Unit 1 1 What are the mobile fading characteristics?

Drive the formula for the standing wave and statistics of fading. Ans- In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel comprising fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading. 2 Explain the concept of frequency reuse channels. Derive mathematical formula for cochannel interference factor. Ans- The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must use different frequencies, however there is no problem with two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the same frequency. The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse factor. The reuse distance, D is calculated as

where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per cluster. Cells may vary in radius in the ranges (1 km to 30 km). The boundaries of the cells can also overlap between adjacent cells and large cells can be divided into smaller cells. Unit 3 5 Explain following in context of GSM: (1) Mobility management- Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM or a UMTS network that allows mobile phones to work. The aim of mobility management is to track where the subscribers are, allowing calls, SMS and other mobile phone services to be delivered to them. Mobility management (MM) entails the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) systems keeping track of the mobile while it is on the move. Basically, we have two different situations: mobile idle and mobile busy. (2) Security management- Network security[1] consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer networkand network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users choose or are assigned an ID and password or other authenticating information that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used in everyday jobs conducting transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and

individuals. Networks can be private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access. Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It does as its title explains: It secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing operations being done. The most common and simple way of protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password. (3) Communication management- Communications management is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and revision of all the channels of communication within an organization, and between organizations; it also includes the organization and dissemination of new communication directives connected with an organization, network, or communications technology. Aspects of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies, designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of information, including onlinecommunication. New technology forces constant innovation on the part of communications managers. (4) Network management- Network management refers to the activities, methods, procedures, and tools that pertain to the operation, administration, maintenance, and provisioning of networked systems.[1]

Operation deals with keeping the network (and the services that the network provides) up and running smoothly. It includes monitoring the network to spot problems as soon as possible, ideally before users are affected. Administration deals with keeping track of resources in the network and how they are assigned. It includes all the "housekeeping" that is necessary to keep the network under control. Maintenance is concerned with performing repairs and upgradesfor example, when equipment must be replaced, when a router needs a patch for an operating system image, when a new switch is added to a network. Maintenance also involves corrective and preventive measures to make the managed network run "better", such as adjusting device configuration parameters. Provisioning is concerned with configuring resources in the network to support a given service. For example, this might include setting up the network so that a new customer can receive voice service.

A common way of characterizing network management functions is FCAPSFault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance and Security. Functions that are performed as part of network management accordingly include controlling, planning, allocating, deploying, coordinating, and monitoring the resources of a network, network planning, frequency allocation, predetermined traffic routing to support load balancing, cryptographic key distribution authorization, configuration management, fault management, security management, performance management, bandwidth management, Route analytics and accounting management. Data for network management is collected through several mechanisms, including agents installed on infrastructure, synthetic monitoring that simulates transactions,

logs of activity, sniffers andreal user monitoring. In the past network management mainly consisted of monitoring whether devices were up or down; today performance management has become a crucial part of the IT team's role which brings about a host of challengesespecially for global organizations.

(6) Explain with reference to CDMA: (1)Output power limits and control(2)Modulation characteristics- CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access[6] technique. A spread spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of (symbol period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of (chip period). (Note: bandwidth is proportional to where = bit time) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is . Since is much smaller than , the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.[7]

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross correlation. If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multipath interference. (3)Authentication,encryption and privacy- CAVE (Cellular Authentication and Voice Encryption) There are two network entities involved in CAVE-based authentication when roaming:

Authentication Center (AC) a.k.a. HLR/AC, AuC Located in a roamers home network, the AC controls the authentication process and either authenticates

the Mobile Station (Mobile Phone, MS) or shares SSD with the serving VLR to allow this authentication to occur locally. The AC must be provisioned with an A-key value for each MS. Authentication is predicated on the assumption that A-key value provisioned in an MS is the same as the A-key value provisioned in the AC. The AC is often co-located with the HLR and referred to as the HLR/AC. However, the AC could be a standalone network entity that serves one or more HLRs. Though the CDMA abbreviation is AC, the GSM abbreviation of AuC is sometimes used (albeit incorrectly in CDMA networks).

Visitor Location Register (VLR) If SSD is shared with the visited network, the VLR locally authenticates the roamer. Otherwise, the VLR proxies authentication responses from roamers to their home HLR/AC for authentication.

The authentication controller is the entity that determines whether the response from the MS is correct. Depending upon whether SSD is shared, the authentication controller may be either the AC or VLR. In either case, CAVE-based authentication is based on the CAVE algorithm and the following two shared keys:

Authentication key (A-key) A 64-bit primary secret key known only to the MS and AC. In the case of RUIM equipped mobiles, the A-key is stored on the RUIM; otherwise, it is stored in semi-permanent memory on the MS. The A-key is never shared with roaming partners. However, it is used to generate a secondary key known as SSD that may be shared with a roaming partner to enable local authentication in the visited network.

Shared Secret Data (SSD) A 128-bit secondary secret key that is calculated using the CAVE algorithm during an SSD Update procedure. During this procedure both MS and the AC in the users home network separately calculate SSD. It is this SSD, not the A-key that is used during authentication. SSD may or may not be shared between home and roaming partner networks to enable local authentication. SSD consists of two 64-bit keys: SSD_A, which is used during authentication to calculate authentication signatures, and SSD_B, which is used in the generation of session keys for encryption and voice privacy.

(4)Call processing- Call Processing Call processing puts together everything weve covered so far. There are slight differences in the way the RCS and FSU process calls, so we will cover both the Forward link (RCS to FSU) and Reverse link (FSU to RCS). Note that the system uses Frequency Division Duplexing for the Forward and Reverse links: they transmit over different frequencies. In the forward direction, the RCS:

1. Generates CDMA data signal for each traffic channel:

FEC codes the Information data, and converts the data to two-bit symbols. Converts the symbols to I and Q data, and pads each data stream to 64 kbits/sec. Generates the Complex PN code for each channel. Multiplies the Complex Information data and the Complex PN code together. Reads APC data from FSU, digitally scales channels accordingly.

2. Generates other signal channels:

Calculates APC signal Converts it to I data only Multiplies it with its own Complex PN code

3. Adds all signals together:

Traffic channels APC channel Order Wire channel Global Pilot

4. Adds together the signals for all currently active FSUs. 5. Modulates and transmits carriers

I and Q data modulate Cosine and Sine carriers. Carriers are combined, amplified, and broadcast.

(5) Handoff procedure- In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another. Insatellite communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth station to another without loss or interruption of service. In telecommunications there may be different reasons why a handover might be conducted:

when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering the area covered by another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to avoid call termination when the phone gets outside the range of the first cell; when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an existing or new call from a phone, which is located in an area overlapped by another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to free-up some capacity in the first cell for other users, who can only be connected to that cell; in non-CDMA networks when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by another phone using the same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred to a different channel in the same cell or to a different channel in another cell in order to avoid the interference; again in non-CDMA networks when the user behaviour changes, e.g. when a fast-travelling user, connected to a large, umbrella-type of cell, stops then the call may be transferred to a smaller macro cell or even to a micro cell in order to free capacity on the umbrella cell for

other fast-traveling users and to reduce the potential interference to other cells or users (this works in reverse too, when a user is detected to be moving faster than a certain threshold, the call can be transferred to a larger umbrella-type of cell in order to minimize the frequency of the handovers due to this movement); in CDMA networks a handover (see further down) may be induced in order to reduce the interference to a smaller neighboring cell due to the "near-far" effect even when the phone still has an excellent connection to its current cell;