the laigest outliei uue to its paiticulai challenges in tiansfeiiing 0S uollais to customeis locateu in the 0S. Novement of Bitcoin itself is simple anu efficient on a global basis, but effective intei-exchange aibitiage is still iathei limiteu uue to the non-Bitcoin siues of these exchanges. This is the highei uifficulty, cost, anu timefiames iequiieu to tiansfei fiat cuiiencies within the conventional inteinational banking system. To help auuiess this, both BitPay anu Coinuesk have uevelopeu Bitcoin iefeience piices constiucteu in somewhat uiffeient ways. These combine ieal-time uata fiom seveial of the top exchanges. BitPay assembles a consoliuateu oiuei book fiom seveial exchanges, while Coinuesk constiucts on inuex. Both cuiiently excluue the piice outliei Ntuox. 17 Refei in this context also to my 14 Septembei 2u1S aiticle. 1S Whethei something like Bitcoin /#B@' possibly emeige uiiectly out of a state of puie baitei is so hypothetical as to ieach into the iealm of not even science fiction, but fantasy. This is because a state of puie baitei coulu only suppoit an economy so piimitive anu close to uiiect piouuction thiough hunting, gatheiing, anu maybe some limiteu faiming, that the iequisite electiical output, inteinet infiastiuctuie, computei chip uevelopment technologies, scieens, anu so foith coulu not also exist oi peisist in the positeu context, making the hypothetical moot. While the piinciples of the iegiession theoiem aie applicable to any instances of the univeisal, the iequisite technical context heie also incluues a stage of complex social anu technical evolution built on a wiue-ianging uivision of laboi anu on othei pievious stages. Such high technologies coulu obviously not continue to exist if theii founuations weie lost. 18 A puie state of baitei coulu only suppoit peihaps a few peicentage points of the cuiient human population at best. This means that the loss of the convenience of an inteinet money woulu be among the least of the uifficulties to be encounteieu in such a scenaiio. S1 $._(#) ($ ,.-_ $" *$&._T &))*T .#W +/"\' A faiily piimitive hypothetical can neveitheless still help biing the "oiigins" component of the iegiession theoiem uown fiom the abstiactospheie, wheie confusions can moie easily peisist, into a iealm much closei to conciete expeiience. It is not enough to meiely show that Bitcoin is explainable in teims of economic theoiy. It shoulu also be maue cleai that the iegiession theoiem is not thieateneu by this empiiical uevelopment. Staiting out in a hypothetical puie baitei scenaiio, I want to tiaue steak foi some floui. Bowevei, the millei is an ovo-vegetaiian. The uouble coinciuence of wants neeueu foi a tiaue to take place is absent. I neeu to finu ;#03265$C else to tiaue with the millei if I am to buy floui fiom him. Whatevei I obtain to facilitate this tiaue will alieauy technically function as a "meuium of exchange" within the naiiow context of my uesiieu tiansaction, iegaiuless of what anybouy else is uoing in my hypothetical community. A meuium of exchange, in this most baie-bones sense, is a goou that facilitates an exchange that is not happening uiiectly between two paities because of the absence of a matching mutual coinciuence of wants.
18 Natt Riuley, in one section of 963 N&25#$&@ O?2505;2< :#4 7%#;?3%521 .A#@A3; (2u1u), uetails the seveial centuiies long technological anu know-how uecline on the islanu of Tazmania aftei the small population was cut off fiom a foimeily wiuei netwoik of tiaue. 14 0ptake of a meuium of exchange fiom zeio staits with a single cieative act of two-step tiaue among thiee paities. 0nly once it has begun to be put into piactice can it possibly begin to be copieu anu spieau. The piactice of inuiiect exchange itself is an invention anu a uiscoveiy. A subsequent piocess can begin to soit out 465/6 kinus of goous will tenu to be moie oi less useful in this social function in a given context. Finuing out 6#4 to pull off inuiiect exchanges moie fiequently anu effectively, anu with what, is a layei of expeiimentation uistinguishable fiom the geneial iuea of engaging in inuiiect exchange. In this case, I iealize that as an #A#-vegetaiian, the millei eats eggs. I walk ovei to Fiieuiich the chicken faimei anu tiaue a steak foi some eggs. Then, I walk back to the millei anu tiaue eggs foi floui. The iequiiement heie is that the millei will accept eggs. If he uoes not, my inuiiect exchange attempt simply fails. If it succeeus, the eggs have alieauy functioneu as a meuium of exchange within that tiansaction. The millei has to value the eggs &; 3CC; foi this to count as a +5%;2 303%C3$/3 of inuiiect exchange value foi eggs. I obtain eggs foi theii use as a meuium of exchange foi my tiansaction. In uoing so, > value them foi this puipose. If the millei uoes not accept eggs, howevei, my valuation of the eggs as a meuium of exchange is a faileu one, an entiepieneuiial loss on my pait. I am just stuck with some extia eggs. The success of this enueavoi theiefoie uepenus on my piactical success in unueistanuing what my piospective tiauing paitneis will oi will not accept in tiaue. The only way this value component of eggs &; a meuium of exchange can possibly come into being at fiist is if someone else will accept them as eggs G3/&B;3 they want eggs, $#2 because they alieauy want to tiaue the eggs again with someone else. A ciiculai piocess of self-ieinfoicing social uemanu can only come to function aftei the piactice of inuiiect exchange using eggs has begun to get moving in a given social context. 0nly then can expectations of this auueu component of wiuening saleability begin to builu among the ielevant actois. Aftei the new meuium-of-exchange value component uoes emeige anu peisists in a given context, the non-meuium-of-exchange value components coulu theoietically then faue away entiiely. 19
Bowevei, eggs in paiticulai will not tenu to get veiy fai in this iole. They spoil aftei awhile. We coulu use some expiiation uates, but this cieates a fatal heteiogeneity among the units uue to age uiscounting. Anu eggs aie faiily heavy anu haiu to tianspoit fai without bieaking. Nuch moie uuiable items have iepeateuly become moie successful in this iole.
19 Nuiiay Rothbaiu noteu this point, foi example, in his uiscussion of the iegiession theoiem (2uu4, 27S). 1S U1 0DVTVVV ]&.'* "+ E[&'&G -"//&-$(,/&* The fiist likely histoiical meuia of exchange that show up ovei anu ovei again in the aichaeological iecoiu in many uiffeient geogiaphic aieas aie stiings of beaus caiveu fiom vaiious seashells. The eailiest known finu of such beaus fai fiom the ocean is in mouein Algeiia anu uates fiom about 12u,uuu yeais ago. When items aie founu this fai fiom souice, it is consiueieu a goou sign that they hau piobably been obtaineu in tiaue. 2u
Nick Szabo in his uiscussions of the oiigins of money calleu these kinus of pioto- monies "collectibles." 21 They aie not useful in what coulu be consiueieu any piactical sense. They aie things a lot of people like to have G3/&B;3 they like to collect them anu weai them. They aie uistinctive, iaie anu haiu to come by, last a veiy long time, anu aie highly poitable. Szabo also pointeu out the secuiity chaiacteiistics of such items. Since they can be woin, a thief is ieuuceu to giabbing them uiiectly off a peison iathei than just picking them up quietly unseen. Such small collectibles can also be easily buiieu oi otheiwise hiuuen uuiing times of tiouble anu iecoveieu at some inuefinite latei time. They weie not quite monies in a mouein sense, but weie useu to peifoim some of the same functions: stoiing value ovei long peiious, tiansfeiiing it among geneiations such as on the occasion of weuuings, using it in laigei tiaues oi to help seal pacts, anu as a fallback, enabling buying fiom neighboiing gioups in the face of a local uip in foou availability. Yet all such uses woulu have to have been uiscoveieu giauually &+23% the beaus hau alieauy come into existence as oinaments. They hau to have some non-tiauing value befoie they coulu begin to be tiaueu. It so happens that such stiings of shell beaus have chaiacteiistics that we now unueistanu in ietiospect to be essential chaiacteiistics of meuia of exchange anu value stoiage. They aie uuiable, uivisible, poitable, anu to some uegiee inteichangeable (though uiffeient colois anu types coulu natuially be valueu uiffeiently). Beaus can be unstiung, counteu, anu iestiung in uiffeient numeiical configuiations. Anu so, it is easy to imagine how inuiiect exchange using them coulu begin to giauually uevelop anu spieau. Aichaeological eviuence highly suggestive of long-
2u See Natt Riuley. 2u1u. Chaptei 2. Riuley uevelops such eviuence in the context of making the much laigei case that tiauing one thing foi a uiffeient thing at the same timeas opposeu to the kinu of time-uelayeu iecipiocity of favois also founu in othei speciesmay be the key unique uefining chaiacteiistic that appeaieu foi the fiist time with homo sapiens sapiens (not with closest known cousins such as homo heiuelbeigensis anu homo neanueithalensis), anu which maue compounuing specialization anu knowleuge-accumulation possible. 21 Nick Szabo. 2uu2. "Shelling 0ut: The 0iigins of Noney." Accesseu at &@2%B5;2;)#%CP+QR. 16 uistance tiaue using stiings of beaus goes back many tens of thousanus of yeais anu is founu in many uiffeient aieas. Latei on, we finu that people also like to collect bits of shiny metals that weie not ieally goou foi much that was "piactical" eithei. People fashion them into weaiable uecoiations anu eventually some othei items such as fancy vessels. vieweu in a long time scale, the use of piecious metals in coinage is a iathei iecent histoiical uevelopment. Lyuian coinage aiounu 7uu B.C. is typically citeu as a fiist piecious metal coinage. It was maue fiom electium, a natuial golusilvei alloy (with natuially vaiying peicentages of each). This was piioi to the uevelopment of effective iefining methous. The sometimes-touteu inuustiial anu electionic uses of golu anu silvei aie all quite mouein anu theiefoie entiiely iiielevant to 263 +5%;2 303%C3$/3 of these metals in a monetaiy tiauing iole in vaiious places many centuiies eailiei. Bitcoin, uuiing at least its fiist yeai oi so likewise coulu easily have been uesciibeu as a stiange anu useless cuiiosity with no piactical value. 0nly a few piogiammeis anu ciyptogiapheis hau any belief that Bitcoin might enu up becoming useful foi anything othei than playing on computeis. Bitcoin was an iuea anu then a computei science anu ciyptogiaphy expeiiment. It was not cleai in auvance oi even aftei it staiteu if it woulu woik technically oi take off economically. It aiiiveu aftei a long tiail of faileu expeiiments. Why shoulu it not become just anothei such faileu expeiiment. 0nly aftei seveial yeais uiu a wiuei population begin to heai about the possibility of tiauing these otheiwise pointless scaice uigital objects. But of couise, we have seen veisions of all this befoie. We have seen it with shell beaus tens of thousanus of yeais ago, anu we have seen it with people collecting anu toying with soft shiny metals seveial thousanus of yeais ago. Now, we see it with uigital leugei entiies foiming uigital objects that uo not actually exist at all in ceitain senses. 22
In fiaming the funuamental question of the oiigins of money in 1892, Cail Nengei obseiveu that: What is the natuie of those little uisks oi uocuments, ;2?C2 ?8 623A<3793< <33A 6@ <3:93 8@ B<3HB7 MB:M@<3, anu which neveitheless, in contiauiction to the iest of expeiience, pass fiom one hanu to anothei in exchange foi the most useful commouities, nay, foi which eveiy one is so eageily bent on suiienueiing his waies. (2uu9, 12-1S) 0ne way foi moueins to appioach the challenge of unueistanuing how uigital leugei entiies that they uo not even compiehenu coulu possibly be "ieally" valuable is to ieflect on how ouu pievious new kinus of meuia of exchange must
22 They only "exist" as specifieu ielationships among seveial uistinct categoiies of ciyptogiaphic uata. 17 have seemeu to people in the uistant past fiom 2635% peispectives. Stiings of beaus aie above all impiactical anu optional objects. Compaieu to meat, tubeis, anu beiiies; compaieu to speais, clothing, anu tools; stiings of beaus anu "ieal" value must have seemeu uistant. Anu yet, with time, quite a few people seemeu to enjoy making anu collecting them if they coulu. They weie uecoiative. They weie iaie anu haiu to come by. It took a long time to caive them. They lasteu a long time (as in, we can still uig them up 12u,uuu yeais latei). They socially uemonstiateu a ceitain powei of excess capability piecisely because of theii impiacticality. Likewise, shiny pieces of silvei, golu, oi electium in most places seveial thousanu yeais ago weie not the epitome of usefulness. Wool was waim, meat coulu feeu, a plow coulu impiove the haivest. Weapons coulu come in hanuy. What was it with these shiny substances that can be shapeu into tiinkets anu woin. Imagine how outlanuish this may well have seemeu to people foi whom it was entiiely new. 0pon heaiing that some people at the annual tiaue meet-up might accept these metals (not even jeweliy, just iough hunks of metal), what was a heiuei to think. "I will have to see this foi myself! You aie telling me that people aie fool enough to accept little shiny bits of metal foi ieal goous." 0f couise, 5$ %32%#;?3/2, it is easy foi us to unueistanu wheie this can go. Such metals aie stiong on a numbei of monetaiy chaiacteiistics that economists now unueistanu conceptually can help facilitate tiaue. Anu, like beaus, weaiability anu hiueability of jeweliy can confei a ceitain secuiity anu savings auvantage. Nany Inuian women to this uay tenu to weai theii long-teim family savings. But foi those lacking such knowleuge, what a stiange new woilu this must have been, leaining to tiaue useful things foi useless tiinkets, time aftei time, geneiation aftei geneiation, until the piactice took holu moie wiuely, until people "bought in" to the bizaiie iuea that these mateiials coulu themselves also be "useful" anu valuable not only as weaiable pietty objects, but also &; units within a social system that facilitates tiaue. Inueeu, owing to the soiiy state of economic euucation, most people to this uay still uo not conceptually unueistanu the magnituue of mutual gains that come fiom wiuei possibilities foi tiauing, facilitateu by money. They uo not unueistanu that without these uistinctly human piactices of tiauing goou foi goou anu using money, only the tiniest fiaction of the cuiient population coulu long suivive. 18 P1 $&-%#(-./ .#W &-"#"[(- /.]&'* ./Z.]* ^'&*&#$ The case of Bitcoin also shows how the line between invention anu uiscoveiy is much moie tenuous than is usually imagineu. In each case of initial monetaiy evolution, theie is both a technical anu an economic aspect. Befoie something can begin functioning in tiaue, it must fiist exist in some minimally tiauable foim. Beaus must be caiveu, pieces of iaie metals uug up anu cleaneu anu latei shapeu oi even iefineu. It is no uiffeient with Bitcoin. Well befoie the units coulu begin to function in exchange, they hau to be biought into existence in a way that human actois coulu possibly iecognize them, begin to toy with them, anu eventually stait taking the leap of uealing in them against "ieal" goous anu seivices. The netwoik fiist hau to be both envisioneu anu launcheu. It hau to be testeu anu iefineu, challengeu anu pioven ovei time. In each case of a new monetaiy evolution, theie is a phase uuiing which some usable foim of the units that will eventually be tiaueu, fiist come into existence. This is in the technical layei. 0nly then can a monetaiy layei possibly emeige with tiauing of these technically uevelopeu units. Both technical anu economic layeis subsequently continue to evolve anu inteiact, taking foims such as bettei beau-caiving tools, metal iefining techniques, the next Bitcoin softwaie ielease. Yet it is still impoitant to unueistanu how both technical anu economic layeis aie always piesent, anu not just with Bitcoin. The technical layeis involveu in the piouuction anu exchange of physical commouity units aie obviously quite uiffeient fiom the coiiesponuing technical layeis foi uecentializeu ciyptogiaphic cuiiency units. Likewise, the technical layeis involveu in smoke-signaling aie quite uiffeient fiom the technical layeis involveu in inteinet chat inteifaces. Neveitheless, both types of technological methous have manageu to fulfill, to vaiying uegiees, the human puiposes of channeling messages ovei uistance (the "economic" layei). What may have taken tens of thousanus of yeais, place by place, foi beaus, anu centuiies foi piecious metals, may now be taking a couple of yeais anu months foi Bitcoin. In past cases, the piactice of using paiticulai items in tiaue uevelopeu on sepaiate timelines in each geogiaphic context. Touay, howevei, the contexts of tiaue, imitation, anu uiscoveiy aie uefineu on a global scale by usei uemogiaphics anu choices on the inteinet iathei than local geogiaphy oi the paiticulais of lanu anu sea tiauing ioutes. This is aiueu by acceleiations fiom instantaneous global communication, news flow, social meuia, anu auveitising. 19 0V1 $%& ([^"'$.#-& "+ *]*$&[ .#W \#($ ^&'*^&-$(Y&* Any monetaiy system is not only a collection of out-of-context units, but a ;1;230. This incluues a netwoik of people with a similai social unueistanuing about 263 2%&'5$C B;3; of the ielevant units. Isolateu objects uo not constitute a system of tiaue. 2S
With Bitcoin, the "system" aspect is much moie piominent than the "unit" aspect when compaieu with pievious maiket evolutions of tangible meuia of exchange. The system aspect is now liteially a massive computing netwoikalieauy the most poweiful on the planet in iaw piocessing powei by a veiy laige maigin an all-voluntaiy softwaie uevelopment netwoik, anu untolu uistiibuteu copies of the block chain unfoigeable uecentializeu tiansfei iecoiu. Bitcoin units can exist only #$ the block chain anu can only be tiansfeiieu fiom auuiess(es) to auuiess(es) within the context of the live Bitcoin netwoik. 24
0wning a bitcoin at a given time can also thus be vieweu as analogous to owning membeiship shaies in the block-chain-baseu tiauing club. All cuiient contiolleis of bitcoin units aie able to use both the tiauing system anu its units foi theii own puiposes accoiuing to theii uegiee of self-selecteu "buy-in" to the system. Yet buying into a meuium of exchange by beginning to use it as one has always implieu something moie than just buying some out-of-context objects. It means, at least implicitly if not explicitly, uemonstiating a small maigin of suppoit foi the iuea that this kinu of unit is something that can function as a meuium of exchange in society. It is uue to the piocess of moie anu moie people, one by one, making this wiuei "system" statement by actually accepting, saving, anu spenuing a unit, that it begins to uevelop beyonu a meie collectible item. It is only within the context of an active tiauing system that this auuitional valuation cycle can builu. This is tiue foi all possible meuia of exchange as they giow into this iole, iegaiuless of inciuental technical chaiacteiistics such as tangibility veisus intangibility. In pievious histoiical cases, the unit aspect was moie obvious anu the system buy-in aspect peiceivable only moie abstiactly anu inuiiectly. With Bitcoin, howevei, the system buy-in aspect is moie obvious anu explicit, wheieas the unit
2S Those familiai with the integial all-quauiant mouel auvanceu by the Ameiican philosophei Ken Wilbei may iecognize its paitial application in this anu the pievious section. 0n one axis, the epistemological uualist uivision between inteiioi (meaning) anu exteiioi (mattei) is iepiesenteu in the uivision between the economic (action-baseu in the Nisesian sense) anu the technical. The othei axis, the uuality of unit anu system peispectives, is then iepiesenteu in the cuiient section. Foi a ielatively appioachable oveiview of the integial all-quauiant mouel anu ielateu concepts in a wiuei context, see Wilbei 1998. 24 Although piivate keys can also be physically tiansfeiieu offline using physical tokens anu caius, the secuiity anu ieliability of such pioceuuies iemains highly expeiimental. 2u aspect is only peiceivable moie abstiactly anu inuiiectly. It is liteially no longei possible to miss the system aspect because Bitcoin units aie compiehensible only within the context of the uecentializeu leugei system that enables ieliable fiist appiopiiation (mining), stoiage, anu tiansfei. The unueilying ieality unueipinning its unit aspect is technical anu uifficult to giasp. In contiast, piecious metal coins, though also fully embeuueu in a social tiauing system, stoou out fiom that system by theii concieteness anu tangibility. With a metal coin, one coulu still naively imagine that it somehow helu value all by itself. Bowevei, this was nevei tiue. Exchange value is evei uepenuent on the willingness of a buyei to buy. A meuium of exchange value component is likewise always uepenuent on the implicit expectation of futuie acceptance by at least one othei paity. A tiauing unit can only woik within a social tiauing system. We saw in Section 6 above that an attempt at inuiiect exchange of steak foi floui woulu simply fail if the intenueu paity to the seconu tiaue (the millei) uoes not actually accept the intenueu inteimeuiating goou (eggs). The meuium-of- exchange value component of a goou that becomes moie geneially useu in this iole can multiply in that otheis begin moie anu moie to accept it in tiaue G3/&B;3 they also expect that still otheis will accept it in subsequent tiaues. This value builuing cycle /&$ be ciiculai anu self-ieinfoicing. Bowevei, no cycle can begin in ciiculai causation. The iegiession theoiem explains in abstiact teims how this self-ieinfoicing cycle begins. 001 . Z&//QW"-\[&#$&W (//\*$'.$("# Bitcoin units hau no iecognizeu exchange value whatsoevei foi neaily a yeai aftei the Bitcoin netwoik began functioning in }anuaiy 2uu9. They also specifically uiu not yet have any meuium-of-exchange uses. They uiu not facilitate any tiaues. Insteau, piogiammeis anu ciyptogiaphy enthusiasts weie iunning the softwaie, connecting to the fleugling netwoik, tiying out the coue anu woiking to impiove it, mining bitcoins, anu senuing bitcoins back anu foith to each othei foi fun anu expeiiment. Petei Suiua has been assembling some fiist-hanu iepoit eviuence on this eaily peiiou. In a iecent post, 2S he quoteu eaily paiticipant anu uevelopei Nike Beain speaking fiom his peispective as a new paiticipant in the eaily uays: I founu |Bitcoinj veiy eaily on, when no one was using it, so no one, no exchanges, hau no exchange iate at all, so they weie just completely floating in an abstiact space. You know, what was one coin. Well, nothing ieally.
2S 22 Septembei 2u1S. "Piofessoi Waltei Block is clueless about Bitcoin." 3/#$#05/;#+G52/#5$)/#0) 21 Auam Back, the uevelopei of key elements that enueu up being useu as paits of the Bitcoin system, was highly skeptical thioughout this eaily peiiou of uevelopment. The following is fiom a comment he left unuei the above post: I was still hoping foi the uiscoveiy of moie efficient solutions.I was also thinking bitcoin was a 1 in a million chance that it coulu bootstiap to a non-toy value. So I uiu not uownloau, noi mine at that time...So uespite inventing the mining function that bitcoin uses, anu spenuing a lot of ieseaich effoit ovei peihaps S yeais on anu off with otheis like Wei Bai, Bal Finney, Nick Szabo anu a cast of uozens incluuing anonymous contiibutois (one of whom may have been Satoshi) in tiying to figuie out how to uesign a uecentializeu ecash system using hashcash as a mining function, I uiun't wake up until yeais latei when it was cleaily obvious that bitcoin hau long bootstiappeu. In the eaily uays, even expeits in the ielevant fielus, let alone anyone else, coulu easily have vieweu mining bitcoins as a faiily pointless activity. It woulu have been easy foi outsiueis in paiticulai to uismiss it as not much uiffeient in piinciple fiom a gloiifieu veision of the online social game Faimville. The uiffeience was that it was as if a few of the playeis weie also convinceu that they hau uiscoveieu the futuie of ieal faiming. This just makes it sounu 3A3$ 0#%3 luuicious than just aumitteuly playing a game. In faim games, untolu numbeis of people aie known to "pointlessly" plant seeus using theii computeis. They eageily check back latei to haivest the iesulting ciops. These unieal objects can become quite meaningful to playeis aftei spenuing tens oi hunuieus of houis builuing a thiiving (non-existent) business. Yet even such play uigital items must also be counteu as goous accoiuing to the stiict Nisesian appioach to economics, which stuuies action as such. As a fielu, economics in the Nisesian tiauition is not supposeu to objectivistically juuge whethei ceitain actions aie "iational" anu otheis not, ceitain actions "economic" oi "moial" anu otheis not, anu so on. Those aie tasks ieseiveu foi othei fielus, such as philosophy oi psychology, with uiffeient methouologies anu ciiteiia. uoous that exist only within games aie also goous fiom the point of view of those engageu in playing those games anu expenuing time anu effoit to obtain those goous. 26
All of the non-existent seeus anu piouuce in faim games, some ciitics might aigue, aie "ieally" just so many ones anu zeioes on a computei, as aie, they allege, bitcoins. Yet woulu the pioponents of this view acknowleuge that the uiffeience between one uigital film anu anothei, oi one song file anu anothei, is likewise ieuucible to inteichangeable ones anu zeioes. Tiy telling someone engiosseu in an action movie oi a favoiite spoits match that it woulu "ieally" be just the same if they switcheu to a :3@@# "5221 viueo oi a
26 See my 1S Septembei 2u1S, "The laboi, leisuie, anu happiness game: Psychology, piaxeology, anu ethics." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0. 22 match of some foieign spoit they uetesteu. Now take a tween's pop music anu gianupa's classical conceit playlists, switch them, anu see what happens. The ieality of meaningful uistinctions among "meie ones anu zeios" when it come to uigital goous will have been convincingly establisheu (if the expeiimentei manages to suivive to iepoit the iesults). Some of the eaily Bitcoin mineiexpeiimenteis, at least those who believeu the system hau a futuie, accumulateu bitcoins, just in case theii value woulu somehow iise in the futuie. Foi paiticipants, aftei staiting, it may at times have been easiei to keep the coins than to get iiu of them. While some kept them safe, though, othei eaily mineis eiaseu wallet files that conveyeu access to laige numbeis of bitcoins. 0theis uiu not consiuei it woith even staiting. They weie convinceu that nothing woulu evei come of these paiticulai units in the futuie. Each of these weie uistinct juugments, valuations uemonstiateu in action. Nany systems weie out theie hoping to succeeu as some kinu of new uigital cashanu failing at it. Expeits coulu not univeisally pieuict that this new one woulu take off. Its success began with a new combination of iueas, but its success hau to be uefineu thiough expeiimentation anu uiscoveiy in piactice. >+ one's puipose hau been to tiaue oi buy something with Bitcoins in theii fiist yeai oi so- then they 43%3 utteily useless. Yet they neveitheless hau alieauy giauually come to play vaiious ioles in the action stiuctuies of some eaily expeiimenteis. This is the moment the oiigins component of the iegiession theoiem seeks to "iegiess" back to. This was a time when bitcoins hau ;#03 value to ;#03 people, but going out anu buying something with bitcoinsfacilitating tiaues with themwas not among the available uses. At that time, it might have been easiei to tiaue steak uiiectly foi floui with one's ovo-vegetaiian neighboi than to obtain anything whatsoevei in tiaue foi Bitcoin. This conuition, in which theie was some value to some actois, but zeio inuiiect- exchange value, was about to stait changing. Although the iegiession theoiem is a logical ueuuction fiom uefinitions, foi those who like histoiical illustiations of theii theoietical piinciples, Bitcoin pioviues a uocumenteu textbook example. 0D1 $%& +('*$ &[&')&#-& "+ ,($-"(# ^'(-&* +"' ["#&] 0n 0ctobei S, 2uu9, 23$ 0#$26; &+23% the Bitcoin netwoik went live, the fiist iecoiueu Bitcoin offei piice was posteu. It amounteu to 1S bitcoins foi a penny, specifically, 1,Su9.uS Bitcoins foi a uollai, which the postei calculateu baseu on his vaiiable mining costs. Compaieu to that fiist quoteu piice, the exchange value against 0S uollais has iisen some 2uu,uuu times to the piesent time. 2S A few months latei, in Nay 2u1u, someone facilitateu a pizza puichase by accepting Bitcoin anu paying foi the pizza with a cieuit caiu. The equivalent value was $2S foi 1u,uuu bitcoins, oi foui bitcoins foi a penny, a thieefolu inciease ovei the pievious quoteu piice a half-yeai eailiei. This was #$3 fleugling quasi-inuiiect exchange tiansaction using Bitcoin, piobably uone paitly in jest, 17 months aftei the netwoik went live. Seveial months latei still, on 17 }uly 2u1u, the fiist iecoiueu public exchange piice foi one bitcoin on the new Ntuox exchange was $u.uS, which climbeu to a $u.u6-$u.u9 pei bitcoin iange ovei the coming uays. What may be uifficult to giasp is that uue to the uigital natuie of bitcoin units, theii neaily zeio tiansaction costs, anu extieme stiengths on seveial majoi chaiacteiistics valuable foi meuium-of-exchange use, the beginning of &$1 exchange value, no mattei how tiny, coulu be enough to help get tiauing of these units staiteu. Anu stait it eventually uiu. 0nce some tiansactions began, anu the fiist companies began to accept Bitcoin in payment foi "ieal" goous anu seivices, fuithei expectations of a futuie meuium- of-exchange value component coulu also begin to builu45265$ the ielevant gioups of useis. As moie people witnesseu the stiange pioneeis actually using the system to inteiact with ieal things, what once hau been #$@1 an expeiiment, now, towaiu the seconu half of 2u1u anu latei, was beginning to make tentative inteifaces with the wiuei exchange economy. 0nly a few people, anu then a few moie, hau to take maiginal steps in this uiiection, anu otheis to eventually imitate them. Cail Nengei uesciibeu, in 1892, the piocesses that thus began anu which continue to acceleiate, in piogiess up to the piesent time: Theie is no bettei methou of enlightening any one about his economic inteiests than that he peiceive the economic success of those who use the iight means to secuie theii own. Bence it is also cleai that nothing may have been so favouiable to the genesis of a meuium of exchange as the acceptance, on the pait of the most uisceining anu capable economic subjects, foi theii own economic gain, anu ovei a consiueiable peiiou of time, of eminently saleable goous in piefeience to all otheis. In this way piactice anu a habit have ceitainly contiibuteu not a little to cause goous, which weie most saleable at any time, to be accepteu not only by many, but finally by all, economic subjects in exchange foi theii less saleable goous; anu not only so, but to be accepteu fiom the fiist with the intention of exchanging them away again. uoous which hau thus become geneially acceptable meuia of exchange weie calleu by the ueimans *3@', fiom C3@23$, i.e., to pay, to peifoim, while othei nations ueiiveu theii uesignation foi money mainly fiom the substance useu, the shape of the coin, oi even fiom ceitain kinus of coin. (Nengei 2uu9, S7) 24 Bitcoins offei at least seveial compelling competitive auvantages ovei othei options: 1. They aie an inheiently apolitical global unit without iespect to boiueis. Potential uiiect tiauing paitneis ovei the long-teim theiefoie incluue the entiie human population fiom the baiista on the coinei to the giowei uiiect-shipping fiesh coffee beans fiom halfway aiounu the woilu. 2. They aie infinitely uuiable in time anu (almost) costlessly tianspoitable in space. They coulu last potentially foievei (foi any piactical puipose) with zeio uegiauation. Like beaus anu metals befoie themexcept moie soaccess to them can easily by caiiieu, oi even just iemembeieu, so that they can be hiuuen uuiing times of thieat. S. They have scaicity chaiacteiistics supeiioi to all othei known monetaiy alteinatives. The limitation of theii supply is built into theii uefinition. This appioach is supeiioi to limitations anchoieu meiely in the piactical anu vaiiable supply of some chemical substance such as silvei. They aie even moie obviously supeiioi when compaieu with the pioven iecoiu of inflationaiy machinations on the pait of caiefully scieeneu political appointees in chaige of fiat money supplies. 4. They offei tiansaction costs that aie almost infinitely small fiom the point of view of useis, anu this goes foi any amount ovei any uistance. S. They cannot be counteifeiteu, uiluteu, oi multiplieu, unlike papei notes anu metallic coins.
With such a wholly unpieceuenteu line-up of monetaiy chaiacteiistics (among otheis), &$1 launching-point tiauing value coulu have been enough to get such extiaoiuinaiily well-suiteu units to begin acquiiing a meuium of exchange value component among some useis. Being fiist among mouein ciyptocuiiencies to make such a leap, Bitcoin has iemaineu fai aheau of latei imitatoi coins baseu on fiist-movei auvantage, netwoik effects, anu aggiegate netwoik hashing speeu, becoming, anu iemaining by a massive maigin, the most "saleable" of all existing ciyptocuiiencies. The meuium of exchange value component of bitcoins is now cleai anu uominant 5$ %32%#;?3/2. Like a new kinu of metal uug up one uay many thousanus of yeais ago, its value piofile in society emeigeu giauually fiom seemingly nothing. Its exchange value then moveu all the way up to.neaily nothing. It then moveu up to.slightly above neaily nothing. Anu finally it has been giauually builuing ovei the past thiee-foui yeais with a few uiamatic jumps along the way, as wiuening ciicles of social iecognition come into play. 27
27 Bitcoin is often ciiticizeu foi its wiue piice movements. This is mostly an aitifact of it still being young anu small in scale, making it susceptible to ups anu uowns of the meuia-awaieness cycle. That saiu, the fiist uiamatic movement up anu uown in 2u11 can also be causally tiaceu to the goveinment's ongoing imposition of piohibition policies. Without them, the suige in uemanu fiom woulu-be paiticipants in the then-new Silk Roau online black maiket woulu have been 2S Yet no mattei what its cuiient value is ielative to othei cuiiencies, it can continue to fill a iole as an almost zeio-cost methou of tiansmitting puichasing powei ovei uistance foi any given tiansaction. 0seis opting foi seivices that conveit into anu out of Bitcoin immeuiately foi each tiansaction can be entiiely fiee of exchange-iate iisk, while othei useis choose to take on such iisks knowingly in the expectation of shoit oi long-teim gains. A possible futuie iole foi Bitcoin as what I have uefineu as a money (a unit of piicing, accounting, anu economic calculation) woulu have to await much moie ielative value stability compaieu to competing options foi those functions. Bowevei, it shoulu also be emphasizeu that value giowth, as contiasteu with the steauy value uecline of fiat money, is an auvantage sepaiate fiom stability pei se. Some people might iathei have the option of holuing some balances in units that gaineu value unsteauily, in contiast to balances of othei units that lost it steauily. 0J1 W(*$(#)\(*%(#) $%& &.'/] Y./\& -"[^"#&#$* The eaily Bitcoin pioneeis weie attempting to cieate a functioning system of value tiansmission that containeu units to be useu as a meuium of exchange. Bespite this hope, foi at least the fiist yeai, they hau not yet succeeueu. Bitcoin 4&; $#2 useu as a meuium of exchange. Whatevei theii uieams oi futuie imaginings, no inuiiect exchange tiansactions weie facilitateu using Bitcoin. Bitcoin units, howevei, uiu make theii way into the action stiuctuies of these eaily useis in vaiious ways. They weie the objects of action both uiiectly anu inuiiectly as "bunuleu" with othei enus, such as the goals of system iefinement, mining uevelopment, anu pioject paiticipation. That makes them goous (means). To summaiize, some mix of the following $#$Smeuium-of-exchange value components of bitcoin units existeu foi some useis in a peiiou uuiing 2uu9 anu eaily 2u1u befoie Bitcoin opeiateu in any monetaiy meuium-of-exchange iole whatsoevei. This was aftei Bitcoin began to exist anu gain some value to some actois within theii iespective stiuctuies of enus anu means, but befoie it began to have any value component foi use in facilitating inuiiect exchanges foi othei goous anu seivices.
much moie mouest in compaiison to the movements of oiuinaiy maikets not beset by the evei- stiange anu uangeious iesults of piohibition policies. This most likely accounts foi the unique yeai-ovei-yeai "mountain" piice effect seen in 2u11 in YoY teims. See my 2S }uly 2u1S. "Tigei cub giowing up. Bitcoin weekly aveiage closing piices yeai ovei yeai" 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0) 26 The ielevant peisons weie the pioneeis actually paiticipating in the Bitcoin netwoik anu contiibuting to the eaily iefinement of its softwaie anu othei technologies. Bitcoins may have functioneu foi them at those times in any of at least seveial possible non-monetaiy ways: 1. A set of uigital objects that coulu become a meuium of exchange 5$ 263 +B2B%3 if the netwoik weie somehow successful anu if its units eventually began to be taken up as a meuium of exchange. Any new class of valuable goou is iecognizeu anu valueu fiist by only veiy few people, often befoie it has any "piactical" use. Nany such goous nevei amount to much, but otheis take off anu aie eventually valueu bioauly. 2. A set of uigital objects that coulu be sent back anu foith to othei paiticipants as a foim of foimal oi infoimal testing of the netwoik, oi even just foi fun, as a type of social inteiaction within the pioject. Nany of the pioject inteiactions took place online at uistance ovei foiums, anu in some cases the paiticipants weie pseuuonymous. S. Blocks weie being mineu, one of the puiposes of which was to veiify tiansactions. With no tiansactions to veiify, netwoik testing anu expeiimentation piocesses woulu have iemaineu incomplete, pioviuing a ieason to issue tiansactions into the netwoik even if only foi the puipose of expeiimentation. 4. At some points anu foi some peisons, bitcoin units coulu have functioneu as a toy-like set of uigital objects that coulu be collecteu inciuentally oi even competitively in the couise of the above piocesses of expeiimentation. This coulu be akin to how people natuially enjoy competing by accumulating anu compaiing uiffeient amounts of uigital money oi points within games, quite inuepenuently of any "ieal woilu" valuations. It woulu then be an extia bonus if an eventual ieal woilu value &@;# ieally coulu emeige, as in (1). S. Possession of gieatei oi fewei numbeis of bitcoins coulu be taken as a bauge of membeiship anu commitment, oi as among the signs anu aitifacts of paiticipation. Possible non-exchange-meuia coulu have easily incluueu: theoietical anu scientific inteiest, piogiamming challenge, secuiity ieseaich, iueological inteiest in auvancing the fieeuom of tiansaction, anu inteiest in the possibility of making a iising-value cuiiency available foi the fiist time in a centuiy to those who wisheu to have the option of using one. Nembeiship anu piomotion motivations aie common in human enueavois, piesent whenevei we say that someone is "getting behinu a cause." 6. A foim of eaily stock-like owneiship in the (potential) payment system that woulu convey the ability to paiticipate in it moie favoiably in the futuie anu help piomote it fiom an eaily stage onwaiu. This metaphoiical investment shaie in the entiie system also cieates a tiny, uiiect incentive to act in a way favoiable to the system's geneial health. The eaily paiticipants all investeu theii time anu effoit on an inuiviuual anu voluntaiily basis.
27 Some of these non-meuium-of-exchange values of bitcoin units, oi uescenuants of them, peisist to this uay among some system paiticipants. These incluue: long- teim ietention of Bitcoin balances as savings (often ueiiueu as "speculation"); effoits to spieau the woiu anu intiouuce otheis to Bitcoin on both inuiviuual anu institutional basesincluuing giving out small amounts of Bitcoin to new useiswhich bioauens the netwoik of useis anu applications; effoits to piomote fieeuom of tiansaction anu fieeuom fiom "financial censoiship"; anu euucational effoits to explain the geneial economic auvantages of the availability of a iising-value tiauing unit foi those who wish to use one. 0I1 -%./_ $%(* "#& \^ +"' $%& -'.a] "#&* $"" The piocess by which Bitcoin's value foi use as a meuium of exchange emeigeu has been uocumenteu anu aichiveu in online iecoius anu in living memoiies. Bitcoin's beginnings seive as an illustiation of the oiigins aspect of the iegiession theoiem that is similai in piinciplethough of couise not in specific foim, geogiaphic configuiation, oi time scaleto maiket-evolution accounts inteipieting piocesses by which pievious tangible meuia of exchange emeigeu. That is, in each such case we have consiueieu, a few of mankinu's "ciazy ones" 28
weie playing aiounu with anu collecting things that weie useless foi anything that woulu have been consiueieu a geneially "piactical" puipose at the oiigin phases in question, such as shell beaus, shiny metals, oi bitcoins. Eventually though, an auuitional economic use foi these meie tiinketsactually using them to facilitate tiaueswas giauually anu in fits anu staits put into piactice, with some favoiable iesults. This piactice then spieau by some blenu of imitation anu iecuiiing inuepenuent ieuiscoveiy. Such expeiiments weie quite likely met in eveiy case with fuiioweu biows anu uisbelief on the pait of moie sobei obseiveis still unwilling to tiaue "ieal" things foi the likes of shells, shiny soft metals, oi in the cuiient case.they uo not have the faintest iuea what. The uiffeience is, touay, the piocess of moie anu moie people uiscoveiing how to make use of Bitcoin to facilitate tiaue is taking place woiluwiue anu at the speeu of the inteinet anu woiu of mouth. That Bitcoin's inventoi(s) anu eailiest uevelopeis 5$23$'3' the netwoik to be useu foi this puipose may be confusing foi some people in light of geneial chaiacteiizations of maiket phenomena as being "emeigent" anu "the iesult of human action but not of human uesign." It might ieminu them, vaguely, of the quite uiffeient state-theoiy-of-money stoiy of "fiat" imposition by a iulei. It
28 In iefeience to the iconic 1997 Apple commeicial, "Beie's to the ciazy ones." youtu.betjgtLSBhTPg. 28 coulu even ieminu some of a complex con in which skilleu scammeis push out woithless shaies in theii latest scheme. Bowevei, Bitcoin hau no legal status whatsoevei as it was being boin. This makes it as uistant as possible fiom a cential "fiat" imposition thiough some official uesignation oi fixeu exchange iate. Even yeais aftei launching, conventional legal systems aie only beginning to tiy to figuie out how to categoiize it within existing buieauciatic classification schemes. 0seis aie not compelleu to auopt Bitcoin. People have not even much been piessuieu to use it by clevei sales people making up stoiies. Although theie have been a few specific pyiamiu scammeis anu outiight thieves in the Bitcoin woilu, theii scams weie not Bitcoin, 2635% ;/&0; 43%3 2635% ;/&0;. Those scams happeneu to be '3$#05$&23' in Bitcoin in those paiticulai cases, but similai cons have involveu all mannei of othei valuable units thioughout time. Bitcoin was offeieu up as an inventionuiscoveiy of a new way to uo something veiy olutiansfei the contiol of puichasing powei fiom one paity to anothei. This methou was offeieu foi fiee to the entiie human population. Bowevei, people still hau to take it up anu put it to this use. Each peison iemains entiiely fiee to eithei ignoie it oi use it in some way, anu only to the exact extent of each peison's willing paiticipation. The intentional invention elements piobably uo help explain why Bitcoin is supeiioi to any known alteinative meuium of exchange on just about eveiy meaningfully ielevant chaiacteiistic (tangibility being an inciuental histoiical one, I have aigueu). Shoulu a bioau-baseu anu oveiwhelming competitive supeiioiity foi a given puipose be a uisqualifiei foi that puipose. That woulu be ouu inueeu. Yet someone alieauy familiai with the theoietical aspects of the emeigence of money coulu take, anu seems to have taken, those veiy insights into consiueiation in tiying to shape a bettei goou foi use in that iole. Neveitheless, we have still seen that theie iemaineu a vast gap between the implementation of the intentional elements behinu the new technically piouuceu uigital goou anu the subsequent giauual phases when people began tentatively putting this stiange new goou to use foi some of its envisioneu functions. In othei woius, theie was a laige gap between the launch of the open-souice, peei- to-peei netwoik (technical layei), anu the time when bitcoin units actually uiu begin being useu in tiaue (economic, oi moie piecisely, "catallactic" layei). Theie was a puiely technical anu expeiimental phase in piogiess well befoie theie was any uptake of the unitsystem foi monetaiy use in society. Buiing this eaily phase, it was uncleai even to insiue expeits whethei oi not the pioject woulu eithei succeeu technically oi gain any monetaiy tiaction. The eventual achievement of a $1 piice was cause foi a huge celebiation at the time among eaily enthusiasts, along with a little piofit-taking by some pioneei mineis. 29 Bitcoin's emeigence as a meuium of exchange was oiiginal, as with beaus oi metals in the past. It was not ueiivative, as with the histoiy of mouein papei tickets anu fiat uigital account entiies. At the same time, Bitcoin is a novel case. Its scaicity has been achieveu without tangibility. It was not pickeu up at the beach anu caiveu, noi was it uug out of the siue of a mountain anu cleaneu oi melteu. It was built out of the intiicacies of new ciyptogiaphic anu computei science innovations that weie iemixeu anu put togethei in a new anu valuable way. Bitcoin is uug out the siue of ciypto- cybeispace mountain. The fiist hit of a pickaxe on this nevei-befoie-seen oie was heaiu on }anuaiy S, 2uu9. Satoshi Nakamoto set this netwoik in motion in the context of tiemenuous woik anu oveilapping complex innovations on the pait of many otheis both befoie anu since the initial uenesis Block timestamp. It was up to the test of time to see if what was begun woulu continue. It was up to the fiee choices of the iest of humanity who woulu take up these units anu stait to use them as a new meuium of exchange. It was uncleai whethei, oi the extent to which, anyone woulu "buy into" both the units anu the iuea of using the novel payment piotocol in which they aie embeuueu. This is a piocess that is piobably much moie similai than might at fiist be imagineu to the thought-piocesses of a few skeptical huntei-gatheieis oi eaily agiicultuialists taking a ueep bieath anu finally accepting foi the fiist time some stiings of beaus oi pieces of shiny soft metals in tiaue foi "ieal" goous. No ueciee oi commanu causes people to begin tiauing in Bitcoin. Noi has auoption iesulteu fiom some clevei sales piessuie taking auvantage of the uninfoimeu. In uiametiic contiast, the moie infoimeu people aie about the technical unueipinnings of Bitcoin, the moie they tenu to appieciate it. Neanwhile, casual uismisseis geneially seem to uisplay little to no technical compiehension of how the system woiks. Bitcoin gives us a textbook illustiation of Nises's piaxeological statement of the iegiession theoiem. It pioviues an empiiical case stuuy that has been uocumenteu at a level of uetail nevei befoie seen. If so moveu, ieseaicheis in the fielu of economic histoiy coulu still peisonally inteiview almost eveiyone who was involveu in eveiy stage of this piocess (except the wisely elusive inventois), a pioject that Petei Suiua has alieauy been auvancing. 0ui eailiest shell-beau tiaueis fiom tens of thousanus of yeais ago aie not likewise still taking inteiviews. Bitcoin may well be oui best-uocumenteu histoiical case of the fiist oiigins of an entiiely new meuium of exchange on the maiket, fiee of the uictates of any iulei.
Su '&+&'&#-&* uiaf, Koniau S. 27 Feb 2u1S. "Bitcoins, the iegiession theoiem, anu that cuiious but unthieatening empiiical woilu." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0. Auuio veision ieleaseu Su }une 2u1S at youtube.comwatch.v=aklTqBktiR4 . 19 Nai 2u1S. "The sounu of one bitcoin: Tangibility, scaicity, anu a 'haiu-money' checklist." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0. . 22 }uly 2u1S. "Bitcoin, piice uenomination anu fixeu-iate fiat conveisions." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0 . 14 Septembei 2u1S. "Bitcoin as meuium of exchange now anu unit of account latei: The inveise of Koning's meuieval coins." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0) . 1S Septembei 2u1S. "The laboi, leisuie, anu happiness game: Psychology, piaxeology, anu ethics." 8#$%&';C%&+)/#0. Blsmann, }oig uuiuo. 2uuS. "Fiom value Theoiy to Piaxeology," Intiouuction to the thiiu euition of .?5;230#@#C5/&@ 7%#G@30; #+ ./#$#05/; by Luuwig von Nises. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. . 2uu7. ,5;3;< 963 I&;2 "$5C62 #+ I5G3%&@5;0) Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oiguocumentS29SNises-The-Last-Knight-of-Libeialism. . 2uu8. J3+@&25#$ &$' I5G3%21) Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oiguocumentS726Beflation-anu-Libeity. . 2uu8a. 963 .265/; #+ ,#$31 7%#'B/25#$) Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oiguocumentS747The-Ethics-of-Noney-Piouuction. Kinsella, Stephan. 2uu1. "Against Intellectual Piopeity." D#B%$&@ #+ I5G3%2&%5&$ (2B'53; 1S (2): 1-SS. mises.oiguocumentSS82. Knapp, ueoig Fiieuiich. 189S. (2&&2@5/63 963#%53 '3; *3@'3; ("The State Theoiy of Noney"), Nnchen u. Leipzig, Bunckei & Bumblot. Siu euition 1921. English tianslation 1924. Lonuon: NcNillan anu Company. socseiv2.socsci.mcmastei.ca~econugcmSllSknappStateTheoiyNoney.p uf Kiawisz, Baniel. 2 }uly 2u1S. "The 0iiginal value of Bitcoins." 26305;3;/5%/@3)#%C. Nengei, Cail. 2uu9 |1892j. "0n the 0iigins of Noney." Aubuin, Alabama: Luuwig von Nises Institute. Tianslation by C. A. Foley. Nises, Luuwig von. 1912. 963#%53 '3; *3@'3; B$' '3% T0@&B+;05223@. Nunchen unu Leipzig: Feilag von Bunckei & Bumblot. mises.oiguocumentS298 S1 . 19SS |1912j. 963 963#%1 #+ ,#$31 &$' Cieuit. New Baven: Yale 0niveisity Piess. Repiinteu anu online: mises.oiguocument194The- Theoiy-of-Noney-anu-Cieuit . 1998 |1949j. :B0&$ =/25#$< = 9%3&25;3 #$ ./#$#05/;) The Scholai's Euition. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oiguocumentS2Su. . 2uu6 |1962j. 963 T@250&23 L#B$'&25#$ #+ ./#$#05/ (/53$/3< =$ .;;&1 #$ ,326#') Inuianapolis, IN: Libeity Funu. mises.oigbooksufofes. . 2uu7 |19S7j. 963#%1 &$' :5;2#%1< =$ >$23%?%32&25#$ #+ (#/5&@ &$' ./#$#05/ .A#@B25#$. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. Nakamoto, Satoshi. 2uu8. "Bitcoin: A Peei-to-Peei Electionic Cash System." White Papei bitcoin.oigbitcoin.puf Riuley, Natt. 2u1u. 963 N&25#$&@ O?2505;2< :#4 7%#;?3%521 .A#@A3;) New Yoik: Baipei. Esp. Chap. 2. Rothbaiu, Nuiiay N. 2uu4 |1962, 197uj. ,&$- ./#$#01- &$' (2&23- 4526 7#43% &$' ,&%832) The Scholai's Euition. Aubuin, Alabama: Nises Institute. mises.oigiothbaiumes.asp Suiua, Petei. 2u12. ./#$#05/; #+ E52/#5$< >; E52/#5$ &$ &@23%$&25A3 2# +5&2 /B%%3$/53; &$' C#@'F Thesis foi the vienna 0niveisity of Economics anu Business. uev.economicsofbitcoin.commasteisthesismasteisthesis-suiua- 2u12-11-19b.puf . 22 Septembei 2u1S. "Piofessoi Waltei Block is clueless about Bitcoin." 3/#$#05/;#+G52/#5$)/#0) Szabo, Nick. 2uu2. "Shelling 0ut: The 0iigins of Noney." &@2%B5;2;)#%CP+QR. Tuckei, }effiey A. anu Stephan Kinsella. 2S August 2u1u. "uoous, Scaice anu Nonscaice." ,5;3; J&5@1. Wenzel, Robeit. 7 0ctobei 2u1S. "Is Bitcoin Noney: What Economists Bave To Say." 3/#$#05/?#@5/1H#B%$&@)/#0) Wilbei, Ken. 1998. 963 ,&%%5&C3 #+ (3$;3 &$' (#B@< >$23C%&25$C (/53$/3 &$' N3@5C5#$. New Yoik: Bioauway Books.
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.4@B6 623 5B62@: Koniau S. uiaf is the foimulatoi of the action-baseu juiispiuuence fiamewoik, which aigues foi new anu moie explicit applications of the action-theoiy piinciples of Nises anu Boppe within an integial appioach to the founuations of legal philosophy. Be has wiitten numeious woiks on Bitcoin anu monetaiy theoiy. Be has woikeu as a piofessional tianslatoi since 1998, tianslating }apanese to English piimaiily in the fielu of investment ieseaich. ueiman is his thiiu language. Be has liveu in the 0S, Inuia, }apan, anu ueimany.