Pruning Dead-Heading Dead-heading is the removal of faded flowers before they can develop seed.

Dead-heading is a form of summer or day-to-day pruning. The standard recommendation is to cut the flower stem back to an outward-facing bud above a five-leaflet or seven-leaflet leaf.

This "rule" applies best to plants that are vigorous. If the plant is weak or small, you may not want to cut off as much material. Each time you remove this much wood you are removing a lot of the food-making ability of the plant. This method works well for most recurrentblooming types of roses. With rugosa and other shrub roses where hips are a part of the display, you may not want to prune off the old flowers. In this case, simply clean the spent blooms away with your hand, leaving the hips. Flowers should not be cut after October 1 to allow the plant to begin hardening off for the winter. Dead-heading is also a good way to lessen the likelihood of diseases such a botrytis from becoming a problem General Suggestions

The pruning of rose bushes can be confusing, especially when you start talking about hybrid teas, old garden roses, shrub roses, once-blooming roses, and English roses. This confusion leads to doubt and improper pruning or no pruning. The class of rose and the time of year it blooms influence the type and amount of pruning. General pruning principles apply to all roses, but there are differences between classes. The closer one gets to species roses the less severe the pruning. Hybrid teas have the distinction of requiring the most severe pruning for optimum bloom and plant health. Because of the variety of rose types available, one may need to have an understanding of how the rose flowers. Pruning should also be looked at as applying a few common sense principles to accomplish several tasks. These tasks are to remove dead, damaged, or diseased wood; increase air circulation; keep the shrub from becoming a tangled mess; shape the plant; and encourage the growth of flowering wood. The majority of pruning is done in the spring. Many rose growers suggest waiting until the forsythias start to bloom as a good signal for the pruning season to begin.

The goal of spring pruning is to produce an open centered plant. This allows air and light to penetrate easily.

Basic pruning fundamentals that apply to all roses include:

Use clean, sharp equipment. Cut at a 45-degree angle about 1/4 inch above outward-facing bud. The cut should slant away from the bud. Entirely remove all dead or dying canes. These can be identified as canes that are shriveled, dark brown, or black. If cane borers are a problem, it is suggested to seal the ends of the cuts to prevent the entry of cane borers. White glue works well. Remove all thin, weak canes that are smaller than a pencil in diameter. If roses are grafted and there is sucker growth, remove it. The best way is to dig down to the root where the sucker is originating and tear it off where it emerges. Cutting suckers off only encourages regrowth of several suckers where there once was one.

Modern Ever-Blooming Roses Roses like hybrid teas, grandifloras, floribundas, and miniatures produce the best flowers on new or current season's wood. To ensure this type of wood, these roses are pruned very hard in early spring. This usually means removing about one-half to two-thirds of the plant's height and reducing the number of canes. Suggested pruning sequence:

Remove all dead canes; cut them off at the base or point of discoloration. Remove small, weak canes. Leave 3 to 5 healthy, stout canes evenly spaced around the plant. Cut these canes back, leaving 3 to 5 outward-facing buds.

Modern Shrub Roses

Repeat-flowering shrub roses bear flowers on mature stems that are not old and woody. Severe pruning of these roses would result in reduced flower production. In their first two or three seasons in the garden, shrub roses can be left unpruned. Wait to see what shape develops and then try to prune so that the shape is maintained. Many modern shrub roses are pruned by a method called the "one-third" method. Suggested pruning sequence:

In the spring, remove one-third of the very oldest canes. This helps keep the plant from becoming an overgrown thicket of poor-flowering canes. Replace these canes by identifying about one-third of the very youngest canes that grew the previous season. Remove the remaining canes.

The result of this one-third method is that you are continually renewing the rose while at the same time keeping enough mature wood to ensure a good supply of flower-producing wood. Old Garden Roses These roses are pruned much like modern shrub roses with some important considerations based on class. Old once-blooming roses such as Alba, Gallica, Centifolia, Damasks, and Mosses produce flowers on old wood, all pruning should be delayed until after flowering. Then, you do as little or as much pruning as is required to maintain the plant. Thinning and removing old wood is encouraged. These roses may not need annual pruning if there is no dead or damaged wood present. Repeat-flowering old garden roses such as Bourbons, Hybrid Perpetuals, and Portlands bloom on both new and old wood. These can be pruned before they flower and pruned harder without fear of losing blooms. Climbers and Ramblers Climbers and ramblers may need a few seasons in the garden before pruning is necessary. In many cases, pruning is limited to removing winter-damaged wood. Pruning is similar for both

classes. The difference is in the timing. Because ramblers are once-blooming, they are pruned right after flowering in early summer. Because climbers are repeat bloomers, they are pruned in early spring. Reducing the side shoots or laterals to 3-6 inches stimulates flower production, resulting in more blooms. Training canes to grow more horizontally encourages the growth of bloom producing side shoots.

Disease and Insect Pests Roses are susceptible to a number of disease and insect pests. Roses may survive without a basic pest control program, but they may not be very attractive. A pest control program starts with proper site selection, good soil preparation, good drainage, proper spacing, cultivar selection, and plant maintenance. These all foster healthy roses that are better able to withstand the pressure of disease and insects. When selecting roses, note the resistance to disease of a particular cultivar or named variety within a class. You want to select by cultivar, not by class. All too often, many gardeners assume that shrub roses (the class) are very tolerant or resistant to disease and make their selection based solely on class. In fact, there are a number of cultivars that are very prone to severe disease injury. Another interesting fact about diseases is that plants can have two types of resistance: phenotypic or genotypic. Phenotypic resistance is when a cultivar is resistant to a disease in one location or part of the country but not in another. Genotypic resistance is due to the presence of genes that are not affected by climate, location, or horticultural practice. That is why, when the term "resistance" is used as a blanket term and assigned to a variety or class, it may or may not apply depending on where you garden. Diseases Blackspot

This fungal disease can cause almost complete defoliatiation of bushes by early fall, resulting in a weakened bush on which cane die-back and cankers become severe. Blackspot is identified as circular black spots that appear on the upper surface of the leaves, starting at the bottom of the plant and moving upward. Infected leaves turn yellow and fall off prematurely. The fringed margin and black color distinguish this leaf spot from others. Infections on canes are identified as reddish-purple spots. Splashing water spreads blackspot. Infection occurs

after leaves are wet for several hours, making it more serious during rainy periods. Some roses are less susceptible than others, so cultivar selection is important. The fungus overwinters in fallen leaves and stem cankers. Raking and removing these leaves as well as pruning out affected canes by spring before the buds swell may help provide some control. Avoid wetting the leaves when watering and locate plants where there is good air circulation. Fungicide spray programs need to be started as soon as new leaves appear in the spring. Powdery Mildew

Powdery mildew is a fungus disease that affects young leaves, causing them to curl and twist and develop a purple coloration. As the disease progresses, leaves become covered with white powdery fuzz. Whereas blackspot is usually most severe on the lower part of the plant, mildew affects the top part of the plant. Mature leaves are less likely to be affected. Mildew is spread by wind and develops rapidly during periods of warm, dry days followed by cool, humid nights. Infections of mildew are actually discouraged by the presence of water on the leaves. However, keeping plants wet all night to avoid mildew provides an environment that allows other diseases to develop. Infection can be reduced through sanitation and fungicide spray programs. Prune out all dead and diseased canes to reduce initial fungus infection. Because new growth is especially susceptible, thorough coverage of new growth with fungicide is important. Plant roses in areas where they receive good air circulation and where the foliage can dry off rapidly in the early morning to prevent many types of diseases. Stem Cankers

There are several fungi that cause cankers on roses. The different fungi can cause differentlooking cankers, but they usually produce brown, oval-shaped, sunken, or shriveled areas anywhere on the cane. The cane dies, and leaves wilt from that point outward. Sometimes small black specks can be seen on the cane surface within the borders of the canker. These are fungal spore-forming structures. Cankers should be pruned out each year. Make the cut well below the affected tissue. Protect the plant from cold or freeze injury by providing

adequate cover over the winter. Do not cover roses too early in the fall. When roses are mulched before the soil freezes, moisture can be trapped around the canes and this can increase the damage caused by canker disease. Keep plants vigorous with proper culture and disease control. Canker is a disease of stress. If plants are kept actively growing, they stand a better chance of avoiding cankers. There are no effective chemical controls for canker disease. Botrytis Blight

Botrytis blight is a fungal disease that generally attacks dying tissue. It is frequently found on older flowers and other plant parts. Under certain conditions it may also attack healthy tissue. Botrytis favors moist, wet conditions, often causing the disease to attack entire flowers and produce a gray fuzzy mold. This disease is often called gray mold. Good garden sanitation and removing spent flowers often result in good control of this disease. When this is insufficient in providing adequate control, a preventative spray program may be necessary. Mosaic

Rose mosaic is caused by a virus. Bright yellow patterns made up of wavy lines may appear on the leaves of some varieties. Other varieties may show no yellow lines, but may be stunted and weak due to virus infection. Virus-infected plants cannot be cured. Plant virus-resistant roses if possible. Try to control insects, especially aphids, since they help spread the virus. If

you are pruning virus-infected plants, don't prune healthy plants unless you first disinfest your pruners. Dipping the blades in a 10 percent solution of chlorine bleach and water for 60 seconds can do this. A 25 percent concentration reduces the time needed to about 10 seconds. All infected plants should be removed and destroyed to reduce the spread of the virus to other plants. Crown Gall

Crown gall is a bacterial disease that can survive 15-20 years in the soil. It causes irregularly shaped, rough, dark-colored masses (galls) to appear on stems near the soil line. These galls can appear as small swellings or be several inches in diameter. Severely infected plants become stunted and fail to grow properly. There are no effective controls for crown gall. Severely infected plants should be dug up and discarded and roses should not be planted in that area for at least 5 years. Avoid buying plants with suspicious swellings or gall on lower stems or crowns. However, do not confuse crown gall with normal swellings that you see as a result of the budding process. Protect plants from injury on stems during cultivation. Maintain vigor with fertilization and watering. Crown gall is not specific to roses and can affect apples, raspberries, honeysuckle, euonymus, and many vegetables. For this reason, roses should not be planted where plants susceptible to crown gall have been removed because of the disease. Galltrol-A, a non-pathogenic bacteria, has been used to prevent crown gall. It is often used as a dip on cane root roses prior to planting. Rose Rosette

Rose rosette is becoming more common and can result in significant damage. This pathogen (not yet positively identified) is spread by an eriophid mite. Symptoms include rapid growth of shoots, development of "witches' broom," development of tufts of small, deformed reddish leaves and excessive thorniness. Plants decline over time. Because affected plants can't be cured, it is best to dig out the affected plant and destroy it. Controlling the mite has been labeled as an option but attempts at controlling it have proven inconclusive. It is very difficult to apply sprays in a timely and satisfactory way. Insect Pests Aphids

Aphids are very common pests. Aphids are soft-bodied insects that can be red, green, yellow, or black. They feed on very young succulent shoots, causing distortion. Aphids are often kept in check by natural predators. Alternative control measures include the use of insecticidal soaps, strong streams of water to knock them off the plant, or insecticides. Japanese Beetles

These hard-shelled, metallic-green, black, and gold insects can cause extensive damage to roses just by their sheer numbers and voracious appetite. They prefer flowers and flower buds but will also attack foliage. Japanese beetles are difficult to control because they are strong fliers and constantly reinvade the area. Home gardeners still find that Sevin provides the best control, but it is only topical. This means that reapplication needs to be done on a regular basis to protect the foliage and flowers. Beware of Japanese beetle traps. Traps are almost too effective and will draw a great number of beetles into an area, making the problem worse. If they are used, they should be placed in areas away from the rose garden. Hand picking is also a suggested control for small numbers of beetles. Leaf Cutter Bees

It is unusual to see the insects at work, but they make their presence known by the perfectly round holes cut near the edges of the leaves. These leaf pieces are used to make egg partitions inside their burrows. The damage they cause is strictly cosmetic and warrants no control.

Spider Mites

Mites are very tiny relatives of spiders. They can be red, black, or brown in color. Mites pierce the underside of rose leaves and suck sap, causing the leaf to turn gray or bronze. A fine web is a sign of a heavy infestation. Mites reproduce rapidly, resulting in high populations in a short time. Mites flourish in crowded, stagnant gardens. A high-pressure washing with water from a garden hose directed to the underside of the leaves every 2-3 days can manage mites. This will interrupt their life cycle. Miticides such as dicofol help in heavy infestations. Insecticidal soaps are also effective in controlling mites. Thrips Thrips are extremely small, brown insects usually living and feeding inside of the blooms. A deformed flower with flecked or scratched petals is usually a sign of a thrips problem. The rasping mouth parts of thrips causes this injury when they scratch the petal surface to feed. Thrips are especially attracted to yellow or light-colored roses. Some control can be achieved using materials such as orthene, malathion, or insecticidal soap, but even these often give poor results. They tend to be worse during late June, July and August when temperatures are warm. Rose Midge

The rose midge is a tiny fly that lays eggs in the buds and shoots of roses. The larvae that develop start feeding and causes bent, mishapen or blasted flower buds and withering of the stem tips. Eventually they turn black. Control consists of pruning out buds and applying insecticide if the problem persists. Midge damage usually shows up in July. Because the larvae fall to the soil to pupate, an effective control is to place weed barrier fabric under the plants to catch the larvae and prevent them from entering the soil to pupate. Sawfly (Rose Slug)

The common rose slug causes skeletonizing or window pane like damage to rose leaves in spring and early summer. The larvae look like caterpillars but are actually more closely related to bees and wasps. Common rose slugs are green with a light tan head and often have may hairlike bristles. Although they look like caterpillars, products with a BT are not effective because they are not larvae of moths or butterflies. Control can include hand picking and the use of horticultural oils or insecticidal soaps. Fungicide Spray Programs Fungicides generally recommended for blackspot control include:

Daconil 2787 or fungicides containing Daconil Phyton 27 Mancozeb Funginex Orthenex.

Frequently used fungicides for control of powdery mildew include:

Captan Daconil 2787 Phyton 27 Funginex Orthenex

Materials used in limiting botrytis are:

Captan Daconil 278 Mancozeb

As with all spray materials, follow label directions carefully for mixing and applying.

Different Kinds of Roses Species Roses

These are roses as nature gave them to us. They are the species of the genus Rosa found growing naturally throughout the Northern Hemisphere. These roses are an enormously varied group of plants. They are vigorous, thriving on minimal maintenance, and tend to be extremely hardy and disease-resistant. It should be noted however, that there is variability within species. Some may be more tolerant than others. They range in size from ground cover types to very large upright growers and climbers. Their flowers can be very large and single or small and in clusters. Colors range from white to pink to crimson. Species roses often have relatively simple, 5-petaled flowers followed by very colorful hips that last well into the winter, providing food for birds and winter color. Almost all are onceblooming in early summer. Perhaps the most familiar species for sale today is Rosa rugosa because of its superior hardiness, disease resistance, and extremely easy maintenance. The species has been widely hybridized. Species roses may not be for everyone. Rose enthusiasts like to include them into their collection for historical purposes as well as ease of maintenance. Old European Garden Roses There are five classes of roses that make up what is known as the most venerable group of cultivated roses. They are Gallica, Damask, Alba, Centifolia, and Mosses, and represent the hybrid groups that prevailed in European gardens prior to the widespread trade of Rosa chinensis in the eighteenth century. They are typically very fragrant and extremely coldhardy (USDA zones 3-5). European roses tend to do better in cooler zones and may suffer when planted in zones 7 and higher. Also, contrary to common belief, the old European garden roses are not as disease-resistant as some report.

Gallicas

Damask

Moss

Alba

Centifolia

Hardy Repeat-Blooming Old Roses As can be seen, hardy old garden roses offer just about everything a gardener could ask for in a rose: extreme winter-hardiness, excellent tolerance to disease, exquisite blooms, and outstanding fragrance. The one thing that is lacking is recurrent bloom throughout the summer. Gardeners wanting to combine all of the qualities mentioned above with rebloom capabilities need only to look toward the Bourbons, Portlands, and Hybrid Perpetuals.

Bourbon

Portland

Hybrid Perpetual

Modern Roses The modern age of rose growing began officially when a new class of rose was developed from a tea/hybrid perpetual cross. The year was 1867, the hybridzer was Jean-Baptiste Guillot, the rose was 'La France,' and the class that was born was the hybrid tea. The most popular roses sold and the ones that have the most name recognition in the modern rose class are: 1. the hybrid tea 2. Floribunda 3. grandiflora.

Hybrid Tea

Grandiflora

Floribunda

Miniature

Shrub Roses This class of rose is a "catch all" for roses that do not fit well in other classes. This "duke's mixture" of a class includes everything from hybrid rugosas developed in the late 1800s, to hybrid musks developed in the 1900s, to floribundas and the latest and newest introductions in landscape roses. "Shrub rose" may be a poor choice of words, and as a result the term is largely artificial because all roses are in fact shrubs just as is a lilac or a forsythia. "Shrub," as applied to roses, is more a case of definition by usage rather than by description. Shrub roses are noted for their well-rounded shape, their exceptional winter hardiness, and their better than average disease resistance. Today's gardeners are finding the task of maintaining quality roses a bit easier with the introduction of many shrub roses into the market. Shrub roses are also very free-flowering, producing a good supply of fragrant flowers all summer. Shrub roses are bred and selected for planting "outside" the rose garden, blending well into a mixed border of flowers, as landscape hedges, and into the landscape at large. One may find reference to both old and modern shrub roses. Both classes have merit. The old shrub roses are tall (6+ feet) and need a lot of space. They are also extremely hardy and pestresistant. Modern shrub roses tend to be more compact while still maintaining the qualities you would find in older shrub roses. Modern shrub roses can be found carrying class names and terms such as "English Garden Roses," "David Austin Roses," "Sub-Zero Roses," "Dr. Buck Roses," "Kordesii Roses," "Canadian Explorer Roses," "Parkland Roses," "Meidiland Roses," "Hybrid Rugosa," and "Hybrid Musk."

Hybrid Rugosa

Hybrid Musk

Roses with Long Canes David Roses Austin

Dr. Buck Roses Winter Protection

Griffith

Many of the roses that are classified as old garden roses are extremely tolerant of cold temperatures, while others like hybrid teas experience considerable damage. Also, budded roses, if not properly planted, stand a greater chance of injury or death due to severe cold than do own-root roses. When selecting roses, always select cultivars that are able to tolerate the coldest temperatures in your area based on USDA hardiness zone maps. One of the ways to protect roses for the winter is to be sure they go completely dormant. To accomplish this, stop fertilizing early enough so growth slows down. No fertilizer should be applied after August 15. To further encourage dormancy, stop dead-heading or cutting flowers after October 1 and allow the plant to form hips. There are many methods to provide winter protection for roses. The whole idea of winter protection is to keep the plant uniformly cold and frozen all winter and prevent the damaging effects of alternate freezing and thawing. Whatever method is chosen, don't begin covering plants too early. Wait until a hard killing frost has caused most of the leaves to fall. You may also want to wait until the temperature has dropped into the teens for several nights. Prior to covering, remove any foliage or other debris that might harbor disease for the next season. Before covering, some tall roses may need minor pruning to reduce their height, and tying of the canes together to prevent wind whipping. Pruning, however, at this point should be kept to a minimum. The majority of the pruning will be done in the spring to remove dead and diseased canes.

The most common way to provide winter protection is to pile or "hill-up" a loose, well-drained soil/compost mix around and over the plant to a depth of about 10-12 inches. A variety of hilling materials can be used, but the key is to be sure that the material is well drained. Wet and cold is far more damaging than dry and cold. Also, the decisions that are made when preparing the site for roses really governs what kind of success you will have in winter survival. A rose that is planted in poorly drained soil will suffer and often not survive the winter when that same rose, planted in a well-drained site, will flourish. Soil that is used to "hill-up" plants should be brought in from outside the rose garden. Scraping up soil from around the plant can cause root injury and lessen the plant's chance for survival. After the soil mound has frozen, the mound can be covered with evergreen boughs, hardwood leaves, or straw to help insulate and keep the soil frozen.

The best way to protect roses in the Chicago area is to mound the base of each plant with 10-12 inches of soil. When the soil has frozen, another 1012 inches of leaves, hay or evergreen branches should be applied.

A variation of the "hilling" method that may offer a bit more protection is one utilizing collars. An 18-inch-high circle of hardware cloth or chicken wire is placed around the plant. The collar is filled with soil, allowed to freeze and then mulched with straw. The benefit of the collar is that it holds the soil in place all winter and prevents it from being washed or eroded away. Over the winter, this erosion can reduce the mound to a very ineffective level, exposing roses to possible winter damage. Another popular method of winter protection for roses is the use of styrofoam rose cones. If these are used, they need to be used properly. First, don't cover the plants too early. Follow the timing guidelines as for other methods of covering roses. Second, cones need to be well ventilated to prevent heat build-up on the inside during sunny winter days. Cut four to five 1-inch holes around the top and bottom of the cone. These holes will aid in ventilation and keep the air inside the cone from heating up, causing the rose to break dormancy. It is also advisable to mound soil around the crown of the plant before putting the cone in place. For extremely tender varieties, some rose growers cut the top off the cone and stuff it full of straw for added protection. It is also a good idea to weight the cone down with a brick or stone to keep it from blowing away. Climbing and rambler roses offer challenges with regard to winter protection. In very cold climates and for marginal varieties, climbers may need to be removed from their supports and bent to the ground, then covered with six inches of soil and mulched.

When laying climbers on the ground for covering, one needs to be very careful not to injure or crack the stems. As the weather gets colder their long stems are not as pliable, and they are easily cracked resulting in the loss of that cane. Another method that can be used is to physically pack straw around the canes while they are still attached to the trellis or support. The straw is held in place with twine to keep it in place over the winter. Burlap can then be used to wrap the entire plant, providing protection as well as holding the straw in place. Finally, always remember that healthy roses are much more likely to make it through severe winters than are roses weakened by disease, drought, insects, or nutrient deficiencies. Follow Proper Pruning Techniques Douglas F. Welsh, Professor and Extension Horticulturist Everett Janne, Extension Landscape Horticulturist (deceased) Proper pruning enhances the beauty of almost any landscape tree and shrub, while improper pruning can ruin or greatly reduce its landscape potential. In most cases, it is better not to prune than to do it incorrectly. In nature, plants go years with little or no pruning, but man can ruin what nature has created. By using improper pruning methods healthy plants are often weakened or deformed. In nature, every plant eventually is pruned in some manner. It may be a simple matter of low branches being shaded by higher ones resulting in the formation of a collar around the base of the branch restricting the flow of moisture and nutrients. Eventually the leaves wither and die and the branch then drops off in a high wind or storm. Often, tender new branches of small plants are broken off by wild animals in their quest for food. In the long run, a plant growing naturally assumes the shape that allows it to make the best use of light in a given location and climate. All one needs to do to appreciate a plants ability to adapt itself to a location is to walk into a wilderness and see the beauty of natural

growing plants. Pruning, like any other skill, requires knowing what you are doing to achieve success. The old idea that anyone with a chain saw or a pruning saw can be a landscape pruner is far from the truth. More trees are killed or ruined each year from improper pruning than by pests. Remember that pruning is the removal or reduction of certain plant parts that are not required, that are no longer effective, or that are of no use to the plant. It is done to supply additional energy for the development of flowers, fruits, and limbs that remain on the plant. Pruning, which has several definitions, essentially involves removing plant parts to improve the health, landscape effect, or value of the plant. Once the objectives are determined and a few basic principles understood, pruning primarily is a matter of common sense. The necessity for pruning can be reduced or eliminated by selecting the proper plant for the location. Plants that might grow too large for the site, are not entirely hardy, or become unsightly with age should be used wisely and kept to a minimum in the landscape plan. Advances in plant breeding and selection in the nursery industry provide a wide assortment of plants requiring little or no pruning. However, even the most suitable landscape plants often require some pruning. The guidelines presented in this publication should be helpful when pruning any plant. Reasons for Pruning

to train the plant to maintain plant health to improve the quality of flowers, fruit, foliage or stems to restrict growth

Definitions of Terms Broad-leaved evergreen an evergreen plant with broad leaves that are not needle-shaped. Caliper refers to the diameter of a tree. In nursery-landscape practice, caliper is measured 6 inches above the ground level up to and including 4-inch diameter size and 12 inches above the ground level for larger sizes. Candle refers to early spring growth of pine shoots before needle expansion. Central leader

the main stem of the tree from which other branches develop. In most cases, it is the trunk. Crotch the angle developed between two connecting branches. Deciduous plants that normally have leaves only during the growing season and lose their leaves during the dormant season. Dieback the dying back of stems due to adverse weather conditions, insects, diseases or other causes. Dormant the period of the year when a plant is not growing. Espalier to train a plant on a wire or trellis against a wall or other support. Lateral a branch originating from the main trunk. Multiple stemmed plants plants with more than one stem form the base compared to plants with only a central leader. Narrow-leaved evergreen an evergreen plant with leaves that are needle-shaped. Permanent branch a branch that is part of the major growth habit of the tree, usually originating from the trunk. Radial branch spacing the distribution of branches around the trunk of a tree. Scaffold branching a permanent branch originating from the trunk and becoming a part of the major branching or framework of the tree.

Shearing cutting back plants with hedge shears resulting in a very formal growth habit. Limit shearing to hedges, topiary or where a formal garden is to be maintained. Sucker a vigorous shoot originating from root or stem tissue below ground. Temporary branch a branch usually originating from the trunk that is removed by pruning after permanent branches have been selected. Terminal tip ends of branches. Thinning removal of connecting branches to point of origin or shortening the length of a branch by cutting to a lateral. Training to dictate the development and growth of a plant by physical means, such as pruning. Vertical branch spacing distribution of branches up and down the trunk of a tree. Water sprout vigorous shoot arising from the trunk or older branches. Wound area where the bark of a plant is cut or damaged. Wound dressing a specially formulated material often called pruning paint, which is applied to tree wounds. Plan Approach to Pruning Pruning should follow a definite plan. Consider the reason or purpose before cutting begins.

By making the pruning cuts in a certain order, the total number of cuts is reduced greatly. The skilled pruner first removes all dead, broken, diseased or problem limbs by cutting them at the point of origin or back to a strong lateral branch or shoot. Often, removing this material opens the canopy sufficiently so that no further pruning is necessary. The next step in pruning is to make any training cuts needed. By cutting back lateral branches, the tree or shrub is trained to develop a desired shape, to fill in an open area caused by storm or wind damage or to keep it in bounds to fit a given area. To properly train a plant, one should understand its natural growth habit. Always avoid destroying the natural shape or growth habit when pruning unless maintaining a close watch over the plant, for after a period of time it attempts to assume the more natural growth habit. Make additional corrective prunings to eliminate weak or narrow crotches and remove the less desirable central leader where double leaders occur. After these cuts have been made, stand back and take a look at your work. Are there any other corrective pruning cuts necessary? If the amount of wood removed is considerable, further pruning may need to be delayed a year or so. Remove water sprouts unless needed to fill a hole or to shade a large limb until other branches develop. When to Prune Pruning can actually be done at any time of the year; however, recommended times vary with different plants. Contrary to popular belief, pruning at the wrong time of the year does not kill plants, but continual improper pruning results in damaged or weakened plants. Do not prune at the convenience of the pruner, but rather when it results in the least damage to the plant. There is little chance of damaging the plant if this rule is followed. In general, the best time to prune most plants is during late winter or early spring before growth begins. There are exceptions to this rule, and they will be noted under the discussion of the specific plant groups. The least desirable time is immediately after new growth develops in the spring. A great amount of food stored in roots and stems is used in developing new growth. This food should be replaced by new foliage before it is removed; if not, considerable dwarfing of the plant may occur. This is a common problem encountered in pruning. It also is advisable to limit the amount of pruning done late in summer as new growth may be encouraged on some plants. This growth may not have sufficient time to harden off before cold weather arrives resulting in cold damage or winter kill. Prune plants damaged by storms or vandalism or ones with dead limbs as soon as possible to avoid additional insect and disease problems that may develop. Pruning Equipment

To know and practice the rules of pruning is most important, but of equal importance is using the correct tools. Equipment can be limited to a few items if the proper ones are selected. Select tools that will do the job, keep a sharp edge, and are relatively easy to sharpen and handle. Some of the most commonly used pruning tools are shown in this section. Good equipment properly cared for does a better job and lasts longer. Store equipment in a dry room, keep it sharp and in good operating condition. When pruning diseased plants, disinfect all shears and saw blades after each cut to prevent spreading disease to healthy plants. An example of this is pruning fire blight from pears, pyracantha or cotoneaster. Use alcohol or bleach to disinfect equipment between each cut when pruning diseased plants. Mix at the rate of one part bleach to nine parts water. At the end of the day, oil the pruning equipment well to avoid rusting. There are many kinds of hand pruning shears. Most of them are designed for cutting stems up to 1/2 inch in diameter. Attempting to cut larger branches risks making a poor cut and/or ruining the shears. Two common styles of hand shears are the scissor action and the anvil cut. In scissor action shears, a thin, sharp blade slides closely past a thicker but also sharp blade. These usually cost more but make cleaner, closer cuts. In anvil cut shears, a sharpened blade cuts against a broad, flat blade. Lopping shears (loppers) have long handles that are operated by both hands (Figure 1). Even the least expensive can cut material 1/2 inch in diameter. Better ones can slice through branches of 2 inches or more, depending on species (i.e. oak is tougher than ash) and condition (i.e., dead wood is tougher than live wood until decay sets in).

Pole pruners usually have a cutter with one hooked blade above and a cutting blade beneath, similar to a large pair of lopping shears. The cutter is on a pole and is operated by pulling a rope downward. Poles can be made of several materials and can either be in sections that fit together or that telescope. Wooden poles are sturdy but heavy, while aluminum poles are light but can conduct electricity if they touch an overhead electrical wire. Fiberglass or some type of plastic compound is probably the best pole material. Poles can be fitted with saws, but these are usually very frustrating to use (Figure 2).

Use of pole pruners can be dangerous. Material cut overhead can fall on the operator (unless it hangs up in other branches). The user should exercise caution and wear head and eye protection. Hedge shears are used mainly for shearing plants into hedges or formal shapes. The most common type is manually operated; however, if large areas of hedges are involved, power-driven shears may be more practical (Figure 3). Pruning saws, both rigid or folding, are very useful for cutting larger branches that are too large for hand shears. Tree saws are available for removing large tree branches. Pruning saws, which usually cut on the pull stroke, are preferred over a carpenters saw because they cut faster and easier. The teeth in these saws are set for a wider cut allowing the sawdust to kick out resulting in less binding in green wood. Bow saws are good only where no obstructions exist for a foot or more above the area to be cut (Figure 4).

Gas powered and electrical chain saws come in a variety of sizes. They are best suited for removing trees and cutting firewood, but can also be used to prune live plant material. Only professional arborists should use power saws for pruning up in trees because of safety concerns. Other tools, which are sometimes necessary, are chisels, gouges, pruning knives and mallets. These all come in handy when repairing storm damage wounds or other wounds. Care of Tools Clean and oil tools regularly, including wiping an oily cloth on blades and other metal surfaces. Keep cutting edges sharp; several passes with a good oil stone will usually suffice. Paint, varnish or regularly treat wooden handles with linseed oil. Use tools properly. Dont twist or strain pruners

or loppers. Keep the branch to be cut as deeply in the jaws and near the pivot as possible. Dont cut wires with pruning tools. Wound Dressing Much has been written about the advantages and disadvantages of using a wound dressing on large cuts. Traditionally, wound dressing or pruning paint is used only on cuts larger than an inch in diameter. However, scientists have found that wound dressings are strictly cosmetic and have little to do with preventing insect or disease damage to the wound area. Pruning paint may, in fact, slow down the healing process. In general, wound dressings are not recommended or necessary, with one exception. On oak trees in areas of Texas where the oak wilt disease is prevalent, wound dressing should be used to help prevent the bark beetle from spreading the disease through the pruned surface on a tree. Making Pruning Cuts Correctly To encourage rapid healing of wounds, make all cuts clean and smooth. This requires good, sharp pruning equipment. Do not leave stubs since they are usually where die back occurs. Avoid tearing the bark when removing large branches. The following provides some specifics on pruning techniques. Most woody plants fall into two categories based on the arrangement of the buds on the twigs and branches. In general, the bud arrangements determine the plantss typical growth habit. Buds may have an alternate or an opposite arrangement on the twigs. A plant with alternate buds usually is rounded, pyramidal, inverted pyramidal, or columnar in shape. Plants having opposite buds rarely assume any form other than that of a rounded tree or shrub with a rounded crown. The position of the last pair of buds always determines the direction in which the new shoot will grow. Buds on top of the twig probably will grow upward at an angle and to the side on which it is directed. In most instances, it is advisable to cut back each stem to a bud or branch. Selected buds that point to the outside of the plant are more desirable than buds pointing to the inside. By cutting to an outside bud, the new shoots will not grow through the interior of the plants or crisscross. When cutting back to an intersecting (lateral) branch, choose a branch that forms an angle of no more than 45 degrees with the branch to be removed (Figure 5). Also, the branch that you cut back to should have a diameter of at least half that of the branch to be removed. Make slanting cuts when removing limbs that grow upward; this prevents water from collecting in the cut and expedites healing.

To open a woody plant, prune out some of the center growth and cut back terminals to the buds that point outward. In shortening a branch or twig, cut it back to a side branch and make the cut 1/2 inch above the bud. If the cut is too close to the bud, the bud usually dies. If the cut is too far from the bud, the wood above the bud usually dies, causing dead tips on the end of the branches. When the pruning cut is made, the bud or buds nearest to the cut usually produce the new growing point. When a terminal is removed, the nearest side buds grow much more than they normally would, and the bud nearest the pruning cut becomes the new terminal. If more side branching is desired, remove the tips of all limbs. The strength and vigor of the new shoot is often directly proportioned to the amount that the stem is pruned back since the roots are not reduced. For example, if the deciduous shrub is pruned to 1 foot from the ground, the new growth will be vigorous with few flowers the first year. However, if only the tips of the old growth are removed, most of the previous branches are still there and new growth is shorter and less vigorous. Flowers will be more plentiful although smaller. Thus, if a larger number of small flowers and fruits are desired, prune lightly. If fewer but high quality blooms or fruits are wanted in succeeding years, prune extensively. Thick, Heavy Branches According to Dr. Alex Shigo, former USDA Forest Service plant pathologist, thick and heavy branches should be removed flush to the collar at the base of the branch, not flush with the trunk (Figure 6). The collar is an area of tissue containing a chemically protective zone. In the natural decay of a dead branch, when the decay advancing downward meets the internal protected zone, with an area of very strong wood meets an area of very weak wood. The branch then falls away at this point, leaving a small zone of decayed wood within the collar. The decay is walled off in the collar. This is the natural shedding process when all goes according to natures plan. When the collar is removed, the protective zone is removed, causing a serious trunk wound. Wood-decay fungi can then easily infect the trunk. If the pruned branch is living, removing the collar at the base still causes injury.

When cutting branches more than 1 1/2 inches in diameter, use a three-part cut. The first step is to saw an undercut from the bottom of the branch about 6 to 12 inches out of the trunk and about one third of the way through the branch. Make a second cut from the top, about 3 inches further from the undercut, until the branch falls away. The resulting stub can then be cut back to the collar of the branch. If there is danger of the branch damaging other limbs or objects on the ground, it should be properly roped and supported, then carefully lowered to the ground. Topping Versus Thinning All too often trees are topped (dehorned) to reduce size or to rejuvenate growth. In either case topping is not a recommended practice; in fact, some refer to it as the Texas chain saw massacre. Topping is the process whereby a tree is cut back to a few large branches. After 2 to 3 months, regrowth on a topped tree is vigorous, bushy and upright. Topping seriously affects the trees structure and appearance. The weakl y attached regrowth can break off during severe wind or rain storms. Topping may also shorten the life of a tree by making it susceptible to attack by insect and disease. Thinning is a better means of reducing the size of a tree or rejuvenating growth. In contrast to topping, thinning removes unwanted branches by cutting them back to their point of origin. Thinning conforms to the trees natural branching habit and results in a more open tree, emphasizing the branches internal structure. Thinning also strengthens the tree by forcing diameter growth of the remaining branches. Training Young Trees Young trees can be trained using pruning techniques which will help promote plant health and long life. The first pruning after trees and shrubs are purchased consists of removing broken, crossing and pest-infested branches. The traditional recommendation of pruning up to one-third of top growth when transplanting to compensate for root loss is no longer valid, according to recent research. Excessive pruning at transplanting reduces leaf area,

which decreases the amount of plant energy generated which are needed to create a healthy root system. When transplanting woody plants, the only necessary pruning is the removal of broken or damaged branches. The central leader of a tree should not be pruned unless the leader is not wanted, as is the case with some naturally low-branched trees or where multiple-stemmed plants are desired. Trees with a central leader, such as Texas red oak, sweet gum or magnolia, may need little or no pruning except to eliminate branches competing with the central leader. These competing branches should be shortened. Some pruning may be necessary to maintain desired shape and to shorten extra vigorous shoots. The height of the lowest branch can range from a few inches above the ground for screening or windbreaks, to more than 7 feet above the ground near a street or patio. Removal of lower limbs is usually done over a period of years beginning in the nursery and continuing for several years after transplanting until the desired height is reached. The concept in training a tree called the trashy trunk refers to this gradual raising of the lowest branches of a tree. Lower branches on the main trunk help create a thicker trunk more quickly. A common mistake in pruning young trees is to strip them of small branches leaving only a tuft of leaves at the top of the tree. This training is incorrect and forms a weak buggy whip trunk. Remove lower limbs when they reach 1 inch in diameter. This prevents permanent scarring of the trunk caused by removing larger limbs. Another important concept in training trees is light versus heavy cuts. This refers to the length of the branch being removed and the desired growth response of that branch. On a young, vigorously growing branch, if the terminal end is lightly cut back (less than 6 inches), then lateral branching is induced up and down the branch. On the contrary, if this branch is heavily cut back (from 6 inches to several feet), the one or two buds located just below the cut are forced and grow at a very rapid rate. The importance of this pruning concept lies in the development of bushy, wellshaped trees through light pruning and the often-desired invigorating effect of heavy cuts. For greater strength, branches selected for permanent scaffolds must have a wide angle of attachment to the trunk. Branch angles less than 30 degrees from the main trunk result in a very high percentage of breakage, while those between 60 and 70 degrees have a very low breakage rate. Vertical branch spacing and radial branch distribution are important (Figure 7). If this has not been done in the nursery, start it at transplanting.

Major scaffold branches of shade trees should be vertically spaced at least 8 inches apart and preferably 20 to 24 inches apart. Closely spaced scaffolds have fewer lateral branches resulting in long, thin branches with poor structural strength. Radial branch distribution should allow five to seven scaffolds to fill the circle of space around a trunk. Radial spacing prevents one limb from overshadowing another, which in turn reduces competition for light and nutrients. Remove or prune shoots that are too low, too close or too vigorous in relation to the leader and to selected scaffold branches. Pruning Mature Trees The home gardener should limit pruning of mature trees to smaller branches that can be reached from the ground. Leave the trimming of large branches and work off the ground to professional arborists who are skilled climbers and have proper equipment and insurance. Trees generally require less pruning than other ornamentals in the landscape but may occasionally need corrective pruning to maintain health and vigor. Mature trees are generally pruned only for sanitation, safety or to restrict size. Trees are best pruned during the dormant season. This is especially true for oaks to help prevent the spread of oak wilt. An experienced tree professional can easily distinguish between live and dead wood in winter. Winter pruning is often preferred because it is easy to visualize shaping when foliage is gone. Such work can also be done at a lower cost in winter because fewer precautions are necessary to avoid garden and flower bed damage and cleanup is easier. Repairing Tree Injury Injuries to trees that expose the wood or kill the bark may allow insects or disease organisms to enter the tree. Proper treatment protects the tree and promotes faster healing. Few trees reach maturity without receiving one or more wounds from a variety of sources. Yet trees have survived for centuries to become the oldest living creatures on earth despite wounding.

Some recent work has involved dissecting trees in an effort to understand how they compartmentalize and close an injury. Trees do not heal in the true sense of the word. Injured tree tissue is never repaired and returned to the former state as is a cut on a persons hand. Trees react by closing the wound and compartmentalizing or isolating the injured tissue from the surrounding tissue. During compartmentalization enclosure, contents from the injured cells leak onto the uninjured surface where they oxidize and form a barrier to prevent further infection. Then the most recently laid down wood is altered as is the tissue around the injury. This is accompanied by discoloration, the extent of which depends on the kind of tree, the vigor, kind of wound, location of the wound and the time of wounding. New growth rings are laid down the following spring and new tissue begins to grow over the injured tissue. Over a period of time, the new tissue closes the wound. Homeowners can help the plant compartmentalize the damage more rapidly than it does in nature. If bark has been crushed or stripped from the trunk, remove the injured bark, shape the wound. Cut away all damaged bark and remove isolated scraps from the wound area. For fastest healing, shape the edge of the wound, as nearly as possible, to an elongated ellipse. If this shape cannot be obtained, shape the top and bottom of the wounded area so they come to a point, even if the wound must be enlarged slightly. Remove all splintered wood and smooth the surface of the exposed area with a chisel. Some true injuries result in cavities or hollows within the main trunk or large branch of a tree. For many years gardeners have tried to fill these cavities with bricks, concrete and other materials in an effort to seal the cavity from rain, insects and diseases. Armed with the knowledge of the plants ability to compartmentalize any wound it is not recommended to fill tree cavities. If water does not drain easily out of the cavity, many arborists will recommend trimming the cavity opening so that water can drain out. If this is not possible, a weep hole may be drilled into the bottom of the cavity to allow water to drain freely. Other than these actions, simply keeping the cavity clean of debris and leaves is all that is recommended. For a year or more after a tree has been struck by lightning, it is often difficult to determine the extent of damage since much of the injury may be internal. Trees that seem badly damaged may live while others apparently only mildly injured may die. If the tree can be saved, remove all shattered parts and damaged limbs; then smooth and paint exposed wood. In storm-damaged trees, remove all broken branches and reshape the tree as well as possible at the particular time. Try to encourage new branch development in areas with broken branches. Broken trunks, split crotches or cracked limbs often are mended by restoring the damaged part to its original position and holding it there permanently. Consult professional arborists to install screw rods or cables in trees where this work is necessary.

Pruning Shrubs Deciduous and Flower Shrubs Pruning recommendations for most deciduous shrubs consist of thinning out, gradual renewal and rejuvenation pruning. In thinning out, a branch or twig is cut off at its point of origin from either the parent stem or ground level (Figure 8).

This pruning method results in a more open plant; it does not stimulate excessive new growth, but does allow room for growth of side branches. Considerable growth can be cut off without changing the plants natural appearance or growth habit. Plants can be maintained at a given height and width for years by thinning out. This method is best done with hand pruning shears, loppers or a saw, but not with hedge shears. Thin out the oldest and tallest stems first. In gradual renewal pruning, a few of the oldest and tallest branches are removed at or slightly above ground level on an annual basis (Figure 8). Some thinning may be necessary to shorten long branches or maintain a symmetrical shape. To rejuvenate an old, overgrown shrub, remove one-third of the oldest, tallest branches at or slightly above ground level before new growth starts. The general pruning procedure shown for crape myrtle (Figure 9), applies to many large shrubs and small tree species.

If a shrub is grown for its flowers, time the pruning to minimize disruption of blooming. Spring flowering shrubs bloom on last seasons growth and should be pruned soon after they bloom. This allows for vigorous summertime growth and results in plenty of flower buds the following year. Some examples of shrubs that bloom on last seasonss growth are: Scientific name Cercis canadensis Common name Redbud

Chaenomeles japonica Japanese quince Chionanthus virginicus Fringe Tree Forsythia spp. Lonicera spp. All forsythia species Honeysuckle

Rapheolepis indica Rhododendron spp. Rosa spp. Spiraea spp. Viburnum spp.

Indian hawthorn Azaleas and rhododendrons Some climbing and rambling rose species Early white spirea species Viburnum species

Some shrubs that bloom after spring usually do so from buds which are formed on shoots that grow the same spring. These shrubs should be pruned in later winter to promote vigorous shoot growth in spring. Examples of shrubs that bloom on current seasons growth include: Scientific name Abelia X. grandiflora Common name Glossy abelia

Buddleia davidii or B. globose Butterfly bush Hibiscus syriacus Hydrangea arborescens Hypericum spp. Lagerstroemia indica Rosa spp. Vitex agnus-castus Shrub althea Hills of Snow St. Johnsworlth Crape myrtle Most shrub rose species and varieties Chaste tree

Pruning Narrow-Leaved Evergreens Since narrow-leaved evergreens produce new growth in spring and fall and do not grow much in summer, prune the first or second week in April in warmer sections of Texas and the first or second week of May or June in cooler areas. The only exception to this rule is pines, which should be pruned before the candle growth develops in the spring. Prune evergreens according to their growth habits. Allow these plants to assume their natural shape. Pruning is a matter of cutting the branches so that a more desirable plant is attained through compact, controlled growth. This requires pruning individual stems rather than shearing. Shearing not

only ruins the natural growth habit but prevents light from penetrating into the center of the plant resulting in foliage drop. There are certain rules to follow for various types of narrow-leaved evergreens. Start pruning when evergreens are small, usually the first year after they come from the nursery. Then, if they are pruned a little each year, severe pruning is not necessary. Remove dead branches whenever they occur. New foliage from surrounding branches will fill in these gaps. The spreading forms of junipers should have the tip ends of their growth trimmed each year. This holds the plants in check and induces a compact growth habit. An example of a vigorous-growing, spreading evergreen is pfitzer juniper. It is common for this plant to grow 12 to 18 inches or more each year. To maintain the natural shape of this plant, it is necessary to cut back to growing points. It also may be necessary to cut back into the previous years wood to maintain the plants size and shape. For the narrow-leaved, upright evergreens, such as pines or junipers, little pruning is required. When pruning any narrow-leaved evergreen do not cut into bare wood behind the foliage on the tips. Since few adventitious buds are formed on older twigs, the plants may be damaged beyond repair. Do not cut the central leader of these plants except to remove a multiple leader. This may occur when the plants are young. Remove all but one of the stems, leaving the straightest and strongest. When pines are young and growing vigorously, the top growing point may outdistance the rest of the plant, resulting in an open space between the main body of the plant and the growing tip. To encourage the plant to branch and be more compact, cut the top back to a dormant bud located near the main body of the plant. If this cutting back is done when the plants are young, there is little effect on plant appearance. It is better to select a compact or dwarf form of narrow-leaved evergreen than to do a lot of pruning. Many narrow-leaved evergreens will have much of the inner foliage turn brown in the fall, which is the natural pruning process. The amount of browning may vary considerably from season to season. This is a natural shedding of older leaves and is comparable to the dropping of leaves by deciduous plants. This occurs principally on cypress and some pines. Extensive periods of hot, dry weather also contributes to the loss of leaves on narrow-leaved evergreens. Pruning Broad-Leaved Evergreens Broad-leaved evergreens such as gardenias, camellias, azaleas, pyracantha, hollies and photenias require very little pruning. Lightly thin broad-leaved evergreens grown for their showy fruit such as pyracantha and holly during the dormant season if needed for shaping. Remove old or weak stems. This group can go several years without pruning except for some slight cosmetic pruning to keep them neat. If too much wood is removed from these plants at anytime, summer or winter, the amount of fruit is reduced the following season. When these plants become old and misshaped, cut them back 6 to 8 inches from the ground before spring growth begins. Dont cut them back too early, however, because a flush of growth could

freeze and set them back. Prune only after the danger of the last killing frost is past. Such pruning stimulates the growth of new shoots from the base of the plant. Many gardeners prefer to remove only about one-third of the branches at one time and retain the general shape of the plant. This method also can be used. In the long run, probably the best thing to do with overgrown broad-leaved evergreens is to maybe remove and replace them. Pruning Hedges Hedges are a row of plants that merge into a solid linear mass. They have served gardeners for centuries as screens, fences, walls and edging. A well-shaped hedge is no accident. It must be trained from the beginning. Establishing a deciduous hedge begins with selection of nursery stock. Choose young trees or shrubs 1 to 2 feet high, preferably multiplestemmed. When planting, cut the plants back to 6 or 8 inches; this induces low branching. Late in the first season or before bud-break in the next season, prune off half of the new growth. The following year, again trim off half. In the third year, start shaping. Trim to the desired shape before the hedge grows to its desired size. Never allow plants to grow untrimmed to the final height before shearing; by that time, it is too late to get maximum branching at the base. Do not allow lower branches to be shaded out. After the hedge has reached the desired dimensions, trim closely in order to keep the hedge within chosen bounds. Evergreen nursery stock for hedging need not be as small as deciduous material and should not be cut back when planted. Trim lightly after a year or two. Start shaping as the individual plants merge into a continuous hedge. Do not trim too closely because many needle-bearing evergreens do not easily generate new growth from old wood. Hedges are often shaped with flat tops and vertical sides; however, this unnatural shape is seldom successful. As far as the plant is concerned, the best shape is a natural form, with a rounded or slightly pointed top and with sides slanting to a wide base (Figure 10).

After plants have been initially pruned to include low branching, maintain

by trimming the top narrower than the bottom so that sunlight can reach all

of the plant leaves (Figure 11). These questions often arise: How often should a hedge be trimmed? When should I trim? Answers depend to some extent on how formal an appearance is desired. In general, trim before the growth exceeds 1 foot. Hedges of slow-growing plants such as boxwood need to be trimmed sooner. Excessive untrimmed growth will kill lower leaves and will also pull the hedge out of shape. Trimming frequency depends on the kind of shrub, the season and desired neatness. What can be done with a large, overgrown, bare-bottomed and misshapen hedge? If it is deciduous, the answer is fairly simple. In spring before leaves appear, prune to 1 foot below desired height. Then carefully trim for the next few years to give it the desired shape and fullness. Occasionally, hedge plants may have declined too much to recover from this treatment, making it necessary to replace them. Rejuvenating narrow-leaved evergreen hedges is more difficult. As a rule, these evergreens cannot stand the severe pruning described above. Arborvitae and yew are exceptions. Other narrow-leaved evergreen hedges may have to be replaced. Rejuvenating broad-leaved evergreen hedges is possible by pruning the hedge back from one-half to one-third of hte hedge height just before spring growth begins. Light follow-up pruning can be done as the growing season progresses to insure the shabe and density of the hedge. Tools What tools should be used to trim hedges? The traditional pair of scissoraction hedge shears is still the best all-round tool. It cuts much better and closer than electric trimmers which often break and tear twigs. Hand shears can be used on any type of hedge, while electric trimmers do poorly on large-leaved and wiry-twigged varieties, and sometimes jam on thick twigs. Hand shears are also quieter, safer and less likely to gouge the hedge or harm the operator. Hand pruners are useful in removing a few stray branches and are essential if an informal look is desired. Large, individual branches can be removed with loppers or a pruning saw. Pruning Vines, Groundcovers

The type and severity of pruning vary with the different uses of vines. Vines left unpruned for many years generally become unattractive. They may harbor wasps and rodents, experience foliage and twig dieback, and lose their landscape effectiveness. Vines usually cover an arbor or wall. Used in these ways, they are easily pruned to give a clean, well-kept appearance for displaying foliage, flowers or fruit. Some vines, such as honeysuckle and grape, grow so fast and thick that considerable pruning may be necessary while other species need little pruning. Prune most vines in Texas during the dormant season from February to May. Prune dead, diseased or damaged vines back to healthy wood. Cut interfering and crossing branches of woody vines such as trumpet creepers or wisteria back below the point of interference or at the junction with the main stem. Prune out the top one-third of overgrown or elongated stems. Prune old mature stems that are declining in vigor by one-third or more. Each year, prune stems of trumpet creepers and wisteria to promote new growth and flowers. Prune back the top of the plant to force out new branches. Give special attention to wisteria because considerable confusion exists about pruning and flowering. Pruning wisteria extensively during dormant season encourages rampant vegetative growth the next spring. Instead, in July prune out the long, straggly growth leaving those branches needed for climbing. This is more likely to induce flowering than anything else. Cut shoots back one-third to one-half their length, which causes the production of short spurs upon which next seasons flower clusters are borne. Wisterias bloom abundantly if planted in well-drained soil and full sun, watered well the first growing season and pruned in the summer. Espalier plants are trained in patterns on a flat surface such as a fence or wall. With proper care, plants can be trained into almost any desired plant. Unless you are willing to maintain such training indefinitely, it is best not to develop such a plant. Usually, its easier to start with a trained plant purchased from a nursery. If a trained plant is not available, use a 1-year old plant. Most espaliers require pruning throughout the growing season to maintain the desired shape. In most cases, its better to have some type of a guide or wire on the wall to encourage the plant to move in that direction. Pruning groundcovers is necessary only to remove unhealthy tissue or to promote spreading. Vigorous groundcovers include honeysuckle, winter creeper, Asian jasmine,Vinca minor, Vinca major and English ivy. These groundcovers may be mowed with a rotary lawn mower or cut back to 4 to 6 inches in height every few years to keep them vigorous, neat and well manicured. The best time to do this is in the early spring after danger of frost has passed but before the new growth starts. Pruning Roses Rose plants need pruning to tidy up their appearance; control size; and improve their vigor, growing habits and bloom. Pruning methods vary according to the type of rose plant. In South and Central Texas, roses

usually are cut back more severely than in North Texas. This is due to the longer growing season, resulting in larger bushes. To keep them in bounds, spring pruning usually is more drastic. Prune about 3 to 4 weeks before the average date of the last killing frost in your area. Roses have a very low chilling requirement to break dormancy. A few weeks of cold weather in December fulfills this requirement and new growth begins the first warm spell in January or February. If pruning is done too early, the new growth begins at the base of the plant. A sudden cold spell in late February or early March can severely damage or kill the plant. If pruning is delayed, the new growth will still be in the top of the unpruned canes and only upper portions of the bush will be damaged in a late freeze. An exception to this rule involves climbing roses which need to be pruned after flowering in early spring. Probably no other aspect of growing roses has aroused as many questions as has the subject of when and how to prune roses. By following a few simple rules you can improve their appearance and vigor and control the quality and quantity of the flowers. Pruning roses dates back to the nineteenth century when rose growers began to severely prune their plants to produce larger blooms for show. Unfortunately, plant longevity was of secondary importance to these exhibitors. Some fundamental practices of pruning roses correctly in all gardens, regardless of type, are: 1) remove any canes that have been damaged by insects, diseases or storms; 2) remove one of two canes which may be rubbing one another; or 3) remove canes that are spindly or smaller in diameter than the size of a pencil. After pruning, according to these general recommendations, cut hybrid teas, florabundas, and grandifloras back to 12 inches for large flowers and 18 to 24 inches for many smaller sized flowers. Climbing roses generally are pruned to renew plant vigor by removing the old canes since the most productive and finest blooms on climbers are produced on canes that arise from the bottom of the plant the previous year. These newer canes produce more desirable growth and flowers. Since the canes may become quite long, it is necessary to prune them back so they are maintained in the desirable area. Old-fashioned or antique roses require much less pruning than modern roses. Left unpruned old fashion roses will naturally obtain a rounded shrub shape. Pruning of these roses should be confined to some shaping of the plant, removal of damaged branches, and judicious trimming back to encourage growth. On all roses, consider the cutting of the flowers as a form of pruning. When gathering rose blooms, always leave at least two sets of leaves on the branch from which you cut the flower to insure plant vigor. When removing faded, spent flowers, cut only as far as the first five-leaflet leaf. When making cuts on the ends of branches, cut at 45 degree angles above an outside bud one-half inch above the bud with the lowest point on the side opposite the bud, but not below the bud itself. When removing branches, never leave stubs since these die and can cause problems on the

plant later. Always remove branches by cutting to a lateral branch or bud, or back to the base of the rose plant. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Texas AgriLife Extension Service is implied. Educational programs of the Texas AgriLife Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion, age, or national origin. Publication Revised November 2008

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Pruning Ornamental Trees and Shrubs Christopher J. Starbuck

Division of Plant Sciences Pruning is an important practice for maintaining the health, size, form and vigor of trees and shrubs in the landscape. It can reduce transplanting stress by reducing leaf surface area to compensate for root loss during harvest from nursery fields. Pruning of trees is important during the first few seasons after planting to develop a scaffold of strong, well-spaced branches with wide angles of attachment with the trunk. Often the trees that break up in wind and ice storms are those that were never pruned to develop a good structure. Sometimes pruning can be used to slow the spread of decay or disease by removing infected tissues and allowing the plant to seal, or compartmentalize, damage. Pruning can also enhance flowering and fruiting by forcing the growth of new shoots and improving light penetration to lower leaves. Often, plants are pruned simply to keep them in bounds or prevent them from crowding other plants in the landscape. Some gardeners prune plants into interesting and unusual shapes to create interest or make use of a small space. While there are many possible reasons for pruning, it should not be done indiscriminately. Before the first cut is made, the gardener should think through the objectives for each individual plant and prune accordingly. It is a good practice to make the rounds on a property several times a year to look for developing problems that can be remedied by light pruning. It is always better to do a little pruning yearly than to do major, corrective pruning after years of neglect. Usually when a well-maintained tree grows tall enough that pruning can no longer be done from the ground with a pole saw, there is little need for routine pruning. Occasional removal of dead wood on an old, declining tree is a good practice because it can slow the spread of decay. However, contrary to popular belief, pruning cannot halt or reverse tree decline caused by old age or other stress factors. When to prune In general, the best time to prune trees and shrubs is during the dormant season. Major pruning, in which more than 15 percent of the top of a plant is removed, is best left until early spring (February or March). At this time of year, deciduous plants have no foliage so the branching structure can be clearly seen and pruning cuts will callus over quickly. By March, the risk of extremely cold temperatures is minimal, so new growth produced in response to pruning cuts is less vulnerable to freezing injury than it would be after pruning in August or September. Another problem with early fall pruning (before leaf drop) is that minerals in the leaves and stems are removed before they can be moved into stems and roots for winter storage. Similarly, extensive pruning just after a plant has finished a growth flush in spring removes minerals and carbohydrates that have been recently mobilized from the roots and the plant will have less foliage to produce carbohydrates to replenish the food reserves of the roots. Minor pruning (less than 10 percent of the plant removed) can be done at

any time of the year. Never be afraid to remove an errant branch growing toward the sidewalk or to eliminate a branch that competes with the main shoot (leader) or forms a narrow branch angle. Evergreen and newly planted deciduous shrubs often benefit from pruning of tips several times during the growing season to increase branching. For some plants, the time of flowering determines the best time to prune. Pruning a plant that blooms in March or April during the dormant season will remove flower buds and may lead to a poor bloom display. Pruning just after bloom will allow enjoyment of the flowers and provide plenty of time for flower buds to form for the next springs bloom. However, plants that bloom in the summer or fall on current seasons growth can be pruned hard in February or March and still bloom well. In many cases, cutting back summer-flowering plants in spring actually enhances the bloom display. Pruning tools Using the proper tools for pruning makes the work easier and prevents unnecessary damage to the plants being pruned. There is a confusing array of pruning tools available, but the choice of tools is simplified by keeping a few principles in mind. First, the pruning implement should make a cut with smooth edges and should not crush the stem that remains after the cut. Second, the tool should cut efficiently and should not require undue effort on the part of the pruner. Third, the tool should be durable, with cutting edges that can be resharpened or replaced when worn out. Inexpensive tools fail at least one of these selection criteria. Purchasing a high-quality pruning tool is a good investment if one intends to do a significant amount of pruning. A good pair of hand shears is a must for the serious gardener. The two basic types of hand shears are anvil and bypass pruners. Anvil pruners cut by squeezing the stem between a flat surface and a sharpened blade. In some cases, especially when the blade is dull, this action can result in stem damage from crushing. Bypass pruners cut with a slicing action, like scissors, and generally make a more precise cut than anvil pruners. For branches larger than about 1/2 inch in diameter, lopping shears are required. These are similar in design to hand shears but have long handles and a sturdier build. When purchasing lopping shears, consider the maximum diameter of cut that you are likely to make and buy a tool that is sturdy enough to do the job but not so heavy that it will cause fatigue before the work is done. Cutting branches larger than 1-1/2 inches in diameter is best done with a saw. Pruning saws differ from those used by carpenters in that the teeth slant toward the handle so that cutting occurs on the pull stroke. Often the blades are curved and narrower at the tip than at the base. These features allow the saw to be used in tight spaces and make it easier to control the cut. A blade with seven to eight teeth per inch will cut tree and shrub branches efficiently with a fairly smooth edge to the cut.

As the landscape begins to mature, a pole pruner may be a good investment. This tool usually has a saw attached to the end of a 10- to 20foot extendable pole and allows the user to correct developing problems without the use of a ladder. Pruning from a ladder with hand shears, loppers or saws is dangerous. Pole pruners often are fitted with bypass shears that can be operated by a pull cord to make small cuts. This is useful for removing or heading back branches that show potential to compete with the central leader for apical dominance. Since pruning tools can be expensive, they should be given routine maintenance. Clean sap and resin from the blades with alcohol and sharpen the blades as needed. Always dry the tool before storing to prevent rust, and oil the moving parts to prevent binding. Keep in mind that improper sharpening can quickly make a tool useless. For example, the blade on a bypass pruner is beveled on one side only. Beveling the flat side will make the tool nonfunctional. If one does not know the proper way to sharpen a tool, it is best to use a sharpening service that specializes in knives, scissors and saws. Also, avoid the temptation to use a tool on branches larger than it is designed to cut. This can spring the blade and make the tool ineffective. Anvil type hand shears and scissors type hand shears.

Lopping shears.

Pruning

saw.

Hedge

shears.

As a general rule, it is best not to remove more than about 25 percent of the top of a plant in a single pruning. General pruning approach A gardener should always have objectives in mind when pruning an individual plant. First, visualize the natural form of the plant to be pruned, based on references and personal experience. It can be frustrating to try to force a plant with a naturally multistemmed habit to grow in a tree form. With the natural form in mind, envision the types of cuts that might be made to encourage the plant to grow in an aesthetically pleasing way into the space provided for it. This may involve thinning out crowded branches and cutting back long shoots that are out of bounds. Sometimes the best approach will be to cut some or all of the shoots back to near the ground to force new, vigorous growth. Once the general approach has been decided, it is helpful to go through a mental checklist to make pruning decisions a little easier. Walk around the plant to view it from all sides. First, remove unwanted sprouts (suckers) growing from the base of the plant. In general, rank-growing, vertical shoots (sometimes called water sprouts) arising from the ground or from horizontal branches serve no good purpose. These should be removed or cut back to lateral buds or branches. Next, look for branches that are broken, crossing or rubbing each other and correct these problems. Finally, remove branches that are growing inward, toward the center of the plant. Once these steps have been taken, little if any additional pruning may be necessary. Keep in mind that excessive pruning can lead to unmanageable growth. Types of pruning cuts The two main types of cuts made during a pruning operation are thinning cuts and heading cuts. In most cases, both thinning and heading are used to encourage reasonably vigorous growth in the right directions. Thinning cuts remove entire branches back to the trunk, to main branches or to the ground. This opens a plant up to allow better light penetration and air circulation, while maintaining the overall form. Heading cuts remove branch tips back to lateral buds or small side branches. Generally, two to four new branches arise from the buds or branches just below the heading cut, increasing branch density (Figure 1). Often, when thinning cuts are made, the remaining branches will respond by growing long and leggy. Heading some branches after thinning will often reduce this legginess. Also, when some upper branches show the potential to compete with the terminal leader for dominance, heading them back will encourage the development of a strong leader.

Figure 1 By midsummer, four branches have developed on this crabapple shoot just below a heading cut made in March.

Making the proper cuts When removing or heading back a branch, the cut should be as smooth as possible and no stub should be left. When heading, cut back to about 1/4 inch above a healthy bud facing away from the center of the plant. Cutting too close to the bud may cause it to dry out and die. A stub longer than 1/2 inch left above a bud will usually die and decay. When cutting back to a side branch, try to select a branch that is at least half the diameter of the main branch and is attached at an angle of less than 45 degrees to the branch being cut. Cut with a smooth motion and do not twist the shears. When it is necessary to remove a branch larger than 2 inches in diameter with a pruning saw, it is important to avoid stripping bark below the point of branch attachment with the trunk. This can be achieved by using the three-cut removal method. The first cut is made a few inches away from the trunk, partially through the branch, from the underside. The second cut is made through the branch, a few inches farther away from the trunk, starting from the upper side. This removes the weight of the branch, allowing the third cut to remove the stub with no danger of bark stripping. Research has shown that branches cut flush with the trunk take longer to cover and compartmentalize pruning wounds than those cut at an angle to preserve the branch collar as shown in Figure 2. Tree experts generally agree that pruning paints have no beneficial effect and in some cases can actually interfere with natural wound covering and compartmentalization by the tree.

Figure Pruning branch

2 the collar encourages formation of a callus that seals the wound and protects the tree. at

Pruning for specific plant types and situations Branching habit of some common tree species Excurrent central leader

Bald cypress Blackgum Junipers Lindens Pines Pin oak Spruces Sycamore Sweetgum Tulip poplar

Decurrent spreading habit due to multiple, nonvertical, codominant branches

Ash Elm Cherry Hackberry Honey locust Maple Redbud Yellowwood

Shade trees It is important to prune newly planted trees annually for the first few years to develop a branch structure that will withstand wind and ice storms as the tree matures (Figure 3). Keep in mind, however, that different species have differing natural forms (see box). Some species, such as bald cypress, have an excurrent growth habit, retaining a strong central leader even at

maturity (Figure 4). Other trees have a decurrent habit, in which a number of main branches develop, leading to a more spreading form (Figure 5). When pruning a new tree, try to envision its ideal structure in 20 years and remove branches that detract from that structure. In general, decurrent species require more attention, since they have a tendency to develop codominant or competing leaders (Figure 6). Often these species have an opposite bud arrangement, and maintaining a central leader may require removing one of the paired buds at the tip of the leader each year. Training a new tree should be done over a period of years. Do not remove lower branches higher than one-third of a trees height. It may take several years before the lowermost main branch can be established. If, for example, 7 feet of clearance is required for a tree near a sidewalk, the tree may be 20 feet tall before the lowermost scaffold branch can be selected. The ideal scaffold branch spacing and distribution will depend somewhat on the ultimate size of the tree. The vertical distance between branches should be about 5 percent of the ultimate height of a tree. So for a 40-foot tree, there should be about 2 feet between branches. Branches should be arranged spirally, so that no branch is directly above another (Figure 7). So, if there are six main branches spiraling up a tree, each one might make about a 105-degree angle with the one below it, when viewed from the underside. Try to select scaffold branches that form an angle of at least 40 degrees with the main trunk. Upright-growing branches with narrow angles of attachment to the trunk tend to be structurally weak. In some cases, it may not be necessary to remove an entire branch. Heading can be used to keep a branch small in relation to other branches, encouraging other branches to develop in the desired directions. This may be preferable to removing a branch on a neglected tree when doing so would violate the 25 percent rule of thumb. Unfortunately, trees are often planted in places where they do not have room to reach their mature heights. Sometimes, such as when trees interfere with power lines, removal is the best option. It may, however, be possible to reduce the height of a tree while maintaining its health and visual appeal. Topping, a common approach in which tops of trees are cut indiscriminately to stubs, has many negative effects on tree health and appearance. This approach starves the roots of carbohydrates and causes proliferation of many poorly attached shoots that break off during storms. A better approach is to cut back some of the tallest branches to the points where they attach with large-diameter secondary branches. This approach can reduce the height of a tree significantly without weakening it and ruining its visual appeal

Figure 3 Newly planted trees should be pruned annually for the first few years. A tree pruned annually (bottom) will have a more pleasing shape and be more resistant to storm damage than a similar tree that is not pruned (top). Remove basal suckers, poorly placed branches, and branches with narrow angles with the trunk. Remove lower ranches gradually, never limbing up more than one-third of the way up the trunk in any given year.

Figure 4 Species with an excurrent growth habit, such as bald cypress (left) and littleleaf linden (right) have a strong central stem, or leader.

Figure 5 The decurrent branching habit development of many main branches of equal size gives Shantung maple (shown here) its spreading form.

Figure 6 Decurrent-branching species such as yellowwood (shown here) tend to develop codominant or competing leaders.

Figure 7 Scaffold branches should have good vertical as well as radial spacing.

Narrow-leaved (coniferous) evergreens, shrubs Junipers and yews are the most commonly planted of the narrow-leaved evergreens. Although some dwarf forms are available, most cultivars require some annual pruning to control size, shape and density. More compact plants result when long branches are pruned back to their junction at a lateral branch during early spring. Cuts should be made back in so that new growth will soon cover exposed stubs (see Figure 8). Green foliage must remain on any branches of junipers that are cut back. They seldom are able to develop new growth from bare stubs. Yews can be cut back more severely and are often able to survive a 50 percent size reduction. Vigorously growing yews may need a second light pruning later in the summer to remove long shoots that have developed. Severe pruning to either of these types of plants should be done in April, although light pruning may be done at any time of year. Arborvitae, as well as juniper, develops a dead zone in the center of the plant. When pruning is done either on the tip or the sides, cuts should not be made into the dead zone. Any severe pruning of these plants should be done in March or April. Overgrown arborvitae cannot be pruned back more than 20 percent. Pyramidal junipers may be reduced in height by about 20 percent (see Figure 9) but should not be cut into the dead zone. A new leader cannot develop on plants that have been cut back too far. Mugho pines may be pruned in the spring when the new shoots, which look like candles, develop. When the candle has extended almost to its full length, but before the needles are fully developed, remove about half the length of the candle (see Figure 10). This will promote compactness of the plant. This method may be used on other pines as well. For many years, shearing evergreen shrubs has been popular. However, sheared plants produce a formality not suitable for modern, natural landscapes. The shearing process often aids in spreading disease and other plant problems. Once a plant has been sheared, it is almost impossible to restore its natural form. It is, therefore, best to reserve shearing for hedge

plants. Figure 8 Prune evergreen shrubs so that new growth covers stubs.

Figure 9 Pyramidal junipers may be shortened by 20 percent, but do not cut into the dead zone (at left shown in black).

Figure 10 Trim mugho pine candles by half to promote compactness.

Narrow-leaved (coniferous) evergreens, evergreen trees The narrow-leaved evergreen trees in Missouri are mainly pines and spruce. Fir, hemlock and Douglas fir are also sometimes planted. All the tree forms of these plants grow quite large under good conditions. If planted where they have adequate space for growth, they are seldom

pruned. When pruning is necessary, it is done in early summer with the removal of half of the terminal candle (see Figure 11). For extra bushiness, terminals of lateral branches may be removed as shown. Terminal buds of evergreen trees are easily damaged. If more than one shoot develops from a damaged tip, only the strongest shoot should be left to develop into a new terminal. When the entire terminal dies or is removed, a new leader can be developed by tying up a lateral branch where the original terminal had been (see Figure 12). New growth on lateral (side) branches may be cut slightly shorter than that on the leader. Evergreen trees will not recover well if cut back severely. Where severe pruning is necessary, spruce will recover from cuts back as far as two-year-old wood. Firs can be cut back as far as three- or four-yearold wood. However, if sited correctly, pines, spruce, fir and hemlock trees should require little or no pruning. Figure 11 Prune evergreen trees by removing half of new growth.

Figure Training

new

12 leader.

Broad-leaved evergreens In Missouri, most broad-leaved evergreens do not grow rapidly and

generally require little pruning. Any dead or diseased parts should be removed promptly. Rhododendrons may occasionally need some light pruning. It is important to remove flower stems as soon as flowering is finished (see Figure 13). Carefully cut or pinch out the flower head, leaving the small developing buds at the base of the flower (Figure 14). Failure to do this promptly can reduce flowering the following year (Figure 15). Both azaleas and rhododendrons should be pruned after flowering. Never cut into areas of bare stems or sparse foliage. These shrubs will sprout poorly or not at all. When a fairly severe pruning is required, no more than one-third of the branches should be cut back in a single season. In three years, the pruning will be complete. Mahonia and similar plants may develop old shoots with bare stems. These may be removed at ground level and the stumps will produce new growth. American holly will stand heavy pruning. Most people prefer to prune at Christmas time when the branches can be used indoors. Japanese hollies seldom require much pruning in Missouri. Figure 13 Remove rhododendron flower stems as soon as flowering ends.

Figure 14 Shoots develop from buds just below where the flower cluster was pruned off after bloom. These shoots will produce new flower buds by the end of the season.

Figure 15 Removal of flower heads after blooming promotes better flowering in the next season.

Deciduous shrubs The majority of plants used in Missouri landscapes are deciduous. Deciduous shrubs are generally divided into two groups species that produce their flowers early in the spring and those that bloom in summer or fall. Spring-flowering shrubs include such popular plants as forsythia, deutzia, lilac, viburnum, mock-orange and spirea. Flowers are produced on these shrubs from buds formed the previous summer or fall. If these shrubs are pruned before they bloom, many of the flower buds will be removed, reducing the flowering display for that season. To ensure maximum flowering, these shrubs should be pruned as soon as possible after blooming is completed. Wounds heal quickly at that time and dead wood can be easily seen. For easiest pruning, first, with pruning shears remove all weak growth and dead, diseased, split or crossed branches. The form and shape of the shrub can be most easily maintained by starting at the top of the shrub and working down. Next, use the loppers or a pruning saw to remove as many of the oldest canes as necessary at ground level. The previous pruning was necessary to determine which branches could be removed without appreciably changing the overall form or shape of the shrub. One-third to one-fourth of the stems should be removed annually so that the shrub is completely renewed every three to four years. This technique promotes vigorous growth, which forms strong flower buds. Plants such as pyracantha and Japanese quince produce flowers and berries on branches more than one year old. For this reason, these plants should never be pruned excessively at one time (Figure 16). Summer- and fall-blooming shrubs include such plants as abelia, beautyberry, butterfly bush, rose of Sharon, crapemyrtle and summersweet. Most of these plants flower on wood that is produced during the current growing season. These plants should be pruned at any time before new growth begins in spring. The method of pruning is similar to that described for spring-flowering shrubs. A few, such as butterfly bush and

beautyberry, are often cut back completely to the ground level in spring. In northern Missouri, crapemyrtles often die back during the winter. They should be pruned back to the highest point where green shoots are arising after growth is evident in April or May. Figure 16 When pruning a large deciduous, flowering shrub such as this Sarcoxie viburnum, the objectives should be to improve light penetration to the center of the plant, to keep the plant within its bounds and to preserve its natural form. This usually involves both heading and thinning cuts (dashed lines indicate pruned branches). A. Start at the top by reducing the lengths of outlying branches, cutting back to laterals or strong, outward-facing buds.

B. Then cut a few of the crowded, interior branches back to the main branches.

C. The finished product will have a pleasing shape and will produce a showier bloom display than if it had been left unpruned.

Roses Popular roses such as the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, hybrid perpetuals and polyanthas should be pruned in early spring as the buds are swelling but before growth has started. Remove all dead wood by cutting at least an inch below the dead area. In some cases, entire canes may be winterkilled and should be removed. Vigorous plants that have not been killed back should be pruned to between 18 and 24 inches. Remove all weak, thin wood at the base and select three to five strong canes (Figure 17). Vigorous canes should be cut to a large, strong bud preferably facing outward. Shrub roses that flower only in spring should be pruned after they have flowered. Generally, this consists of removing old canes, dead wood and dead flowers. They should be allowed to develop in their natural shape. Fall pruning of hybrid tea roses should consist of removing some of the top, brushy growth. This will reduce the tendency for the bush to be torn loose during the winter by high or persistent winds.

Climbing roses may require two types of pruning. Those climbing roses that are derived from hybrid tea varieties such as climbing Peace or climbing Crimson Glory should not be pruned heavily, and only dead wood, weak wood and bloomed-out flower stems should be removed back to a vigorous bud (Figure 18). Occasionally, old canes may be removed. The vigorous climbers known as ramblers that flower in the spring only may be pruned after flowering. Remove old, woody canes that have finished flowering at ground level (Figure 19). Allow new canes to remain and head back those that become too large. New canes trained in a somewhat horizontal position generally flower more heavily than those allowed to grow in a vertical position. Figure 17 Pruning hybrid teas, floribunda, or grandiflora roses.

Figure 18 Prune repeat blooming climbers while dormant.

Figure 19 Prune vigorous climbers and ramblers after flowering.

Hedges

A hedge must be pruned regularly to remain attractive. Most hedges need trimming at least twice a year, but some need as many as three and four trimmings a year. A dense hedge must be developed slowly. Never try to make a hedge reach the desired height in a single season or it will be thin and open at the base. Plants such as privet or barberry need severe pruning immediately after planting and at the beginning of the second year to make them bushy. To develop a hedge that is well filled at the base, always trim so that the base is wider than the top (see Figure 20). If the top is allowed to become wider than the base, the base will become thin and open as lower branches are shaded out (Figure 21). Figure 20 Maintain hedges wider at the base than at the top.

Figure 21 Hedges allowed to become wider at the top become thin and open.

Unusual forms In some situations, it may be necessary or desirable to prune trees or shrubs into unusual forms to meet landscape needs. Certain plants like boxwoods, Sargent juniper and hornbeams are easily pruned into interesting shapes (Fgure 22). This method of pruning can add flair to the landscape but requires considerable time and labor to maintain. Espalier is a form of pruning in which a plant is trained to grow in one plane (Figure 23). This technique is sometimes used to grow fruit in a

landscape where space is limited. It is also useful, however, to create interest in the garden by contrasting flowering trees and shrubs against a wall. Plants like crabapple, flowering quince and some magnolias lend themselves to this method. Plants are usually pruned so that branches can be attached to trellis wires along a fence or next to a wall. Another advantage of this approach is that it can allow marginally hardy plants to be grown in a protected microclimate. Figure 22 Boxwoods, Sargent juniper and hornbeams are easily pruned into interesting shapes.

Figure 23 Espalier pruning can be used to train plants to grow along a fence or next to a wall.

DIY: Pruning Fruit Trees in Winter by Michelle Slatalla

I know you don't want to think about thisit's cold outside, after allbut now would be a good time to start pruning your fruit trees. They're dormant. They're waiting. You might as well bundle up and get it over with.

What are we trying to accomplish here, you may grumble. Well, since you asked, pruning will shape a tree into something beautiful with a structure that has integrity to better withstand the effects of wind, snow, and other weather conditions that damage branches. And by removing dead or diseased wood, you will make a tree healthier. Don't forget your gloves, by the way.

Above: Tools of the trade: use loppers and a pruning knife or saw (for thicker branches). For years, I've used a pair of Swiss made Felco 22 Loppers similar to the ones pictured above. Capable of easily cutting branches with a diameter of up to 1.8 inches, a pair of loppers is $170.04 from Felco Store. Photograph via The Little Ragamuffin.

Above: The first step is to get rid of the clutter. Suckers are thin branches that sprout haphazardly from a trunk or larger support branches; they make a tree look like it has a Sideshow Bob haircut. Use loppers to remove them at their base. Photograph via The Little Ragamuffin.

Above: Remove water sprouts, common on many varieties of fruit trees, by clipping them off close to the trunk. Photograph by Menudujour via Flickr.

Above: Prune older trees first and wait until winter is nearly over before you prune younger, more fragile trees. The harder you prune a tree, the less fruit it will produce next season. Prune older trees lightly and reserve your greater enthusiasm for shaping younger, more malleable trees. Photograph via Eat Well Farm.

Above: There are two general shaping techniques: creating a central leader system and or an open center system. For step-by-step instructions for both, see Happy Gardens.

Above: You can prune older, thicker pear and apple tree branches with a pruning knife or saw, as at Organic Garden in Ryton, UK. In my garden, I use an all-purpose Silky New Mebae Pruning Saw with a wooden handle and sheath, available for $50.90 from Hida Tools. Photograph by Charles Budd via Flickr. (N.B.: Looking for a pruning knife? See "5 Favorites: The Best Pruning Knives."

Above: A well-pruned apple tree via Barbolian.

The architectural beauty of your dormant espaliers is pleasing to see through a windowpane, as you sit cozy and warm. Now get your pruners, and meet us outside.

Yes, we are aware it looks cold out there. You will however thank us, come spring, when your beautifully trained pear trees and trellised vines reward you with well-behaved bursts of buds. The French, those lovers of symmetry and manicured grass and distant vistas in the garden, may have perfected the art of pruning plants against flat planes. But the rest of us can catch up to the 17th-century excesses of Le Potager du Roi with a few snips, to judiciously shape the palmette verrier ahead of its new spring shoots. This, like most any chore in the garden, is far easier to accomplish than the results will imply.

Above: A fruit tree resembles a classic Parisian goblet, from the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden's archives, via The Lovely Plants.

Above: Some motivation: the well-tended gardens of Rod Manor, an 18th-century estate in southeastern Norway, where vines are trained on a trellis, via Beyer.

Above: Apple trees domed to form a sheltering arbor, via My Rubber Boots.

Above: To achieve similar results, focus on the plant's silhouette as you remove stray branches, using an angled pruning cut, via Chris Priestley. An excellent source for obtaining inspirationor an actual espalier by post or freight, for that matteris Henry Leuthardt Nurseries. (N.B.: Looking for a pruning knife? See "5 Favorites: The Best of the Pruning Knife."

Above: A beloved tree, known simply as Our Pear, has been growing since the 1940s at The Cloisters in Manhattan, via The Lovely Plants.

Above: In the fruit garden of an 18th century castle in Ireland, a collection of 30 old varieties of apple trees are trained along a fence on wires, via Ardgillan Castle.

Above: Velcro straps via Garden Amateur help the modern gardener to achieve similar results; remember to loosen them as the plant grows.

Above: A serpentine pattern creates a charming heart shape, via Simple Garden Art. And now, back inside where it's warm; you've earned your tea. EXPLORE MORE: Issue 6: The French Connection, Plants & Seeds, Outdoor & Gardens, Design News, Exclusive, Garden Visit http://gardenamateur.blogspot.ro/2008

our Guide to Pruning

Your Guide to Pruning Pruning isessential to growing and maintaining healthy shrubs. Done correctly, it can help control the size of a shrub, encourage new growth, revitalize old shrubs, influence flowering or fruiting and maintain the plants overall health and appearance. Pruning Cuts

There are three major types of pruning cuts: thinning, heading back and rejuvenation. Thinning is the most common and best way to renew a shrub. This technique seeks to preserve the plants overall shape and is particularly useful for those shrubs that sucker from their base. To thin, use loppers or a pruning saw to remove interior branches back to the plants base or point of origin. Make sure to remove only 1/3 of the largest branches at one time. Heading back is a great pruning technique if you wish to reduce your shrubs height. Simply remove each branch back to a larger branch or bud making sure not to leave any stubs. Near bud cuts should be made on an angle within a 1/4 inch above the bud (see image).

If your shrubs are overgrown, leggy or sucker readily from the base, consider rejuvenation pruning. Cut the entire shrub back to a height or four to ten inches above the ground when the shrubs are dormant. Some shrubs that tolerate this technique well are butterfly bush, Annabelle hydrangea, potentilla and Japanese spirea. Regardless of the pruning technique, make sure to disinfect your pruning tools with alcohol or a 10% bleach solution after each cut to avoid spreading diseases.

 When to Prune Shrubs should be pruned at different times depending on whether they are spring or summer flowering. Spring-flowering shrubs, or those that produce buds once a year on wood produced the preceding summer, should be pruned AFTER they have flowered in the spring, but BEFORE next years flower buds are set. Note, if you prune these too early, you will remove many of the spring buds. Summer-flowering shrubs, or those that produce buds on new growth in the spring, should be pruned either when they are dormant or in early spring before the buds appear.
Common Spring-flowering shrubs lilacs, forsythia, viburnums, honeysuckle, chokeberry, mock orange, weigela Common Summer-flowering shrubs hydrangeas, roses, Japanese spirea, rose-of-Sharon, potentillas, smoke bush

Failure to prune these early enough may result in the loss of flower buds. Here are pruning suggestions for several common shrubs:
Shrub Cotoneaster Dogwoods Euonymus Forsythia Honeysuckle Lilac Mockorange Potentilla, Sprireas Viburnums Pruning Suggestions Cut old or diseased wood at ground level. Cut old and discolored canes at ground level. Reshape when needed by cutting most vigorous branches. Grows with one trunk like a tree, so do not prune at ground level. Cut out three-year old wood to base just after flowers have faded. Renewal prune to promote new growth at base. Cut entire plant to ground during dormant season. Remove old flower parts after it blooms. Renewal prune when needed. Renewal prune when needed. Cut back entire plant halfway to the ground and selectively remove old canes at ground level. Some grow slowly and need little pruning. When needed, remove old wood to ground level.

Pruning Tools There are two main types of pruning tools: hand pruners and loppers. Loppers are essentially hand pruners with longer handles for added reach and leverage. They are ideal for larger projects because they can reduce some of the strain on your wrists. Both hand pruners and loppers can be further divided into three sub-types: anvil, bypass and ratchet. See the following chart for details.
Features and Uses

Anvil

Features a cutting blade that cuts down on a stationary anvil. Sturdy and ideal for removing tough, dead wood.

Bypass

Features two blades that bypass each other similar to a scissors. Makes nice, clean cuts on all wood types.

Ratchet

Anvil pruners with a ratchet mechanism. Offer additional leverage to ease the strain of larger pruning projects.

When purchasing a pruning tool be sure to consider the type of pruning you intend to do as well your personal preferences. Whether you are shopping for a pruner or a lopper, make sure to hold the tool to see how it feels in your hands in terms of weight and size. If you plan on doing a limited amount of pruning and this is your first pruner purchase, we recommend a bypass pruner or lopper. For larger, more difficult projects consider a ratchet pruner or lopper. If your pruning project is too big for a lopper, you will need to use a saw. Pruning saws are specifically designed to cut live and dead wood. You can also do light pruning with folding or sliding saws. Heres a closer look at several types of pruning saws: Tree Saws: Features a twelve to sixteen-inch blade with a D-shaped handle. It cuts on the pull stroke and clears debris on the push stroke.

Pole Pruning Saw: A telescoping pruning saw that reaches up and cuts right through limbs with its saw blade. Bow Saw: A metal-framed saw in the shape of a bow with a coarse, wide blade. Use to cross-cut branches down to size after they have been pruned. Pole Tree Pruners: A pruner and saw blade attached to a twelve to fourteen foot lightweight fiberglass telescoping pole that is raised up and down with a rope and pulley system.
- See more at: http://www.steingg.com/pruningguide.asp#sthash.ps7Yk6Aa.dpuf

PLSC 210: Chapter 14

http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/chiwonlee/plsc210/topics/ch ap1-intro/intro.htm

TRAINING AND PRUNING

I. TERMINOLOGY Training - control of the shape, size and direction of plant growth Orientation of the plant in space Pruning - Judicious removal of plant parts Controls shape, size, fruit load II. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES A. Altered Relationship of Plant Parts

B. Pruning and Flowering Severe Shoot Pruning more vegetative Root Pruning encourages flowering (more productive) C/N Ratios Shoot Pruning lowers C/N ratio (vegetative) Root Pruning increases C/N ratio (flowers) C. Auxin Imbalance Apical dominance - Influence of apical bud in inhibiting bud break below Central leader - continued apical dominance

Water sprouts - strong apical dominance (very high in Auxin level)

Branch Angle - Controlled by Auxin produced in apical buds - Wide angle branches below auxin-producing apex - Narrow angle branches after apex removal III. PRUNING TECHNIQUES A. Heading Back and Thinning Out Heading back - cutting back the terminal portion of branch to a bud Thinning out - complete removal of a branch to a lateral or main trunk

B. Herbaceous

Pinching - Heading back actively growing shoot tips Deshooting - Thinning out of growing woody shoots

C. Timing of Pruning (i.e. fruit trees) Dormant Pruning - Winter pruning - Generally done after peak cold period is past - plant framework readily visible when defoliated - minimum loss of translocated foods Summer Pruning - made on new growth - can avoid structural faults before growth is wasted - removes diseased branches in time IV. OBJECTIVES OF PRUNING A. To Control Size Mowing grasses, clipping hedges, pruning shrubs Pruning fruit trees - more manageable for harvesting and spraying i.e. Apple - Dwarfing by graft (Malling #9) Hedging densely planted trees Removal of buds, flowers, fruit = thinning to increase size of remaining fruits (grapes, apple) Disbudding - remaining buds produce large flowers B. To Control Form - wide-angle branching is desirable (for fruit load, minimizes wind damage)

- scaffold branches evenly spaced and oriented (for maximum light entry, disease control, spraying) - pruning for mechanical harvesting (grapes, apple, jojoba, etc.) C. To Enhance Performance - Root and shoot pruning to reduce transplanting shock

- Pinching to time flower production (timing rose for Valentine's Day market) - Pruning to increase flower and fruit yield (Rose, peach, apple) V. TRAINING SYSTEMS A. Branch Orientation and Leader Training - Trained best in the formative years (young age) vs. Espalier (shoulder or on one plane) flat (grapes)

Natural shape round

vs. Open-center (vase system) central axis and lateral no central leader branches lateral branches diagonally grow out

Central leader

Modified Leader System - Intermediate between central leader and opencenter systems Example: pear, apple B. Geometry and Planting Systems Free standing, off-set, spindle bush, bed, 2 wire trails, palmate, oblique, pillar, etc. (p.419) C. Renewal Pruning - Depends on species

- Rose - flower on current growth (severe dormant pruning) - Brambles - fruits on one-year-old canes (apples, pear) - Grapes - fruits on current growth of buds developed in previous season (use of Geneva Double Curtain System)

I. DEFINITION
1. Horticulture = hortus (garden) + colere (culture)

derived from the Latin words, perhaps first used in the 17th century. It involves the art and science of growing so-called garden crops such as flowers, vegetables, fruits, herbs, trees. The modern horticulture integrates many natural phenomena with advanced technology and practices the art of gardening and decoration. 2. Agriculture = Technology of raising plants and animals Animal agriculture Animal science Dairy science Veterinary science Plant agriculture Agronomy...field crops mainly grains and forages Horticulture...so-called garden crops Forestry...forest trees and products

3. Disciplines within Horticulture

Olericulture: culture of vegetables crops Pomology: culture of fruit crops Floriculture: production of flowers Environmental Horticulture: culture of plants to enhance our surroundings Nursery crops (trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous landscape plant Arboriculture (culture of trees and shrubs) Landscape horticulture (care of plants in the landscape) Turfgrass management (care of lawns and grasses) Landscape Architecture: planning and design of outdoor space for beautification

II. ROLE OF HORTICULTURE 1. Contribution to human health 2. Emotional fulfillment

3. Environmental enhancement

III. HORTICULTURAL CROPS 1. Food Crops

a. Vegetables

Grown for fruits or seeds (beans, peas, squash, melons, tomato, eggplant, pepper) Grown for vegetative parts Stems, leaves, flower parts (cabbage, broccoli, spinach, lettuce cauliflower) Roots, bulbs, tubers (beet, carrot, potato, sweet potato, taro, onion) b. Fruits Deciduous Herbaceous (strawberry) Shrubs (blueberries, raspberries, blackberries) Vines (grapes, kiwifruit) Trees: Pome fruits (apple, pear, quince) Stone fruits (peach, plum, cherry, apricot) Nuts (pecan, filbert, walnut, almond) Evergreens Herbaceous (pineapple, banana) Shrubs (tea pomegranate) Trees (citrus, avocado, guava, mango, coffee, cacao)

2. Ornamental Plants
a. Floricultural crops Cut flowers (roses, chrysanthemum, carnation, alstroemeria) Flowering pot plants (geranium, azalea, Easter lily, gloxinia Foliage plants (philodendron, dracaena, ficus, aglaonema) Bedding plants (impatiens, petunia, marigold, zinnia, pansy) b. Landscape plants Woody plants Trees Deciduous (oaks, elms, maples, larch, birch, willow, ash) Evergreen (pine, juniper, spruce) Shrubs Deciduous (lilac, spirea, viburnum, dogwood, euonymus) Evergreen (juniper, mugo pine) Vines (clematis, wisteria, bougainvillea, ivy) Ground covers (periwinkle, juniper, ivy, lantana) Herbaceous plants

Perennials (peony, delphinium, chrysanthemum, columbine) Annuals (bedding plants) c. Turfgrass Kentucky bluegrass, Bermuda grass, etc.

3. Industrial Crops
a. Herbs and spices (rosemary, tarragon, cloves, basil, black pepper) b. Medicinal and drug plants (opium poppy, digitalis, reserpine, quinine) c. Insecticides (pyrethrum, rotenone) d. Rubber (guayule, hevea) e. Oil (oil palm, tung, olive, jojoba, sunflower) f. Gums (acacia, gua) g. Fiber (hemp, manila hemp, sisal)

III. WHAT HORTICULTURISTS DO 1. Plant Improvement

Breeding of horticultural crops for better quality and higher yields.

2. Plant Propagation
Seed propagation Vegetative propagation Tissue culture propagation

3. Crop Production
Field production Greenhouse production

4. Plant Protection
Disease control Insect control

5. Plant Utilization
Food technology Sales and marketing

6. Landscaping
Design, construction, maintenance

IV. KINDS OF ORGANIZATIONS HORTICULTURISTS WORK IN 1. Public Service

Research Universities and experiment stations, government research agencies such as USDA, botanic gardens, arboretums

Education Teaching in high schools, vocational schools, colleges and universities Extension adult education in the state and federal cooperative extension service Educational programs in public horticulture, botanical gardens, arboretums, etc.

Service and regulatory agencies Plant inspection and quarantine services Product grading services Statistical reporting services Park and recreation facilities State and local governments

2. Private Enterprises
Crop production Fruit and vegetable farms Nurseries Turfgrass farms Greenhouses

Plant breeding Vegetable, fruit, flower and grass breeding companies

Propagation

Nursery and greenhouse crop propagators

3. Processing and Marketing Enterprises

Fruit and vegetable shippers, wholesalers, and retailers Flower and foliage plant distributors and merchandisers Nursery stock distributors, retail nurseries and garden centers Canners, freezers, dehydrators, winery

4. Service Enterprises
Landscape designers Landscape construction Landscape maintenance Technical consultants Golf courses and athletic fields Transportation companies

5. Suppliers
Seed and plant supply companies Fertilizer and growing media companies Pesticide and chemical companies Equipment manufacturers and distributors Supplies manufacturers and distributors

6. Your Own Business

Research and development (biotechnology, tissue culture) Production of vegetables, fruits, ornamental plants, turfgrass, floral crops, herbs and spices, etc. Consulting services Landscape construction and maintenance Wholesale and retail florists Horticultural suppliers Seed companies Horticultural therapy

PLANT CLASSIFICATION
I. GENERAL TERMINOLOGY 1. By growth habit:

Succulent plants - herbaceous or herbs (succulent seed plants possessing self-supporting

stems) Vine - a climbing or trailing herbaceous plant (Liana - a climbing or trailing woody plant) Trees - having a single central axis Shrub - having several more or less upright stems

2. By leaf drops: Deciduous - no living leaves during dormant (winter) season (apple) Evergreen - retaining functional leaves throughout the year (spruce) 3. By life span: Annuals - plants that normally complete their life cycle during a single growing season
(lettuce, spinach, marigold) Biennial - plant that normally completes its life cycle during a period of two growing seasons (celery, carrot, parsnip) Vegetative (often rosettes) during the first growing season. The winter following the first growing season provides the low temperature necessary to stimulate to 'bolt' or to send up a seed stalk during the second growing season. Carrots, radish and beets are harvested as annuals at the end of the first growing season after they develop over-wintering storage organs. Perennial - plants that grow year after year, often taking many years to mature. Unlike annuals and biennials, the perennial does not necessarily die after flowering (fruit trees; asparagus, rhubarb whose above ground parts are killed each year (in temperate regions) but roots remain alive to send up shoots in the spring; subtropical perennials such as tomato and eggplant are considered annual in temperate regions; Rubus (raspberries) has perennial roots and biennial shoots)

4. By temperature tolerance: Tender plant - damaged or killed by low temperature Hardy plant - withstands winter low temperatures Wood hardy - a whole plant is winter hardy Flower-bud hardiness - ability of flower buds to survive low winter temperatures (peach,
ginkgo tree)

5. By temperature requirements: Cool-season crop - prefers cool temperatures (peas, lettuce, cole crops) Warm-season crop - prefers warm temperatures (tomato, pepper) 6. By habitat or site preference: Xerophyte - prefers dry sites Shade plants - prefers low light intensity Acid loving - prefers low pH soils Halophyte - prefers salty soils (in constrat to glycophyte) II. HORTICULTURAL PLANT CLASSIFICATION 1. Edibles A. Vegetables
Plants grown for aerial portions Cole Crops(broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower) Legumes (bean, peas) Solanaceous fruit crops (Capsicum pepper, eggplant, tomato) Cucurbits or vine crops (cucumber, melon, squash, pumpkin)

Greens or pot herbs (chard, dandelion, spinach) Mushrooms (Agaricus, Lentinus) Other vegetables(asparagus, okra, sweet corn) Plants grown for underground portions Root crops Temperate (beet, carrot, radish, turnip) Tropical (cassava, sweet potato, taro, yam) Tuber crops (Jerusalem artichoke, potato) Bulb and corm crops (garlic, onion shallot)

B. Fruits Temperate (Deciduous)

Small fruits Berries (blueberry, cranberry, strawberry) Brambles (blackberry, raspberry) Vines (grape, kiwifruit)

Tree fruits
Pome fruits (apple, pear, quince) Stone fruits (apricot, cherry, peach, plum) Subtropical and tropical (Evergreen) Herbaceous and vine fruits (banana, papaya, passion fruit, pineapple) Tree fruits Citrus (grapefruit, lemon, lime, mandarin, orange) Non-citrus (avocado, date, fig, mango, mangosteen)

C. Nuts
Temperate (almond, chestnut, filbert, pecan, pistachio) Tropical (Brazil nut, cashew, macadamia)

D. Beverage Crops
Seed (cacao, coffea) Leaf (tea, mate)

E. Herbs and Spices

Culinary herbs (dill, rosemary, sage) Flavorings (peppermint, spearmint) Tropical spices(cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, pepper)

2. Ornamentals A. Florist Crops

Cut flowers (rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, alstroemeria) Flowering pot plants (geranium, poinsettia, Easter lily, gloxinia) Foliage plants (philodendron, ficus, aglaonema) Bedding plants (petunia, impatiens, marigold, zinnia)

B. Landscape Plants
Trees Deciduous (maple, elm, aspen, oak, willow) Evergreen (pine, juniper, spruce) Shrubs Deciduous (lilac, azalea, privet) Evergreen (juniper) Vines (ivy, bougainvillea, pyracantha) Herbaceous perennials (penstemon, peony, columbine)

Ground covers (ivy, vinca, juniper)

C. Lawn and Turf Plants

Bermudagrass, bluegrass, fescue, perennial ryegrass, buffalograss

3. Industrial Crops
Drugs and Medicinals(digitalis, quinine, opium poppy) Oil Seeds (oilpalm, jojoba, tung) Extractives and Resins (Scotch pine, Para rubber tree) Insecticides (pyrethrin, neam plant)

III. NOMENCLATURE (SCIENTIFIC PLANT CLASSIFICATION)

Early classification started by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus who classified all plants into annuals, biennials, and perennials according to life spans, and into herbs, shrubs, and trees according to their growth habits. The modern taxonomy for plant classification is based on Linnaeus (a 18th century Swedish physician, now considered "father of taxonomy") who revolutionized the fields of plant and animal classification.

1. The Plant Kingdom

Kingdom Plantae Division Anthrophyta Class Dicotyledonae Order Rosales Family Rosaceae Genus Malus (or Malus) Species pumila (or pumila) Variety Form Individual

Horticulture deals with mostly family, genus, species, and cultivars.

- Botanical names are binomial. - Underline or italicize genus and species: Genus species (or Genus species) - Do not underline the family and cultivar names:

Rosaceae, Golden Delicious

- Variety names may be underlined. Examples:

Juniperus communis var. depressa (Prostrate Juniper) Malus domestica cv. Red Delicious (Red Delicious Apple) Malus domestica 'Red Delicious' (Red Delicious Apple) Malus pumila cv. Red Delicious (Red Delicious Apple) 2. Some frequently used terms Variety - a group of variants within a species which have similar characteristics. Cultivar - cultivated variety

Ecospecies - a subdivision of species that are formed by ecological barrier. i.e., Cercis
canadensis (Redbud) Clone - a group of plants all of which arose from a single individual (the ortet) through asexual propagation. Clonal cultivar - asexually propagated clones (potato, rose, etc.). Pure line cultivar - homozygous inbred lines grown from seed. Hybrid cultivar - a cultivar composed of hybrids between genetically diverse parental lines uniform phenotype, genetically heterozygous)

PLANT STRUCTURE
The structure and morphology of plants as they relate to function and utility of horticultural crops will be discussed. Topics covered in this lecture will be 1) the cell and its components, 2) tissue and its systems, 3) anatomical regions, 4) morphological structures of roots, shoots, leaves, flowers and seeds.

I. THE CELL
Cell - the structural unit of plants Cytology - the study of cells concerning their organization, structure, and function. Plant cells vary in shape and measure between 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm (24 -250 ) in size. Some cells (long tubular fibers) are as much as 2 feet long. Cytoplasm (protoplasm) - all the living unit of a protoplast outside the nucleus in the cell. Plasma membrane - the membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm. It is semipermeable to solutes, while cell wall is some degree permeable to all solutes and solvents. It is composed of lipoproteins. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - paired membranes within the cytoplasm closely associated with the outer membrane of nuclear envelop. Nucleus - the dense protoplasmic body essential in cellular synthetic and developmental activities; present in all living plant cells except mature sieve-tube elements. The control center of the cell which contains chromosomes. Chromosome contains DNA. Ribosomes - small particles (100-200 A) which are actual sites of protein synthesis by RNA. Cell wall - the structure made of polysaccharides (long-chain units of simple sugars such as glucose), lignin and pectin. The principal polysaccharide is cellulose, which is unbranched polymer of glucose molecules. The branched polysaccharides are hemicelluloses, branched chain polysaccharides containing a variety of monosaccharide units, only one of which is glucose, as well as nonsugar components such as protein. Lignin - polymers of phenolic acid which makes the cell wall inelastic and enduring material resistant to microbial decomposition. (lignin must be removed to prevent yellowing in paper making)

Pectins - acidic polysaccharides, specifically water-soluble polymers of galacturonic acid that forms sols and gels with water (solidifying agent for jams and jellies). All cell wall in plants is not continuous. It appears to be pierced by cytoplasmic strand (plasmodesmata) that provide a living connection between cells. Plastids - specialized disk-like bodies in the cytoplasm (only in plant cells). They can be leucoplasts (colorless) or chromoplasts (colored). Chloroplasts are chromoplasts which contain chlorophyll. There are about 20-100 chloroplasts in each chlorophyllous cell of a typical green leaf (mature leaf cells of spinach may contain 500 chloroplasts). Chloroplasts - contain grana which are structural units resembling stacked coins. Grana contain the chlorophyll, a pigment system which is the receptor of light. The actual carbon dioxide fixation into carbohydrate compounds occurs in the surrounding material called stroma. Chloroplasts have their own DNA and self-replicating under the influence of nuclear genes. Mitochondria - a small cytoplasmic particle associated with intercellular respiration. A power center of the cell, mitochondria are made up of proteins and phospholipids. It carries out the enzymatic activity of oxidative respiration. This activity occurs through the formation of the energy-carrying substance called ATP. Mitochondria contains DNA for self replication. Vacuoles - membrane-lined cavities located within the cytoplasm. They are filled with a watery substance known as the cell sap, which contains a number of dissolved materials-salts, pigments, and various organic metabolic substances. They are small and numerous in actively dividing cells; they coalesce into one large vacuole that occupies the center of the cell, pushing the cytoplasm and the nucleus next to the cell wall. Other components of cytoplasm... (reserve of waste products of the cell) crystals, starch grains, oil droplets, silica, resins, gums alkaloids, and many organic substances.

II. TISSUES AND TISSUE SYSTEMS

Although the plant ultimately originates from a single cell (the fertilized egg), the marvels of cell division and differentiation produce an organism composed of many kinds of cells that are structurally and physiologically diverse. It is this difference in cell morphology and cell arrangement that results in the complex variation between plants and within an individual plant. Plants can be shown to be made up of groups of similar types of cells that are organized in a definite pattern. Continuous, organized masses of similar cells are known as tissues. Tissues - Continuous, organized masses of similar cells Meristematic tissue - actively dividing undifferentiated cells Permanent tissues - nondividing differentiated cells Simple tissues - composed of one type of cell Parenchyma - simple thin-walled cells Collenchyma - thicker-walled "parenchyma" Sclerenchyma - thick-walled supporting cells Complex tissues - composed of more than one type of cell

Xylem - water-conducting tissue Phloem - food-conducting tissue 1. Meristematic Tissues Meristematic tissue is composed of cells actively or potentially involved in cell division and growth. Meristem not only perpetuates the formation of new tissue but also perpetuates itself. a. Apical meristem - meristems at the tips of shoots and roots. They are known horticulturally as the growing point. b. Cambium - lateral meristems responsible for the increase in girth of woody stems; actively dividing and expanding as a result of increase in stem diameter. c. Intercalary meristems - (in grass) isolated meristematic regions near the nodes. The mowing of lawns does not interfere with the growth of the grass plant from the growing points are not damaged by mowing. d. Primary tissues - tissues differentiated from the apical meristems e. Secondary tissues - tissues formed from the cambium

2. Permanent Tissues Permanent tissues are made up of nondividing differentiated cells derived directly from meristems. They are referred to as simple tissues when they are composed of one type of celland as complex tissues when they are mixtures of cell types.

a. Simple tissues 1. Parenchyma -relatively undifferentiated, unspecialized vegetative tissue. (It makes up a large portion of many plants, such as the fleshy portion of fruit, roots, and tubers)

2. Collenchyma - tissue characterized by elongated cells with thickened primary walls composed of cellulose and pectic compounds. (Thick-walled parenchyma). This tissue functions largely as mechanical support in early growth. (The strands at the outer edge of a celery stalk are collenchyma). 3. Sclerenchyma - tissue composed of especially thick-walled cells that are often lignified. When these cells are long and tapered they are usually referred as fibers. Others are sclereids. Clusters of these sclereids, or "stone cells," are responsible forthe gritty texture of pears. In masses, sclereids are responsible for the hardness of walnut shells and of peach and cherry pits. Unlike parenchyma and collenchyma,sclerenchyma cells are nonliving when mature. b. Complex tissues 1. Xylem -the principal water-conducting tissue consisted of living and nonliving cells. Wood is largely xylem. (Herbaceous plants also contain xylem but

the volume is much less). Xylem is composed of tracheids (elongated tapered cells with walls that are hard and usually lignified, although not especially thick) and vessels (formed frommeristematic cells from which the cell contents and end walls have been dissolved). The water moves readily through the empty tracheid, flowing from cell to cell through the numerous pits between them. Vessel cells are lined up end to end and the series may be many feet long. Xylem is formed by differentiation of the apical meristems of root and shoot. In perennial woody plants, secondary xylem is also formed in the familiar annual rings. The spring wood consists of larger cells with thinner walls and appears lighter, or less dense than the summer wood. 2. Phloem - the principal food-conducting tissue. They are made up of specialized cells called sieve elements. Sieve elements are elongated living cells with thin cellulose walls through which the food is conducted from one part of the plant to another. The nucleus of the sieve cell disappears. Sieve cells are physically associated with companion cells which have the nucleus. In addition to sieve and companion cells, fibers and sclereids may be present in phloem. The fibers of hemp and flax are derived from the phloem tissue. The phloem is not enduring, and the old phloem disintegrates in woody stems. The phloem is protected by special meristematic tissues (cork cambium) that produce parenchymatous tissue. Bark is composed of the phloem, corky tissue and other incidental tissues.

III. ANATOMICAL REGIONS 1. The Vascular System

Horticultural plants are grossly divided into the vascular system (plumbing), the cortex (frame and insulation), and the epidermis (siding, floor, and roof). The pith, pericycle, endodermis, and secretory glands are one or more of these regions.

Vascular system = xylem + phloem = the conduction system of the plant. (Since it also supports the plant, it may be compared to both the circulatory and skeletal systems of animals) Vascular system forms a continuous ring in the stem, in which the inner portion is xylem, surrounding an area of parenchymatous tissue known as pith. The vascular system may be continuous and may appear as a series of strands in longitudinal section and bundles in cross section (as in potato, and monocotyledonous plants). Pith is absent in roots. In roots, the vascular system is separated from the cortex by specialized tissues called the pericycle and the endodermis. Pericycle is composed of parenchymatous tissue and is the source of the branch roots and stems that arise from the

root. Endodermis is commonly a single sheet of cells separating the vascular system from the cortex. It has a protective function. The pericycle and endodermis are absent in the stem. 2. Cortex Tissue between the vascular system and the epidermis. It is made up of primary tissues, predominantly parenchyma. Cork is formed when mature tissue is infiltrated by a waxy substance known as suberin (which waterproofs the cell walls, or suberization). Periderm is the corky protective sheath produced by suberization. The cork industry is developed based on the this tissue (as in Quercus suber). 3. Epidermis The continuous cell layer that envelops the plant. Root hairs are tube-like extensions that absorb nutrients and water. Stomata-epidermal structure composed of two guard cells that form a pore. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are introduced into plant via stomata. Cuticle - a waxy layer formed (by cutin) on the surface of the epidermis (as in apple). 4. Secretory Glands Glands are the complex secretory structures that produce fragrance (from flowers), essential oils, resins, gums, mucilages. Trichomes are the multicelled, hairlike epidermal appendages.

IV. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

1. Roots The primary root - the original seedling root. It becomes the taproot of the plant root system.The fibrous root system...thin lateral roots (as in the grass) thick function as feeder roots. Root Modifications -Roots swollen and fleshy with stored food in the form of starches and sugars. (Carrot, sweet potato, turnip, radish, sugarbeet, dahlia).

2. Shoots a. The stem: The shoot - a central axis with appendages. The central axis, the stem, supports the foodproducing leaves and connects them with the nutrient-gathering roots. (Central leaders, vines) b. The buds: Bud - an embryonic stem.

All buds do not grow actively; many exhibit arrested development or dormancy but are potential sources of further growth. The bud types Terminal buds - buds borne on the tip of stem Lateral buds (axillary buds)- borne on the leaf axis Adventitious buds- buds formed in internodal regions of the stem, leaves or roots often as a result of injury. By what they contain: Leaf buds...buds the produce leaves Flower buds...buds that produce flowers Mixed buds...buds that produce leaves and flowers Accessory buds...buds other than the central bud The bud arrangements: Opposite...borne in an opposite position Alternate...borne alternately Whorled...borne in a whorled position The phyllotaxy...the spiral pattern of leaf arrangement expressed as a fraction (1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8), where the number of turns to get to a leaf directly above another and denominator is the number of buds passed. c. Stem modifications Above-ground stem modifications: The crown...the junction of stem at the ground level that connects the root (Crown in forestry refers to the branched top of a tree). The crown is the "compressed stem" since GA application elongates it as seen in strawberries. Crown division is used in propagation in herbaceous perennials as in asparagus and day lilies. Off-shoots...short, many-noded, horizontal branches growing out of the crown. Stolons...stems that grow horizontally along the ground. A runner is a stolon with long internodes originating at the crown. Spurs...stems of woody plants whose growth is restricted. Spurs are the sites on which floors of apples, pear and quince are borne.

Below-ground stem modifications: Bulb...a compressed modification of the shoot. It consists of a short, flattened or disk-like stem surrounded by fleshy leaf-like structures called scales Corms...short, fleshy underground stems (gladiolus, crocus) Rhizomes...horizontal underground stems. They may be compressed and fleshy (iris) or slender with elongated internodes (turfgrass).

Tubers...the greatly enlarged fleshy portions of underground stems (as in potato).

3. The Leaf
Leaves are the flat appendages of the stem where photosynthesis occurs. The leaf blade is borne on a stalk called petiole. The stipules are the leaf-like outgrowths of petioles a. Veins... the vascular system branched through the leaf tissue. The veining is typically netlike in dicots and parallel in monocots. The leaf blade is commonly bilaterally symmetrical but not radially symmetrical, since it has distinct upper and lower side. b. Palisade cells...elongated closely packed cells (containing a large quantity of chloroplasts) located underneath the upper surface (adaxial) of the leaf. Most of the photosynthetic activities occur in these palisade parenchyma cells. c. Spongy mesophile cells...the loosely arranged cells in the sponge-like region of the leaf tissue between the palisade layer and the lower (abaxial) epidermis. These tissues allow gaseous exchange needed for photosynthesis and transpiration.

4. The Flower
a. Sepals (collectively, the calyx)...small, green leaflike structures that enclose or support thepetals in a flower. b. Petals (collectively, the corolla)...the conspicuous portion of most flowers. They often are highly colored and may contain perfume glands. c. Stamens...the male part of the flowers. The stamen is composed of a pollen-bearing anther and a filament. d. The pistil...the female part of the flower. It is consisted of an ovule-bearing ovary, style and stigma. The ovule gives rise to the seed and the mature ovary becomes the fruit. The flower parts are often borne on an enlarged portion of the flower-supporting stem called the receptacle. e. Complete flower... the flower containing sepals, petals, stamens and pistils. Incomplete flower...the flower lacking one or more of the flower parts Pistillate flower (female flower)...lacking stamens Staminate flower (male flower)...lacking pistils The perfect flower...hermaphroditic flower that has both stamens and pistils f. Plant types by flowers: Monoecious...bearing both staminate and pistilate flowers on the same plant (cucumber, maize) Dioecious...species in which the plants are separated into staminate (male) and pistilate (female) plants (date palm, papaya, spinach, asparagus, hemp) Andromonoecious...bearing perfect flowers and staminate flowers on the same plant (as in muskmelon) Gynomonoecious...bearing perfect flowers and pistilate flowers on the same plant (as in cucurbits)

Trimonoecious...bearing male, female and perfect flowers on the same plant. (as in somecucurbit species) g. Common Inflorescences (the flower clusters) Head (Asteraceae, sunflower) Spike (wheat) Raceme (radish) Corymb (cherry) Panicle (rice) Cyme (simple dichasium or compound dichasium; i.e., strawberry) Simple umbel [Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae), onion] Compound umbel (Apiaceae, carrot)

5. The Fruit
Botanically the fruit refers to the mature ovary and other flower parts associated with it. a. Simple fruits (composed of a single ovary): Dry (made up of nonliving sclerenchyma cells with lignified or suberized walls) Flesh (made up of large portions of living succulent parenchyma tissues) Pericarp (the ovary wall) is consisted of exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp Berry...the entire pericarp is flesh (as tomato, grape, pepper) Muskmelon...berry fruit (pepo) made up of a hard rind (exocarp, receptacle tissue), mesocarp (the edible flesh) Drupes...(stone fruits) simple flesh fruits having a stony endocarp (as in cherry, plum, peach, olive). A drupe is composed of stone (endocarp), skin (exocarp) and fleshy edible portion (mesocarp). Pomes... simple flesh fruits in which the inner portion of the pericarp forms a dry paperlike "core" (as in apple, pear, quince) Dry fruits... Pods (pea), follicles (milk weed), capsules (jimson weed), siliques (crucifers) are dehiscing fruits Achenes (sunflower), caryopses (maize), samaras (maple), schizocarps (carrot), nuts (walnut) are non-dehiscing. b. Aggregate fruits (each aggregate fruit is derived from a flower having many pistils on a common receptacle. Blackberry...individual fruits of the aggregate are drupes (stony). Strawberry...individual fruits of the aggregate are achenes (one-seeded, dry fruits attached to the receptacle at a single point) (the edible portion is the receptacle) c. Multiple fruits (derived from many separate but closely clustered flowers) Pineapples, fig and mulberry are multiple fruits.

6. The Seed

A seed is a miniature plant in an arrested state of development. Structurally the seed is a matured ovule. a. Seed coat...matured (dried) skin of the ovule b. The seed embryo is differentiated into a rudimentary shoot (plumule), a root (radicle), and seed leaves (cotyledons). Hypocotyl is the transition zone between the rudimentary root and shoot. c. Endosperm...food storage tissues within a seed Albuminous seed...endosperm forms a specialized region in the seed (maize). Exalbuminous seed...endosperm is absorbed by the developing embryo (beans, walnuts).

ROWTH AND METABOLISM

I. TERMS 1. Growth- Irreversible increase in size 2. DevelopmentMorphogenesis - Morphological and anatomical development Differentiation - Physiological and biochemical specialization of plant tissues 3. Metabolism- Synthesis an degradation of organic compounds Anabolism - Synthesis Catabolism - Degradation II. MAJOR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF PLANTS 1. Photosynthesis
12H2O + 6CO2 + Light Clorophyll >C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O (water)+ (Carbon Dioxide)+(energy)-------> (Carboydrate)+(oxygen)+(water)
Chloroplast

2. Metabolism
C6H12O6 + Mineral Enzymes > Various organic compounds (Carbohydrate) + (fertilizer)----> (Protiens, fats, starch, hormones, vit, etc.)
Cytoplasm

3. Respiration
Organic compounds + O2 Enzymes > CO2 + H2O + Energy + Mineral (Substates) (oxygen) (ATP) (inorganic) energy source The energy released fron respiration is used for growth and development
Mitochondria

III. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The process of producing carbohyrates from CO2 and water by using light energy in the presence of chlorophyll. Takes place in the chloroplast.

1. Light Phase of Photosynthesis

Photolysis-cleavage of water intao hydrogen and oxygen by light (Hill Reaction

Photophosphorylation- Conversion of ADP to ATP by light energy

Sum: conversion of light energy to chemical energy

2. Dark Phase of Photosynthesis

The Calvin Cycle- a series of enzymaticaly mediated reactions in which CO2 is reduced to 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (3PGA) and the CO2 receptor (ribulose biphosphate, RUBP) is generated

The Net Gain 12H2O + 6CO2 + Light Clorophyll >C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chloroplast

3. Two Different CO2 Pathways

The C3 Pathway - Occurs in C3 plants (many dicots like soybean, tomato, apple) - The first product of CO2 fixation is C3 acids - Only the Calvin Cycle operates - Photorespiration exists

The C4 Pathway - Occurs in C4 plants (tropical grasses, corn, sugarcane, some dicots like amaranth, atriplex) - The first product of CO2 fixation is C4 acids

- Both the Calvin Cycle and C4 pathway operate - Lacks photorespiration

4. Photorespiration
The process of respiration that consumes oxygen and releases CO2 in the presence of light -Consumes the reducing power to reduce O2 to CO2 -Does not produce ATP -Reduces photosynthetic efficiency -Occurs in C3 plants

5. Carbon Dioxide Compensation Point

A steady state of CO2 concentration in the air at which CO2 taken up by plants via photosynthesis is the same as the CO2 given off via respiration - At CO2 compensation point, no growth occurs - Below compensation point, plants will degrade - C3 plants have higher CO2 compensation points than the C4 plants CO2 Compensation points Soybean (C3 plant)-----50ppm at 25 C Corn (C4 plant)---------10ppm at 25C Ambient CO2------300ppm (0.03%) - Same principles apple to light compensation points Net Photosynthesis (PHS) = Gross PHS Respiration

IV. NUTRIENT ABSORPTION AND TRANSLOCATION 1. Plant Nutrients

-16 elements Macro nutrients: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, C, O, H Micro nutrients: B, Cl, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn

2. Ability to Manufacture Food

- Most green plants are autotrophic Autotrophic- Capable of manufacturing its own food from minerals Heterotrophic- Incapable of manufacturing its own food, so the plant must depend on

other sources for organic matter (immature embryo, dodder, human)

3. Nutrient and Water Movement

-Diffusion- Movement of molecules (substance) from a region of high concentration to the region of low concentration -Osmosis- Diffusion of water through differentially permeable membrane -Translocation- Movement of inorganic and organic solutes from one part of plant to another - Water conduction and mineral movement via xylem - Carbohydrate translocation through phloem -Transpiration- loss of water vapor from the leaf via Stomata -Evaporation- liquid water turns into water vapor -Evapotraspiration- Evaporation and transpiration

V. RESPIRATION 1. The Reverse of Photosynthesis

The process of releasing energy, carbon dioxide and water by oxidation of organic compounds C6H12O6 + 6O2 >6H2O + 6CO2 + Energy

2. Chemical Processes
Glycolysis- conversion of C6 sugars to CO2 and Pyruvic acid Citric acid cycle (Kreb Cycle)- oxydation of Pyruvic acid to H+ , e-, and CO2 in mitochondria

3. The Q10
-The rate of respiration doubles when temperature rises 10 C (18 F) - Respiration can be reduced by lowering 02 and increasing CO2 concentration Application - CO2 storage of apples, pears - Hypobaric storage of fruits and flowers lower atmospheric pressure (vacuum) lower temperature

VI. METABOLISM
Synthesis and degradation of organic compounds Anabolism- synthesis process Catabolism- Degradation or breakdown process (occurs in cytoplasm)

VII. PLANT CONSTITUENTS

1. Carbohydrates
-Monosaccharides- simple carbohydrated (C5 Pentase, C6 hexose) -Disaccharides- C12 {i.e. maltose (glu-glu), sucrose (glu-fru)} -Olygosaccharides- 1-10 monosaccarides linked together -Polysaccharides- starch (poly glu), cellulose (poly glu), insulin hemicellulose

2. Lipids
-phospholipids, fats, waxes

3. Proteins
-structural, soluble (enzymes)

4. Other Organic Compounds

Aromatic compounds (vanillin, flavonoids, etc.) Terpenoids and steroids (brassinolids, GA metabolites) Non-protein nitrogen compounds (DNA, RNA, bases) Vitamins (Vitamin C, thiamin B, provitamin A, etc.) Others Pharmaceuticals [taxol (pacific yew), Echinacin, ginsengoside]

Chap 5. DIFFERENTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT

I. INTRODUCTION
Differentiation-Differential growth in cell and tissues. -Orderly and systematic in mitotic cell division Mitotic-somatic Meiotic-reproductive -Genetically controlled development by gene activation and deactivation -Tissue organ differentiation controlled by plant growth hormones that are produced in different parts of the plants

II.

PLANT GROWTH HORMONES (Plant Growth Regulators)

Phyto-hormones Auxins, Gibberellins (GA), Cytokinins, Ethylene, Abscisic Acid (ABA)

1. Auxins
a. Function -Promote cell growth and elongation, alters cell wall plasticity -Responsible for apical dominance and phototropism -Promote calusing and rooting

Directing movement (shoot apex----downward) b. Bioassay -Split pea stem curvature study -Oat coleoptile test for photoropism c. Site of Synthesis -Stem apex (growing point) -Present abundantly in actively growing shoot tips

d. IAA- Indoleacetic Acid (Natural) NAA- Naphthaleneacetic Acid (synthetic) IBA- Indolebutyric Acid (synthetic)

Chemistry

b.

Application -Pruning-Removal of Apical dominance -Rooting cuttings (IBA dip) -Callus induction invitro

1. Gibberellins (GA)
About 45 different forms a. Function -Stimulates stem elongation (by cell enlargement and division) Cabbage-----------GA-------- 6 foot tall Bush bean---------GA---------Pole bean -Breaks seed and bud dormancy -Substitutes cold treatment effect (Azalea, Easterlily) -Induces flowering and converts sex expression from female to male flowers (in cucurbits) Cucumber-monoecious (male female)------GA3-- Androecious (male) Muskmelon-Andromonoecious (male male/female) ----------GA3-- Androecious (male) -Induces parthenocarpy (seedless grapes) fruit set without pollination -Stimulates -amylase activity (in barley seed germination) b. Occurrence -First isolated from rice plant infected by Gibberella (1926, Japan) -Concentrated in Shoot apex (more in leaf primordia) -Present in leaf, stem, roots (non-directional movement)

c.

Chemistry -Diterpenoids -About 45 different forms (GA1, GA2GA45)

d.

Application -Production of seedless grapes (Thompson seedless) -Increases malt content in beer making -Flower induction in azaleas (mimic vernalization) -Overcomes dwarfism -Cut flower stem elongation used for long-stem mums, alstroemeria, columbine commercial- Progibb

1. Cytokinins
a. Function -Stimulates active cell division (cytokinesis) -Induces shoot differentiation in tissue culture

-Regulates synthesis of DNA, RNA, Protein -Shoot multiplication (commercial cloning labs) Also transgenic plants (Ti plasmids) b. Occurrence -Present in actively dividing embryos, seed, fruit -Mostly synthesized in root tissues (upward translocation)

c. -Purines and their derivetives -Natural: Zeatin (Expensive) -Synthetic: Kinetin

Chemistry

Benzylamino purine (BA)- Benzyl Adenine (BA) 2-ip

d.

Bioassay -Tobacco pith cell culture -Shoot induction from callus (Plant regeneration)

e.

Application -In vitro plant regeneration (Micropragation) -Increasing flower yield (Multiple branching)

1. Ethylene
a. Function -Causes fruit ripening and plant senescene -Causes leaf abscision -Stimulation of early flower induction (pineapple, bromeliads) -Converts flower sex from maleness to femaleness Cucumber: Monoecious (male, female) ------Eth--- gynoecious (female)

Muskemlon: Andromonoecious (male, female)----Eth- gynomonoecious (male/female)

b.

Occurrence -Found in all tissues -Abundant in ripening fruits (apple), rotting tissues

c.

Chemistry -Ehylene gas- natural -Ethepon (Ethrel)- synthetic

d.

Bioassay -Flower petal shattering snapdragon-sensitive to CH4 -Other assays -Epinasty

e.

Application -Flower induction (Pineapple, Silver vase, bromeliads) -Increase rubber yields in Hevea (up to 6500 16/AC) -Fruit ripening (banana) Defoliation (cotton)

1. Abscisic Acid ABA (Growth Inhibitor)

a. Function -Causes bud and seed dormancy -Causes leaf abscision (Abscisin) -Counteracts with GA, Cytokinin b. Occurrence -Tissues of stressed plants -Senescing plants

c.

Chemistry -Isoprenoid compound

d.

Bioassay -Stomatal closure

e.

Application -Research (Reversal of GA, Cytokinin activities) -Drought Tolerance

1. Growth Inhibitors
a. Natural -Coumarin-------- prevents seed germination (tomato) watermelon -Benzoic Acid -Chlorogenic Acid b. Synthetic -Maleic Hydrazide (MH 30) Phosphon (B-9) CCC (Chlormequat) Ancymidol (A-Rest)

I.

VEGETATIVE PHYSIOLOGY
1. Seed Germination
a. Seed a ripened ovule Seed= Embryo (young plant) + food supply (edosperm, Cotyledon) + protective covering (seed coat)

b.

Three steps of germination 1) Imbibition of water 2) Enzyme synthesis and activation 3) Radicle emergence and shoot development

1. Seed Dormancy
a. Physical dormancy (Seed coat dormancy) -Seed coat is impervious to water -Can be removed by 1. 2. Microbial decomposition (in nature) Scarification -Acid (sulfuric acid) treatment -Hot water -Mechanical (scoring, cracking) a. Physiological dormancy (Embryo dormancy) -Inhibitor substances present in embryo (ABA, Coumarin) Last about 1-6 months -Can be eliminated by: Stratification-most cold storage (4-6 months) Some seeds require warm and cold treatments (i.e. peony) o Some seeds need after ripening -for embyo maturation a. Double Dormancy -Both seed coat and embryo dormancies exist (Redbud) -Can broken by:

Scarification (or seed coat decomposition by microorganism) Stratification (or winterizing for 2nd year) -deactivates physiological dormancy

1. Juvenility
a. Juvenility and maturity phases are genetically controlled -some trees (apple, pear) start fruiting after 4-8 years b. "Juvenile factors" may b transferred to different tissues Hedera helix (English Ivy)-Rejuvenation possible by grafting c. Involvement of GA Onset of maturity can be delayed by GA application

1. Bud Dormancy
a. Buds are formed in the summer months and stay dormant although environmental conditions are favorable for growth.

b.

Bud dormancy is broken by low temperature Peach: 350-1200 hrs chilling at below 45

I.

REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
1. a. Flowering Effect of C/N ratio (Nitrogen to Carbohydrate ratio) -High C/N ratio-----more reproductive -High N/C ratio-----more vegetative (High nitrogen supply----more vegetative growth)

b.

Effect of Photoperiod 1. Photoperiodism- Plant growth response to the length of the day Long-day plants (Short night plants) LDS (SNP) -Flower initiate when days are longer than 16 hours (shorter than 8 hour nights) -oat, spinach, rudbeckia, clover, radish Short-day plants (Long-night plants) SDP (LNP) -Flower initiation takes place when days are shorter than 13 hours. -coffea, chrysanthemum, poinsettia, kalanchoe Day-neutral plants -Flower initiation is not affected by day lengths -Many plants (Rose, carnation, citrus) 2. What growth hormones are involved? -"Florigen"has not been substantiated - Phytochromespigment receptor of photoperiodic response; they exist in two different forms

4. Application of photoperiodism

-Year round production of short-day flowering plants by black-clothing -Marketing of poinsettia for both Thanksgiving and Christmas -Flower induction in breeding programs a. Vernalization (Springtization) -Theory advanced by Klippart and Lysenko "Vernal" (spring) -Low temperature induced "programming" of flowering winter wheat, azalea, tulips, easterlily -Devernalization- deprogramming of vernalization important in onion stage b. Sex Expression -The sequence of flowering (Influenced by photoperiod and temperature) -The ratio of female: male flowers

Topic 6. PLANT REPRODUCTION

I. INTRODUCTION Reproduction - replication and perpetuation of organelles, cells, organisms, and species a fundamental property of life

Two phases of reproduction a. Asexual Reproduction -Somatic cell division (mitosis) -Results in genetically identical cells and tissues b. Sexual Reproduction -Gametic cell division (meiosis) -Results in segregation of genetic traits

II. REPLICATION OF LIVING SYSTEMS 1. The Central Dogma DNA----------- RNA------------- Protein (enzyme) Gene - a unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a protein Chromosome - a thread-like body made up of DNA and chromatin 2. Sites of occurrence DNA replication .......nucleus RNA synthesis..........nucleus Protein synthesis.......cytoplasm (ribosomes) Nucleotides (building blocks of DNA) Purines - adenine (A), guanine (G) Pyrimidines - cytosine (C), thiamine (T) Base pairing - on double helix (A:T, G:C) 3. Codons - the basic unit of genetic information - 3 bases/codon or an amino acid - i.e. AAG = lysine GAG = asparagine III. CELL REPRODUCTION 1. Mitosis

- Somatic cell division - Ends up with the same number of chromosomes in the divided cells

2N ----------------Mitosis---------------- 2N + 2N (diploid) ; (diploid) (diploid)

2. Meiosis - Cell division leading to gamete formation - Results in a reduction of chromosome number - Involves 2 separate divisions

1st division

2nd division.

2N ------------------meiosis------------------- N + N + N + N (diploid) (gametes, haploid)

2N = 20X = 10 where N = gametic number of chromosomes X = ploidy number 3. Chromosome Numbers N number refers to halfness (gametic number) X number refers to oneness (genomic number) - Chromosome number varies by species - Genomic (X) number is a set of different chromosomes 2N = number of chromosomes in somatic cells (somatic chromosome number) N = number of chromosomes in gametic cells (gametic chromosome number) X = Number of chromosomes in a genome complement (genomic chromosome number)

4. Ploidy a. Euploidy - variation between chromosome sets 4X---------------meiosis---------------- 2X + 2X

(tetraploid) &nb sp; (diploid gametes)

Ploidy

Somatic

Gametic

Fertility

Monoploid Diploid Triploid Tetraploid Pentaploid Hexaploid Heptaploid Octoploid Nonaploid Decaploid

2N = 1X 2N = 2X 2N = 3X 2N = 4X 2N = 5X 2N = 6X 2N = 7X 2N = 8X 2N = 9X 2N = 10X

N=? N=X N=? N = 2X N=? N = 3X N=? N = 4X N=? N = 5X

very low very high very low variable variable variable variable variable variable variable

Example: Chromosome numbers of some horticultural crops

Somatic chromosome number (2N) 12 20 48 56 Gametic chromosome number (N) 6 10 24 28 Genomic chromosome number (X) 6 10 12 7

Species Spinach Corn Potato Strawberry

Ploidy 2X 2X 4X 8X

How to To Make a Polyploids

Colchicine (chromosome doubling)

Diploid Plant (2X) -------------------------------------------- Tetraploid plant (4X)

Germinating seed, or meristem

Colchicine treatment:

interferes with spindle fiber function

used to induce polyploids, seedless watermelon

b. Aneuploidy - variation within a chromosome set A diploid plant (2N=2X=14) would contain the following chromosome numbers depending on aneuploidy conditions: Somatic chromosome number
2N + 1 (extra) 2N - (deficient) 2N + 1 + 1 (2 extra) 2N + 2 (2 extra)

Aneuploidy
Trisomic Monosomic Doubletrisomic 4 of o chromosome

Examples
11 22 33 44 55 66 777 11 22 3_ 44 55 66 77 11 22 33 44 555 66 77 11 22 33 44 5555 66 77

Note: Down syndrome in humans - caused by a trisomic for chromosome # 21 (three chromosomes instead of two)

How To Obtain Seedless Watermelon:

IV. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 1. Life Cycle - Alternation of sporophytic (2N) and gametophytic (N) stages in cycles. - In plants, the gametophytic stage is brief.

a. Microgametophyte - pollen or male gametophyte - formed in anthers - usually has 3 nuclei (2 sperm nuclei + 1 tube nucleus)

Microgametophyte - One tube nucleus - Two sperm nuclei

b. Megagametophyte - embryo sac, female gametophyte

- formed in ovules - Commonly consists of 8 nuclei:

Megagametophyte 1 egg nucleus 2 polar nuclei 3 antipodal nuclei 2 synergids

2. Fertilization - Pollen tube penetration of embyo sac - Formation of zygote (2N) by double fertilization Double Fertilization A process of fertilization in which one male gamete (sperm nucleus, 1N) unites the egg nucleus (1N) to form embryo (zygote, 2N) and the other sperm nucleus unites polar nuclei (2n) to form endosperm (3N).

Topic 7. SOIL AND GROWING MEDIA

I. Introduction 1. Functios of Soil

- Plant anchorage - Provides water to plants - Supplies mineral nutrients to plants

2. Four Components of Soil

- mineral - organic matter - water - air

3. The Functional Phases of Soil

a. Solid phase - soil particles (clay, sand, silt, etc.) b. Gas phase - provides oxygen c. Liquid phase - supplies water

Field Capacity - the soil moisture condition obtained when all gravitational water is drained from the soil after field saturation

Container Capacity - same as field capacity for potted soil used in greenhouse

4. Soil Texture
- Size of individual mineral particles - Varies by presence of sand, silt, clay, loam

Heavy soil - high in clay and other fine particles Light soil - low in clay and high in sand and coarse particles

5. Soil Structure
- Arrangement of soil particles into aggregates formed by flocculation and granulation

6. Exchange Capacity
a. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) - The ability of soil particles to absorb and store cations (measured in meq/100g soil) Cation = positively charged ion (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, NH4+) Clay and organic particles have high CEC. b. Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC) - The ability of soil particles to absorb (adsorb) and store anions (measured in meq/100g soil) Anion = negatively charged ion (NO3-, SO42-, Cl-) Most soils have little or no AEC

Strength of cation replacement H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Mg2+ > K+ > Na+

II. Soil Reaction (pH)

pH = - log [H+]

1. Definition - soil acidity or alkalinity expressed in pH 2. Why is optimum soil pH important? a. Nutrient availability Deficiency, toxicity can be avoided - Fe deficiency at high soil pH - Al toxicity at low soil pH b. Microorganism activity Needed for decomposition of organic matter (OM) c. Nitrogen fixation and nitrification Ammonifying nitrifying bacteria Actinomycetes Nitrosomonas Nitrobacters + OM ------------------------ NH4 ---------------------- NO2 ------------------ NO33. The soil pH optimum a. Most plants prefer 5.5 -7.0 b. Acid loving plants Blueberry - prefers a pH range from 4.0 to 5.5 Azalea - prefers a pH range from 4.5 to 5.5 Hydrangea - Flower color turns blue at pH 4.5 - 5.5 - Flower color turns pink at pH 6.5 - 7.5

c. Alkalinity tolerant plants Asparagus - prefers a pH range of 6.5 to 7.9 Alfalfa - prefers a pH range of 6.5 to 7.7 Sugarbeet - prefers a pH range of 6.5 to 7.7 4. Adjustment of Soil pH a. To raise soil pH, use: - ground limestone - dolomitic lime (mix of CaCO3 + MgCO3) - gypsum (CaSO4) b. To lower soil pH, use: - sulfur powder (S) - aluminum sulfate (Al2 (SO4)3) - iron sulfate (FeSO4) Also for solutions, use: - sulfuric acid (H2SO4 -----> 2H+ + SO4-2) - phosphoric acid (H3PO4 -----> 3H+ + PO4-3) - nitric acid (HNO3 -----> H+ + NO3-)

IV. Synthetic Soils (Artificial Mixes)

1. Soil Amendments a. Inorganic components Sand - low water-holding, low CEC, heavy, size varies inert medium Vermiculite - expanded mica mineral high H2O holding, good CEC, high buffering Perlite - heated, popped volcanic rock, inert very light, no CEC, no buffering, no nutrient holding Calcined clay- Baked montmorillonite clay aggregate particles, heavy, durable high CEC Pumice - crushed volcanic rock, inert low waterholding, low CEC b. Organic components Peatmoss - 75% decomposed low in pH, high in CEC, high waterholding

Crop residues -Straw, peanut hull, dry foliage, etc. high in C, add N when decomposting Bark or sawdust - redwood, pine, fir, etc. phenolic compounds phytotoxic, wait until decomposted 2. Mixes Containing Soil a. For heavy soils, use: 1 part clay loam 2 parts organic matter 2 parts coarse aggregate b. For medium-textured soil,s use: 1 part silty loam 1 part organic matter 1 part coarse aggregate c. For light soils, use: 1 part sandy loam 1 part organic matter For all mixes, use base fertilizers: Limestone - 6 to 8 oz/bushel Superphosphate - 8 to 10 oz/bushel 4. Commercial Soil Mixes (used for nursery crops) a. UC-Mixes

UC Mix Percent sand Percent peat Mix A 100 0 Mix B 75 25 Mix C 50 50 Mix D 25 75 Mix E 0 100 b. Cornell Mix (Soilless Mix) Peat-lite mix

Base fertilizers yes yes yes yes yes

- Extensively used for greenhouse crops - Most commercial mixes are based on Cornell Mix formula (e.g., Sunshine Mix, Pro-Mix) Mix A 1 part peat (sphagnum) 1 part vermiculite plus base fertilizers - ground limestone - super phosphate - calcium nitrate - calcium nitrate - trace elements, and - wetting agent Mix B 1 Part sphagnum peat 1 Part perlite plus base fertilizers Mix C 2 parts peat (sphagnum) 1 part vermiculite 1 part perlite Plus base fertilizers
PLSC 210-Horticulture Science Chapter 9

Lights and Lighting

I. THE SOLAR RADIATION 1. Nature of Radiation
-Electromagnetic spectrum (wave or particle) -Measured b wave length and frequency

-Visible light: 400-700 nm -Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): 400-700 nm

2. Solar Radiation Reaching the Earth

-Atmospheric Window (most visible, PAR) -Filtration by: Ozone Filter (ultraviolet light, long wave light) CO2 Filter (infrared light, heat waves) Water Vapor Filter (Far red, infrared)

3. Greenhouse Effect
-The visible range light reaches the earth -The earth reradiates long rays (infrared) to atmosphere -Infrared light is absorbed by watervapor and CO2 in the atmosphere heating the earth's atmosphere (as in a greenhouse)

II. MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT (LIGHT INTENSITY) 1. Radiometric Measurement

-Measurement of light energy -Units: Joules, calories, watts (watt m-2) 1 Joule = 0.24 cal 1 watt = Joule . s-1

2. Photometric Measurement
-Measurement of brightness -Units: foot candle, lux, mol m-2s-1 (PPF, Photosynthetic photon flux)

Conversions

1 foot candle = 10.76 lux 1 lux = 0.1 ft. c.

Example

A bright day 10,000 f.c. 100, 000 lux 2,000 mol m-2s-1

Overcast day 1,000 f.c. 10,000 lux 200 mol m-2s-1

For sun light conversion factor is 54 lux /54 = mol m-2s-1 (PAR) or mol /m2 sec

Conversion factor (divisor) -incandescent lamp: 50 -C.W. Fluorescent lamp: 74 -H.P. Sodium lamp: 82 -mercury 84

III. THE LIGHT ENERGY BUDGET (PAR) Water traspiration (39%) Back Radiation from Soil (34%) Reflection by Plants (20%) Heating Soil (2%) Heating Air (4%) Plant Growth (photosynthesis) (1%) (100% total recieved) IV. LIGHTING FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS 1. Purpose
-To keep the plant slightly abobe light compensation point (indoor plants) -To increase crop yield for intensive agriculture i.e. winter lighting of roses results in up to 20% yield increase for Valentines Day market

2. Light Sources
-Incandescent lamps not energy efficient -Use fluorescent lamps (daylight, cool white, etc) -Use HID lamps (high intensity discharge lamps) high pressure sodium lamps metal halide lamps mercury vapor lamps

3. Cautions
-CO2 must be enrched whan light intensity increased -keep temperature optimum -more labor to harvest -reverse day to night for growth rooms (tissue culture)

IV. LIGHTING FOR PHOTOPERIOD CONTROLS (LOW LIGHT INTESITY) 1. Purpose

-to keep short day plants vegetative (prevent flower initiation) -to flower long day plants under short day condition

2. Light Source
-use incandescent lamps (more economical)

3. Recommendation
-for day extension, light after sunset to 10 pm -Night break (11 pm to 2 am) more economical (short day plants) (1 am to 2 am)

Chapter 10. Temperature 1. Introduction

A. Temperature Units: oF, oC, Kelvin (K)
Water Freezing 0 Temp Boiling 100

Celsius ( oC)

Fahrenheit ( oF)
o

32

212

F = 9/5 C + 32 C = 5/9 (oF - 32) Precise temperature measurements are made by using thermocouples or thermistors

Table 1. Temperature Conversion Table

To convert a temperature in either Celsius or Fahrenheit to the other scale, find that temperature in the center column, and then find the equivalent temperature in the other scale in either the Celsius column to the left or in the Fahrenheit column to the right. On the Celsius scale the temperature of melting ice is 0 oand tile temperature of boiling water is 100 oat normal atmospheric pressure. On the Fahrenheit scale the equivalent temperatures are 32o and 212o respectively. The formula for converting Celsius to Fahrenheit is 'F = % oC + 32, and the formula for converting Fahrenheit to Celsius is oC = -5/9(oF - 32).

C or oF
-100 -95 -90 -85 -80 -75 -70 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 1 2

C or oF
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

C or oF
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 67 69 70 71 72 75 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83

-73.33 -75.56 -67.78 -65.00 -62.22 -59.45 -56.67 -53.89 -51.11 -48.34 -45.56 -42.78 -40.0 -37.23 -34.44 -31.67 -28.89 -26.12 -23.33 -20.56 -17.8 -17.2 -16.7

-148.0 -139.0 -130.0 -121.0 -112.0 -103.0 -94.0 -85.0 -85.0 -67.0 -58.0 -49.0 -40.0 -31.0 -22.0 -13.0 -4.0 5.0 14.0 23.0 32.0 33.8 35.6

-6.67 -6.11 -5.56 -5.00 -4.44 -3.89 -3.33 -2.78 -2.78 -1.67 -1.11 -0.56 0 0.56 1.11 16.7 2.22 2.78 3.33 3.89 4.44 5.00 5.56

68.0 69.8 71.6 73.4 75.2 77.0 78.8 80.6 80.6 84.2 86.0 8708 89.6 91.4 93.2 95.0 96.8 98.6 100.4 102.2 104.0 105.8 108.6

15.6 16.1 16.7 17.2 17.8 18.3 18.9 19.4 19.4 20.6 21.1 21.7 22.2 22.8 23.3 23.9 24.4 25.0 25.6 26.4 26.7 27.2 27.8 28.3

140.0 141.8 143.6 145.4 147.2 149.0 150.8 152.6 152.6 156.2 158.0 15 161.6 163.4 165.2 167.0 168.8 170.6 172.4 174.2 176.0 177.8 179.6 181.4

-16.1 -15.6 -15.0 -14.4 -13.9 -13.3 -12.8 -12.2 -11.7 -11.1 -10.6 -10.0 -9.44 -8.89 -8.33 -7.78

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

37.4 39.2 41.0 42.87 44.6 46.4 48.2 50.0 51.8 53.6 55.4 57.2 59.0 60.8 62.6 64.4

6.11 6.67 7.22 7.78 8.33 8.89 9.44 10.0 10.6 11.1 11.7 12.2 12.8 13.3 13.9 14.4

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

109.4 111.2 113.0 114.8 116.6 118.4 120.2 122.0 123.8 125.6 127.4 129.2 131.0 132.8 134.6 136.4

28.9 29.4 30.0 30.6 31.1 31.7 32.2 32.8 33.3 33.9 34.4 35.0 35.6 36.1 36.7 3702

84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

183.2 185.0 186.8 188.6 190.4 192.2 194.0 195.8 197.6 199.4 201.2 203.0 204.8 206.6 208.4 210.2

B. Heat Units: cal, kcal, BTU a. cal = calorie = Amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1g water by 1C (specifically from 15 oC to 16 oC) (1 kcal = 1000 cal) b. BTU = British Thermal Unit = Amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1 lb water by o 1 F (specifically from 62 F to 63F) (1 BTU = 252 cal) C. Heat Absorption and Release by Water Solid (Ice) Vapor
heat

> Liquid

heat*

> Gas

(water)
- heat

(vapor)
- heat**

> Water

> Ice

*Heat of vaporization = 970 BTU/lb

When water evaporated, heat energy (979 btu/lb) is absorbed from the surrounding. This phenomenon is utilized in the evaporative cooling system in greenhouse production.

**Heat of Fusion
When water freezes, it releases heat to the surrounding.

This phenomenon is widely applied in horticulture - Sprinking of water on the trees to form ice in a citrus orchard

D. Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Temperatures

2. Movement of HeatEnergy
A. Convection - Transfer of heat from one place to another by air or water movement

B. Conduction - Transfer of heat from a point of higher temp to that of a lower temp

C. Radiation - Emission of heat energy from a surface of metal to air

3. Biological Effects of Temperature

A. Q10 - Change in rate of chemical reaction brought about by a 10 oC temperature rise The rate of reaction doubles every time temp rises 10 oC - To reduce the rate of respiration, fruits and vegetables are stored in the refrigerator. B. High temperature damage Desiccation injury due to excessive water loss Heat tolerance by production of heat-shock proteins C. Low temperature damage
When cell saps (protoplasm) or intercelluar water freeezes, ice crystals are formed. These ice crystals rupture cell walls, making the cell contents leak out and killing the plant. The tissues of cold tolerant plants like evergreens do not form ice crystals, keeping cell

walls intact.

Supercooling- presence of water in liquid or non-crystalline state below the freezing point by osmotic adjustment Example - pine needles D. Hardening Cold acclimation - plants acclimate themselves Cold acclimatization - we acclimatize plants Increase in the concentration of carbohydrates (sugars) as osmoticum E. Cryogenic Storage Storage in liquid N (-196 oC, -320 oF) - pollen, seed, meristem

4. Dewpoint and Frost

A. Dewpoint Temperature at which RH reaches 100% Condensation (dew) of water vapor at temp dew point, 32F B. Frost White Frost - Frozen dew occurs when air temp is dew point 32F and when humidity is high Black Frost - freezing of tissue appearing 'dark' occurs when humidity is low (at above dew point, below 32F) C. Causes of Frost Radiation frost - formed by rapid radiation of heat to air (clear day, 32F by weather forecast) Air-mass freeze - by cold air mass with temp below 32F (most winter cold damage)

5. Thermal Belt and Temperature Inversion

A. Thermal belt A relatively warm microclimate formed by cold air drainage, usually on a slope good site for orchard South-facing vs. north-facing

B. Frost pocket Usually formed by temperature inversion in low areas of a valley site for cold drainage use wind machine to mix air

6. Temperature Controls
A. Cultural practices Mulching - use of crop residue or organic materials use of plastics (clear vs. opaque) B. Frost control 1) by Escape - Wait seedling transplanting until it is frost-free (mid May in Fargo?) - Delay blooming - variety selection, evaporative cooling - Use of INA bacteria? (strawberry in California) genetically engineered or mutant ice-nucleating active bacteria

2) by Reduction of heat loss Hotcaps Plastic tunnels Cold frames - for seedling culture 3) by addition of heat Smudging - burning of fuel in orchard Water sprinkling (heat of fusion released) to form ice on plant Florida orchards

7. Plant Growing Structures

CEA- Controlled Environment Agriculture (Read page 285 text) (Greenhouse Production) a. Cold frames - inexpensive, mostly for seedling culture, bulb-forcing b. Hotbeds -seedling culture Heat source - composting, electrical, hot water c. Cloches and plastic tunnels - extensively used in Europe and Japan d. Greenhouses - more than 85% used for floriculture (US) over 65% used for vegetables in Europe e. Shade houses - for hardening plants for transplanting (mostly for nursery crops)
PLSC 210: Lecture 13

MINERAL NUTRITION

I. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Element
Macronutrients Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Magnesium Sulfur Calcium Micronutrients Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Boron

Form Approx. Atomic Symbol Available concen. Weight to Plants dry tissue
N P K Mg S Ca Fe Mn Zn Cu B NO3-, NH4+ PO4-3, HPO4-2, H2PO4K+ Mg2+ SO42Ca2+ Fe2+ ,Fe3+ Mn2+ Zn2+ Cu2+ BO32- , B4O72MoO42Cl14.0 31.0 39.1 24.3 32.1 40.0 55.9 54.9 65.4 63.5 10.8 4.0% 0.5% 4.0% 0.5% 0.5% 1.0% 200ppm 200ppm 30ppm 10ppm 60ppm

Molybdenum Mo 96.0 2ppm Chloride Cl 35.5 3000ppm Essential but not applied Carbon C CO2 12.0 40% Hydrogen H H2 O 1.0 6% Oxygen O O2, H2O 16.0 40% Elements present but not essential: Na, Se Co, Si, Rb, Sr, F, I

II. MACRONUTRIENTS A. Nitrogen (N)

1) The Soil Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen fixation - Transformation of atmospheric N to nitrogen forms available to plants N-fixing bacteria - Rhizobium (symbiotic) in legumes (soybean, peas, honeylocust; species in Farbaceae) Azotobacter (non-symbiotic) Ammonification and Nitrification

2) N Functions in Plants - component of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll - C/N ratio (Carbohydrate : Nitrogen ratio) High C/N ratio-----Reproductive Low C/N ratio-----Vegetative - Transamination NO3 >NH2 >Glutamic Acid (a.a) > other a.a. >Protein, Enzyme - Essential for fast growth, green color 3) Deficiency and Toxicity Symptoms Deficiency: Reduced growth Yellowing of old leaves

Protein degradation (old leaf) 4) Fertilizers

>amino acids

>move to new leaves

-Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3) (cheap) Calcium Nitrate (CaNO3) (expensive) Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) (expensive) Urea (CO(NH2)2) (cheap) -Most plants prefer 50 : 50 NH4+ : NO32:5 NH4+ form of Nitrogen ------- Soil pH lowers (good for blueberry, Azalea) NO3- form of Nitrogen ------- Soil pH increases -Organic fertilizer (manure, plant residue)- slow acting -Can be applied foliarly

B. Phosphorus (P)
1) Soil Relations -Mineral apatite (Ca5F(PO4)3) provides P -Relatively stable in soil -Has a low mobility (1-2 cm) (therefore top dressing not effective) 2) Plant Funtions -component of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), phospholipids, coenzymes, high-energy

phosphate bonds (ADP,ATP) -seeds are high in P 3) Deficiency and Toxicity -P is mobile in plant tissure (deficiency occurs in older leaves) -Deficiency------dark, purplish color on older leaves -Exess P--------causes deficiency symptoms of An, Cu, Fe, Mn 4) Fertilizers -Superphosphates (May contain F) Single Superphosphate (8.6% P) CaH4(PO4)2 Triple Superphospate (20% P) -Ammonium Phosphate ((NH4)2PO4) NH4HPO4 phosphoric acid (H3PO4) potassium phosphate, ect -Bonemeal -Absorption of available forms is influenced by pH

C. Potassium (K)
1) Soil Relations -Present in large amounts in mineral soil -Low in organic soil 2)Plant Functions -Activator of many enzymes -Regulation of water movement across membranes and through stomata (Guard cell function)

3) Deficiency and Toxicity Symptoms -Deficiency----- marginal necrosis, browning on leafs, older leaves more affected -Toxicity------- leaf tip and marginal necrosis 4)Fertilizers -Potassium cloride (murate of potash) KCl -Potassium sulfate K2SO4 -Potassium nitrate KNO3

D. Calcium (Ca)
1) Soil Relations -present in large quantities in earth's surface (~ 4%)

1% in U.S. top soils -influences availability of other ions from soil 2) Plant Functions -Component of cell walls -Involved in membrane function -Calcium pectate in middle lamela Calcium pectate is immobile in tissues 3) Deficiency and Toxicity -Deficiency symptoms in young leaves and new shoots (immobile) stunted growth, leaf distortion, necrotic spots, shoot tip death, blossom-end rot in tomato

-No Ca toxicity symptoms 4) Fertilizers -Agricultural meal (finely ground CaCO3. MgCO3 ) -Lime (CaCO3) gypsum (CaSo4) -Superphosphate Bonemeal- organic

E. Sulfur (S)
1) Soil Relations -present in mineral pyrite (FeS2 fool's gold), sulfides (S-mineral complex) and suldates (involving SO4-2) -mostly contained in organic matter -acid rain provided sulfur 2) Plant Funtions -component of amino acids (Methionine cysteine) -constituent of coenzymes and vitamins -responsible for pungency and flavor (Onion, garlic, mustard) 3) Deficiency and Toxicity -Deficiency---------------- light green or yellowing on new growth (Sulfur is immobile in tissues) -Toxicity------------------ Not commonly seen 4) Fertilizers -Gypsum (CaSO4) -Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4) -Ammonium Sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) -Elemental Sulfur

F. Magnesium
1) Soil Relations

-presentin soil as an exchangeable cation (Mg2+) -similar to Ca2+ as a cation 2) Plant Functions -core component of chlorophyll molecule -catalyst for certain enzyme activity

3) Deficiency and Toxicity -Deficiency------------------ Interveinal chlorosis on mature leaves (Mg is highly mobile in plant) -Toxicity--------------------- Causes deficiency symptomsof Ca, K 4) Fertilizers -Dolomite ( CaCO3 . MgCO3 mixture) -Epsom salt (MgSO4) -Magnesium Nitrate (Mg(NO3)2)

III. MACRONUTRIENTS A. Iron (Fe)

Component of cytochromes- for photosynthesis Essential for nitrogen fixation (Nitrate reductase) and respiration Deficiency------ Interveinal chlorosis on new growth Iron Chlorosis at High pH Remedy- Use Iron chelates lower soil pH FeEDTA (Fe330)- Stable at pH <7.0 FeEDDHA (Fe138)-Stable even when pH>7.0 EDTA- Ethylene diamine Tetraacetic acid EDDHA- Ethylene diamine dihyroxy phenylacetic acid

B. Manganese (Mn)
Required for chlorophyll synthesis; Oxygen evolution in PHS; activates some enzyme systems Deficiency----- Mottled chlorosis between main veins of new leaves (Mn is imobile) Similar to iron chlorosis Toxicity------- Chlorosis on new growth with small, numerous dark spots Deficiency occurs in high pH soils; toxicity at low pH Fertilizers----- MnSO4 MnEDTA (chelate) for high pH soils

C. Boron (B)
Involved in Carbohydrate metabolism Essential for flowering, pollen germination, nitrogen metabolism Defficiency-- New growth malformed (distorted), flowering and fruit set depressed, roots and tubers cracked Toxicity----- Twig dieback, fruit splitting, leaf edge burns Fertilizers--- Boraz (Na2B4O7 . 10H2O) Calcium borate (CaB4O7 . 4H2O)

D. Zinc (Zn)
Involved in protein synthesis, IAA (natural axin) synthesis Deficiency (in calcarious soil adn high pH) -Growth suppression, reduced internode length -Rosetting, interveinal chlorosis on young leaves (Zn is immbile in tissues) Toxicity (at low pH) -Growth reduction, leaf chlorosis

E. Molybdenum (Mo)
Required for nitrate reductase activity, vitamin synthesis Root-nodule bacteria also requires Mo Defficiency (at low pH) -pale-green cupped leaves (young leaves-immobile) -'strap' leaf in broad leaf plants Toxicity -Chlorosis with orange color pigmentation Fertilizer- Sodium Molybdate

F. Copper (Cu)
-Essential component of several enzymes for chlorophyll synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism. Defficiency---varied symptoms rosette or "witch's" broom Toxicity------ Chlorosis Fertilizer--- Copper Sulfate (CuSO4)

G. Chlorine (Cl)
-Essential for photosynthetic ozygen evolution Defficiency-- Normally not existing but can be experimentally induced) Toxicity----- Never used (Cl in ubiquitous!!!)

IV. FERTILIZER CONENTRATION CALCULATIONS A. Analysis

1) Commercial Analysis Based on % total weights of nitrogen (N), phosphoric oxide (P2O5) ant potash (K2O) in that order Ex. 10-10-10 commercial analysis contains 10% N, 10% phosphoric acid, 10% potash 2) Elemental Analysis Bases on % total weights of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), in elemental forms, arranged in that order Ex. 10-10-10 elemental analysis contains 10% N, 10% P, 10% K

B. Conversion of Commercial Analysis to Elemental Analysis

Fertilizer Phosphorus Potassium Oxide to Element 044 0.83 Element to Oxide 2.29 1.20

C. Concentrations
1. Units ppm = parts per million (mg/liter) mM = millimolar (1 mM = 0.001 M) meq/l = milliequivalent per liter (1 meq = 0.001 eq)

V. HYDROPONICS A. Fertilizers
1) Hoagland Solution (1950) 2) Modifications of Hoagland solution

Major Nutrients

(Ca, Mg, K, N, P, S)

B. Systems
1) Aeroponics 2) Hydroponics (closed system, open system) 3) Aggregate Culture----Gravel, Sand, Rockwool

Chapter 15. Plant Growth Regulation

I. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL A. Graft Combination 1.Restriction of Growth -Use of dwarfing root stock -Use of dwarfing interstock

Apple - dwarfing rootstocks -East Malling (EM) series -Malling Merton (MM) series

Pear - use of 'Angers' quince rootstock 2. Stimulation of Growth -Pear-Apple hybrid grafted on pear or apple rootstocks -Juniperus virginiana grafted on J. chinensis 3. For Flowering and Productivity -Sweet potato grafted on Morning glory -Certain rootstocks hasten flowering B. Phloem Disruption 1. Bark inversion 2. Ringing 3. Scoring

C. Population Competition 1. Interplant competition - between plants -plant size affected by planting density -total yield per unit area 2. Intraplant competition - within a plant

-Fruit thinning -Flower and fruit quality (disbudding) D. Mechanical Stress 1. Rubbing and touching reduces plant height Thigmomorphogenesis 2. Shaking reduces plant height Seismomorphogenis II. CHEMICAL CONTROL A. Rooting of Cuttings -Auxins promote adventitious roots -Indolebutyric acid (IBA) liquid - 50% ETOH powder - diluted by talc

B. Growth Promotion -Auxins, cytokinins, Gibberellins NAA BA GA3 -Multiple branching, flower stem length (GA3), fruit set C. Defoliation -Ethephon (Ethylene), Abscisic acid (ABA) -used in cotton harvesting Defoliant

D. Flower Induction -'Florigen' an elusive chemical

-Use of auxins and ethephon (ethylene)

-Flower induction in pineapple and bromeliads NAA, 2, 4-D, Ethephon - Ethrel E. Flower Sex Conversions -Gibberellins (GA3) promote maleness -Ethylene and auxins promote femaleness Cucumber:

Muskmelon:

F. Fruit Thinning -Auxin derivatives (peach, apple, pear) -Gibberellins (grape) - grapes G. Fruit Ripening -Ethylene gas -Ripening of banana, tomatoes H. Parthenocarpy -Development of fruit without pollination -Auxins, gibberellins greenhouse cucumbers - seedless cultivars (Holland)

I. Dormancy Breaking -Substitutes cold treatment effect -Flower bud break by GA3 in Azalea Also Easter lily bulb cooling J. Pruning -Chemical pinching agent (i.e. Atrinal, Off-Shoot-O) Azalea * K. Growth Retardants -Height control in flower crops Phosphon, B-9, A-Rest, Cycocel, *paclobutrazol (Bonzi) *Uniconozol (Sumagic) *long-lasting -Tree height control under utility lines Use of long-lasting growth retardants Bonzi, Sumagic L. Stress Protectants -Cold protection -Antitranspirants (ABA) Stomatal closure