FURTHER ORTHOGONAL ARRAYS

The Taguchi approach to experimental design Create matrices from factors and factor levels - either an inner array or design matrix (controllable factors) - or an outer array or noise matrix (uncontrollable factors) Here number of experiments required significantly reduced How?

Orthogonal arrays
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Orthogonal arrays Orthogonal arrays

Trivial many versus vital few Matrix of numbers

each column each factor or interaction each row levels of factors and interactions Main property: every factor setting occurs same number of times for every test setting of all other factors Allows for lots of comparisons Any two columns form a complete 2-factor factorial design Critical concept the LINEAR GRAPH

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First example: L4 array a half-replicate of a 23 experiment 4 experiments: factors level 1 or 2 3 factors? look at the linear graph: 2 nodes (columns 1 and 2) + 1 linkage (between 1 and 2 i.e. 2 factors + 1 interaction
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The L4 array cannot estimate 3 base factors (not yet!) also the nodes are different designs - associated with the degree of difficulty with changing the level of a particular factor Acknowledges that not all factors are easy to change Easy means easy to use as it only changes a minimum number of times if one factor is harder to change put it in column 1, as this only changes once Same for any size array
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L8 (27) array here 7 factors at 2 levels or 7 entities at 2 levels IMPORTANT! there are no 3-way interactions or higher represented by this method total replicate = 128 tests here only 8!
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Also 2 linear graphs (templates for candidate experiments) 4 main effects + 3 interactions so long as one of the graphs fits your experiment - use the array! If not choose another or modify the graph (later)

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Another template the L9 (34) array here 4 factors, each at 3 levels should be 81 tests - actually 9 2 base factors only others confounded with interactions

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Many others: L16 (215) 5 base factors + 10 2-way interactions

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L27 (313) very powerful array

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Also can have arrays for factors of varying number of levels e.g. L18 (21 x 37) i.e. a hybrid (see later)

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CASE STUDY T6

A consumer magazine subscription service has four factors A, B, C and D, each to be analysed at two levels. Also of interest are the interactions of BxC, BxD and CxD. Show the experimental design for this case

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7 factors/interactions 2 levels A,B,C,D and BC, BD, CD 27? note: check the linear graphs! if they match use the L8 approach factor A stand-alone i.e. no interaction of interest factor B,C,D base factors + 2 x 2-way interactions

1=B 2=C 3=BC 4=D 5=BD 6=CD 7=A 8/06/2007

fits!
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i.e.

can we modify these graphs (templates) to account for other experimental designs? yes!
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CASE STUDY T7
The rapid transport authority in a large metropolitan area has identified five factors, A, B, C, D and E, each to be investigated at 2 levels. Interactions AC and AD are also of interest. Determine an appropriate experimental design.

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Here A, B, C, D, E + AC and AD i.e. 7 factors/interactions (5+2) candidate array = L8 (27) currently not an option it gives 4 factors + 3 interactions we need 5 factors + 2 interactions

we can modify the graph by breaking a link and creating a node from it preliminary allocation: interaction 6? (AE)
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Pull it out and turn it into a node! i.e. the experiment now fits completely i.e. BUT/ factor B and interaction AE are now confounded therefore must assume AE = insignificant Orthogonal arrays lots of similar assumptions

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Orthogonal arrays - graphs can be used to see what designs are possible either direct or modified Assumes no higher order interactions and that not all base factors or 2-way interactions are necessary plus-side 128 tests per replicate 8 tests!

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HYBRID ORTHOGONAL ARRAYS

CASE STUDY T8

i.e. technique for when not all factors have the same no. of levels
A commercial bank has identified 5 factors (A-E) that have an impact on its volume of loans. There are 4 levels of factor A and 2 levels for each of the other factors. Determine an appropriate experimental design

First find no. of degrees of freedom for each factor (always 1 less than no. of levels) i.e. A = 3; B=C=D=E = 1 total = 7 Same as for L8 array (7 columns) use L8 as our hybrid design template each column a 2-level interaction 1 degree of freedom/column
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7 columns:

3 for A and 1 each for the other factors

BUT/ which factor in which column? Consult the linear graph must identify a line that can be removed easily e.g. remove 1,2 and 3

to give
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 a new column 1 made up of old columns 1,2,3 7 columns now 5 a new A column

sequentially index them i.e. rows 1,2, A=1 rows 3,4, A=2 rows 5,6, A=3 rows 7,8 A=4

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Estimation of effects
We have the experimental design. now run it! How many replicates? Often decided using noise factors Why include noise factors? To identify design factor levels that are least sensitive to noise i.e. robust (r times)

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e.g.

4 factors:

A, B, C, D + 3 noise factors: E, F, G

need a design array (L9) and a noise array (L4) i.e. standard procedure 9 experiments run 4 times

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2 extra columns Mean response = mean of each set of 4 replicates S/N ratio = Z as given previous and Z used in analysis phase i.e. the parameter design phase Taguchi approach uses simple plots to make inferences (ANOVA also possible) Main effect of a factor factor A levels 1,2,3 level 1 experiments 1,2,3 level 2 experiments 4,5,6 level 3 experiments 7,8,9
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 mean response when A is at level 1:

y1 + y2 + y3 A1 = 3
Another example; factor B at level 3: For each factor 3 points

etc

y1 + y2 + y3 A1 = 3

now plot!!

3 types of plot:
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Type a:

effect not significant i.e. not worth bothering with (?) effect = non-linear best selection region where curve is flattest (i.e. minimum gradient i.e. minimum variability with response variable here level 2 is the most robust setting

Type b:

Type c:

effect = linear here factor = adjustment parameter gradient is constant constant variation but can change mean response easily

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Can repeat the procedure with interaction effects:

y1 + y2 + y7 + y8 Interaction of BxC ( BxC )1 = 4 y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 and ( BxC )2 = 4

CASE STUDY T9
Various components of a drug for lung cancer have positive and negative effects depending on the amount used. Scientists have identified four independent factors that seem to affect the performance of the drug.
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4 factors x 3 levels

L9 (34)

need to modify the array assume no interaction factors Now run tests (target value = 0)

Only 1 replicate no noise factors possible

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Main effects:

etc

3.5 + 7.3 + 1.8 A1 = = 1.867 3 4.4 + 9.5 6.2 A2 = = 0.367 3 4.0 + 2.4 2.5 = 1.367 A3 = now plot 3

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So what? B and D non-linear A almost linear C linear

For a robust system set B and D to level 2 to reduce variability Then move the response value to zero using adjustment factors i.e. set A and C to level 2 optimal setting = A=B=C=D=2 NOTE/ not one of our original experiments! This is the essence of Taguchi parameter design

- to find the best parameter settings using 2-stage optimization and indirect experimentation

of course further testing will confirm this

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