Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting III Alexander et al.

. (eds) 2012 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-89952-9

Novel cement-based composites for strengthening and repair of concrete structures

V. Mechtcherine
Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universitt Dresden, Dresden, Germany

ABSTRACT: In the last 30 years the construction industry branch having to do with the repair, protection and strengthening of concrete has experienced explosive growth. This has been driven by the need to reverse the deterioration of, damage to, and defects in concrete structures as well as by changes in building use and code requirements. Accordingly, there is great need to improve the materials and techniques used in repair and strengthening. This article focuses on novel High-Performance Fibre-Reinforced Cementbased Composites (HPFRCCs) for strengthening and repair of buildings and infrastructure made of concrete and, in some cases, masonry. Two new types of such material, Textile-Reinforced Concrete (TRC) and Strain-Hardening Cement-based Composites (SHCCs), are introduced, highlighting with particular care the benefits and challenges of using HPFRCCs. Specific compositions and production techniques of the composites are presented, followed by a discussion of their mechanical properties in respect of their use on the job. Some reference is made to approaches in considering the load-carrying capacity of the strengthening layers made of HPFRCCs. Furthermore, the transport properties through layers of cracked composites are described as the basis for estimating how well they can protect concrete and its steel reinforcement against ingressing fluids and gases, i.e., against their deterioration. Finally, a number of practical applications of TRC and SHCC are described in order to demonstrate their great potential in the field of rehabilitation of existing concrete structures. 1 INTRODUCTION 2 COMPOSITION, PRODUCTION, AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The number of existing concrete structures is enormous and is rapidly increasing; more than seven billion cubic meters of concrete are poured worldwide each year. Accordingly, there is a huge demand for repair work to maintain the quality of concrete structures for the duration of their service lives. In many cases repair and strengthening of concrete structures must be performed only a few years after their completion, sometimes immediately thereafter. The dramatic growth in the repair and strengthening industry over the past 30 years has resulted in the need for many improvements in material, design practice, installation procedures, contracting processes, QA/QC procedures, education, and more. These improvements are needed to enhance service life, reduce costs, and minimize conflicts (Emmons & Sordyl 2006). Innovative, fibre-reinforced, cement-based materials may play an important role in solving existing problems. In this article two new types of such material, textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) and strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCCs), are considered, highlighting with particular care the benefits and challenges of using HPFRCCs.

Both TRC and SHCC are cement-based composites consisting of finely grained matrices and fine, non-metallic fibres. Both materials have an overcritical fibre content, which leads to tensile strain-hardening behaviour characterized by the formation of many fine cracks and, thus, by relatively large deformations. But in their mechanical performance there are also clear differences which have implications with regard to their use in strengthening and repair. Continuous, stretched and, directed multifilament yarns in TRC provide the composite with high tensile strength and strain capacity, which exceed that of ordinary concrete by many times; i.e., the ultimate strain at failure is at least an order of magnitude higher than that of ordinary concrete. In short, dispersed fibre in SHCC enable only a moderate increase in tensile strength; however, their strain capacity is one order of magnitude higher than that of TRC and two orders higher than that of ordinary concrete. Furthermore, the kind of reinforcement, i.e., textile or short dispersed fibre, affects the choice of technique used in the placing of strengthening or repair layers on the existing structural elements.

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2.1

Textile-reinforced concrete

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Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) is a composite material consisting of a matrix with a maximum aggregate grain size between 1 and 2 mm and highperformance, continuous multifilament-yarns made of alkali-resistant (AR) glass, carbon, or polymer. The major advantages of TRC are its high tensile strength and pseudo-ductile behaviour, the latter characterized by large deformations due to its tolerance of multiple cracking, see Figure 1. With its excellent mechanical properties this material can be highly appropriate to many applications both for new, light structures and for the strengthening or repair of old structural elements made of reinforced concrete or other traditional materials (Curbach 2003, Brameshuber 2006). Biaxial or multi-axial reinforcement fabrics consist of multi-filament yarns comprised of several hundred to several thousand individual filaments approximately 5 to 25 m in diameter. The yarns in the textile-reinforced elements can be placed according to the applicable stresses by varying the amount and orientation of the multi-filament yarns (density and distance of yarns as well as the angle of wefts) (Peled et al. 2008). The fine-grained concrete usually has a water-to-binder ratio of approximately 0.3 with a binder content of 40 to 50% by volume. The high content of binder is essential for sufficient bonding between the fine concrete and the filaments of the textile reinforcement as well as for the workability of the fresh concrete (Butler et al. 2009). Several fabrication techniques of TRC can be used (Brameshuber 2006); however, in strengthening and repair the lamination technique in combination with low-pressure spraying seem to be most suitable. The mechanical performance of TRC under tensile loading can vary widely depending, first of all, on the quality and quantity of textile reinforcement. 2.2 Strain-hardening cement-based composites

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical response of a TRC specimen subjected to uniaxial tensile loading with indication of cracking states.
[MPa] 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 wcr [m] 80 60 wcr 40 20 2 3 4 5 [%] 0

Figure 2. Typical tensile stress-strain curve and stressmean crack width curve for SHCC (Altmann et al. 2009).

Strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCC) reinforced by short polymer fibres constitute a relatively new class of building material, which exhibits pseudo-strain hardening behaviour by forming multiple cracks when subjected to tensile loading (Li 1993, Mechtcherine 2005, Fischer & Li 2006, Toledo Filho et al. 2011). The high ductility and strain capacity of SHCC give this material high potential for use in applications in which high, nonelastic deformability is needed, see Figure 2. Some of the most promising applications are structural repair to and strengthening of existing structures. The material design of SHCC is based on consideration of the mechanical interactions between fibre and matrix via an interface (Li 1993). The main criterion, which is indispensable in achieving the composite response characteristic of SHCC is the steady-state cracking criterion. In order to fulfill it,

it is necessary to use very fine fibres which are well distributed in the matrix and to adjust the strength of the matrix as well as the strength of the matrix/ fibre interface to appropriate levels. When the interface is too weak, the fibres pull out too early. When the interface is too strong, the fibres break, resulting in premature failure of the composite. The demand of fine fibre distribution makes mandatory the use of only very fine sand as aggregates. Fine Polyvinylalcohol (PVA) and High-density Polyethylene (HDPE) fibre with high aspect ratios were found to be most suitable as reinforcement. Apart from considerations of strength and toughness, very good workability in the fresh state is essential in order to guarantee the very uniform distribution of fibres throughout the matrix. It was shown that SHCC can be applied by different methods: By pouring into formwork, by spraying, or even by extrusion (e.g., Fischer & Li 2006). For purposes of repair or strengthening, spraying could be the best option in most cases. 3 STRENGTHNING OF EXISTING STRUCTURES

3.1 Textile-reinforced concrete The work of the Collaborative Research Center 528 of the German Research Society at the TU

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Dresden demonstrated that TRC can be used efficiently in strengthening different structural elements containing steel-reinforcements such as beams, columns, plates, or slabs. Figure 3 shows the principle in considering a TRC-strengthening layer in structural design. To calculate the flexural load-carrying capacity of strengthened slabs, the well established design model for steel-reinforced concrete is extended with an additional tension force assumed by the TRC layer. The ultimate load depends upon the strain capacity of the strengthening TRC material as measured in uniaxial tension tests and upon the contribution of the steel reinforcement. However, it is likely that the stress-strain behaviour of the TRC layer bonded at the concrete substrate differs to some extent from that of the plate TRC specimens subjected to uniaxial tension. The extent of this influence is still under investigation (Brckner et al. 2006). The first practical application of this innovative strengthening method using textile-reinforced concrete was carried out in 2006 in the retrofit of a steel-reinforced concrete roof shell in Schweinfurt, Germany (Weiland et al. 2008). The 80 mmthick steel reinforced concrete hypar-shell has a side length of approximately 27 m and a maximum span of approximately 39 m. Due to its large deformations (drops of up to 200 mm) in the shells cantilevered areas, the designed tensile stresses in the upper steel reinforcement layer of the shell were exceeded significantly (see Figure 4). Strengthening with textile-reinforced concrete couples the advantages of a two-dimensional reinforcement layer with a low dead weight. To establish an adequate interaction between the existing concrete and the textile-reinforced strengthening layer sandblasting and subsequent generous wetting of the old concrete surface was carried out. Altogether, three layers of carbon-yarn textile were placed using a lamination technique. The total thickness of the strengthening TRC layer was only approximately 15 mm. Schladitz et al. (2009) give a second example for structural strengthening. This case concerned a large, barrel-shaped historical concrete roof which covers a room measuring 16 m 7 m. The roof consists of curved, steel-reinforced concrete slabs of 80 mm thickness, supported by eleven beams, each with a width of 200 mm and a height of 250 mm. Nine of the ten slabs include rectangular light openings. The construction of a new structure or a trusssupport of the roof was blocked by the German historical preservation authorities. The thickness of the existing slender beam-slab construction would increase and the use of traditional shotcreting for strengthening would have led to a considerable increase in dead weight, resulting in additional loading to the structure and its supports. The use of externally glued lamellae would have made

additional measures necessary in order to stabilise the bond between the lamellae and the concave underside of the beam and slab. In addition, the complex load distribution internal to the slabs with their rectangular openings would require complicated lamella arrangements to counter stress concentrations. Furthermore, CFC lamellae would be adversely affected in case of fire. The lower end of the T-beam cross-section was strengthened by 5 layers of TRC with carbon textile having a width of 200 mm, see Figure 5. On both the upper and lower sides of the curved slab structure, two layers of textile reinforcement were necessary to ensure the designed ultimate load carrying capacity. 3.2 Strain-hardening cement-based composites

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The strengthening of RC structures using SHCC is most advantageous with respect to increasing their resistance to dynamic, energetic loading such as found in earthquakes, soft or hard impact, explosion waves etc. Kim et al. (2010) demonstrated the effect of the strengthening of non-ductile frames using precast infill walls made of SHCC. Investigations by Fischer & Li (2007) clearly showed an increase in the load-carrying capacity and integrity of columns subjected to lateral cyclic loading when ordinary steel-reinforced concrete was replaced by SHCC with steel reinforcement. From these results it may be concluded that strengthening layers with or in some cases without steel reinforcement might be very efficient in improving the robustness of structural members subjected to dynamic loading. Furthermore, SHCC layers without additional reinforcement might contribute to the shear resistance of thinly walled RC structures.

Figure 3. Internal forces and strains in the cross-section of a RC beam or slab strengthened with a TRC layer, according to Brckner et al. 2006.

Figure 4. Steel reinforced concrete hypar-shell of FH Schweinfurt, Germany (Weiland et al. 2008).

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REPAIR AND PROTECTION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES

Figure 5. Placing of the textile reinforcement (Schladitz et al. 2009).

A very promising application is the improvement of overall mechanical performance of existing masonry buildings in general and their earthquake resistance in particular by a thin layer of wet-sprayed, strain-hardening, cement-based composites (SHCC) (Mechtcherine et al. 2012). The effectiveness of such strengthening was demonstrated by shear testing on the masonry elements of dimensions 1.25 m x 1.00 m x 0.175 m. Rigid RC beams were fixed to the top and bottom of the wall to guarantee its uniform shear loading (Figure 6). SHCC layers were sprayed on both surfaces with an average thickness of 10 mm. Cyclic horizontal shear loading FH was applied. The displacement sH of the RC beam was increased stepwise by approximately 1 mm in both directions until failure of the wall occurred. For each new displacement level three load cycles were performed, see Figures 7 and 8. The vertical load Fv of 150 kN was kept constant during the entire test. This load simulated the self-weight of the building structure above the masonry element under consideration. Shear testing of the masonry elements was performed approx. 56 days after application of the SHCC layers. Figures 7 and 8 shows the representative shear force FH versus the diagonal deformation sD1 diagrams for the non-strengthened reference masonry element and the element reinforced with SHCC, respectively. It can be seen that the reference wall reached failure at approximately sD1 = 3 mm and FH = 75 kN, while the strengthened wall, on the other hand, resisted a shear load FH of nearly 100 kN, showing virtually no diagonal deformation sD1, meaning no material damage occurred at this stage. A shear test of the first wall strengthened with sprayed SHCC was stopped at the end of the deformation cycles at an amplitude of 4 mm. At this point the oscillation of the hydraulic jaw became too great. No damage to the strengthened masonry element could be observed because of the obviously insufficient stiffness of the shear load frame. For future testing the use of a more rigid frame is foreseen.

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In the case of using TRC or SHCC for the repair of RC structures, first of all, a protective function is expected of the repair layers. This function can be transferred additionally to the strengthening function or be the main purpose of the repair measure. Since both TRC and SHCC exhibit high deformability due to their fine, well distributed cracking, the repair layers made of such materials are fit to bridge existing and future cracks in the substrate. Furthermore, fine crack patterns can be considered beneficial with respect to the protection of the concrete substrate and its steel reinforcement against the ingress of water, ions and gases. 4.1 Use of TRC for repair and protection

Lieboldt et al. (2011) investigated the transport mechanisms of water in and through composite concrete

Figure 6. Test setup for shear tests on wall elements (dimensions are given in cm). The small arrows represent LVDTs for measurement of deformations (Mechtcherine et al. 2012).

Figure 7. Shear load FH and diagonal deformation sD1 of the reference masonry element (Mechtcherine et al. 2012).

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Figure 8. Shear load FH and diagonal deformation sD1 of the masonry element strengthened with a layer of SHCC (Mechtcherine et al. 2012).

specimens made of a cracked ordinary concrete (OC) as a substrate and textile reinforced concrete (TRC) as a cover layer for its strengthening and repair. Since in real applications such TRC layers may be cracked or presumed to be so, thereby activating the loadcarrying function of the textile reinforcement, the TRC layer was cracked for purposes of this study. The water transport in the OC specimens without the TRC layer was used as reference. Neutron radiography served as the testing technique. In ordinary concrete quick and deep ingress of water through relatively wide macro-cracks (100 to 200 m), followed by transport through the capillary pore system, caused saturation of large areas in a rather short time, see Figure 9a. TRC applied to the OC surface reduced the ingress of water to a large extent, see Figure 9b. Its small crack widths of approximately 20 m changed suction behaviour fundamentally. In the cracked substrate of ordinary concrete, capillary suction was obviated, and transport through the pore system of the matrix became the prevailing transport mechanism of capillary action. Not only was the mechanism altered, but the transport of water deep into inner regions was significantly retarded as well. Since cracks in TRC are very fine, self-healing must consequently have a pronounced effect on the transport properties of TRC-layers. Water permeation measurements carried out by Mechtcherine & Lieboldt (2011) on saturated TRC specimens showed that after storing the cracked TRC in water for 14 days, the flow rate was reduced to less than 50% of the value obtained on the same specimen before storing in water. No measurable volume flow occurred after continued water exposure of 21 to 35 days, the particular duration depending on the type of the textile reinforcement used. In many countries a rising groundwater level is a great problem. Residential buildings are often not designed for the load case of pressing water

and have to be additionally protected. Hinzen et al. (2006) proposed sealing the residual buildings, which consist of a concrete floor base and masonry walls by a TRC layer with a thickness of about 30 mm. Such system only reduces living space minimally and protects the building against pressing water rising up to heights of 2.5 m. Orlowsky and Raupach (2011) showed using crack-bridging tests the ability of textile reinforcement to distribute the crack movements of a crack in a substrate into several fine cracks in the reinforced repair layer. Eventually, applying textile-reinforced sprayed mortar was successfully demonstrated under construction conditions for the repair of a hydraulic structure in Germany. The dam pillars had numerous cracks (widths between 0.1 and 3 mm) and open joints. After a period of 6 months, no cracks in the layer TRC were visible, although movements of some cracks were registered in the substrate. Further observation will show the appropriateness of this new system for the repair of such structures. 4.2 Use of SHCC for repair and protection

The high tensile strain capacity of strain-hardening, cement-based composites (SHCC) is well suited to bridging cracks in residual structural components.

Figure 9. Water uptake by specimens made of ordinary concrete a) without and b) with a protective layer of cracked TRC (with carbon textile) on the bottom side (neutron radiography images after 30 minutes of capillary suction).

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Kamal et al. (2008) showed that the cracked regions in both the zero-span tensile tests and flexural tests of repaired beams were only adjacent to the existing cracks (or artificial crack) with a quite limited width of the cracked regions, see Figure 10. Similar findings were published by Wagner and Slowik (2012). Four-point bending tests on precracked, reinforced concrete beams to investigate the crack-bridging behaviour of SHCC layers with thicknesses of 30 mm and 40 mm demonstrated the crack-bridging effect of such repair layers. While the artificial cracks in the substrate of the concrete beam were opened, numerous small cracks were formed with widths of less than 50 m. The bridging effect could be observed up to a crack opening displacement of 600 m in the reinforced concrete beam. The water-transport properties of various cracked cementitious materials have been studied by a number of researchers, cf. Zijl & Wittmann (2011). These investigations demonstrate the significance of crack width and cumulative crack length in controlling the permeability and water absorption of cracked SHCC. A comparison with values for ordinary concrete shows that for strain levels up to 0.5% the water absorption of SHCC is comparable to that of sound concrete. There is very little information available on the air permeability of cracked SHCC, but it seems that the air permeability of uncracked SHCC is well within the range of typical values for ordinary concrete. For material strained up to 0.5%, an increase of almost two orders of magnitude has been observed by Mechtcherine et al. (2007). A number of very promising applications of SHCC for repair and protection have been already demonstrated. In 2003, the Mitaka Dam, a gravity concrete dam in Hiroshima/Japan, was repaired (Kojima et al. 2004). 30 m3 of SHCC was sprayed onto an area of 500 m2 on the upstream side of the dam to a thickness of 30 mm to improve the waterproofing performance of the deteriorated existing concrete surface. An anchor was driven for each 1.5 m2 to ensure the bond between the base concrete and SHCC. A similar measure was tested in Thringen, Germany in 2011, when SHCC developed at the TU Dresden was used to repair the upper water reservoir of the hydraulic power pumping station Hohenwarte II. Before repair the reservoir wall showed cracks, defective joints, scaling of the concrete and other defects. The purpose of the pilot project was to restore the water tightness of the wall in just one working step using a single, sprayed layer of SHCC, see Figure 11. Due to its ductility this repair material should durably seal defect joints and cracks, but SHCC should provide as well a smooth, durable cover for the concrete substrate. Since the reservoir walls are exposed to high water saturation and considerable changes in water level, the danger of frost

damage is considerable. The use of conventional air-entrainment agents is possible with SHCC, but not when the spaying technique is applied. For this reason superabsorbent polymers (SAP) were introduced as a new additive to improve the frost resistance of the repair layer. More information on the use of SAP in concrete construction may be found in Mechtcherine & Reinhardt (2012). Another interesting example is the use of SHCC as a lining material in the repair of irrigation channels, many of which suffer from significant deterioration after having been in service for several decades. Such an approach has considerable advantages in comparison to resin-type lining materials, which pose problems such as their susceptibility to UV deterioration, vulnerability to delamination if applied to moist surfaces, etc. In Japan, the Central Main Channel (side wall height: 1.1 m, bottom slab width: 1.5 m) in Shiga suffered from surface deterioration and cracks approximately 1 mm wide developing at approximately 1 m intervals. Waterjet was used to treat the substrate to remove the deteriorated mortar. SHCC was troweled to thicknesses of 6 and 10 mm for sidewalls and bottom slabs, respectively. Conventional repair mortar and ultrahigh strength polymer mortar were also used for comparison with SHCC. Cracks were observed on conventional mortar and ultrahigh-strength polymer mortar one month after application, whereas no cracking was found in the SHCC (Rokugo et al. 2005). As one of the first field applications of SHCC, a concrete bridge deck patch was completed in Michigan, USA, in October 2002 (Li & Lepech 2004). One section of a deteriorated bridge deck was repaired with SHCC while the remaining portion was repaired with a commercial, commonly used concrete patching material. Initial on-site visits conducted two days after patching showed no visible SHCC cracking, while a clearly visible crack, approximately 300 m wide, had appeared within the concrete, most likely due to shrinkage deformation. After four months of winter exposure, a number of small microcracks, had formed within the SHCC, while the concrete crack observed shortly after casting had widened to 2 mm and was surrounded by deteriorated and spalling concrete. Observations made 30 months after patching revealed a maximum

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Figure 10. Crack distributions within repair layers adjacent to existing cracks (Kamal et al. 2008).

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Figure 11. Application of SHCC containing SAP as repair material by spraying.

SHCC crack width of 50 m while sections of the concrete patch were deteriorating severely. The second Michigan example shows how the problem with the maintenance and repair of bridge expansion joints can be solved. While necessary to accommodate thermal deformations, these joints often fall into disrepair and eventually leak. This leaking is frequently the cause of damage to the superstructure, allowing water and other corrosives to penetrate below deck and corrode the bridge beams. In constructing a continuous, joint-free bridge deck surface without reconstruction of the entire bridge, an excellent alternative is a bridge deck link slab (Caner & Zia 1998). This slab forms a connector between two adjacent simple bridge spans, creating a continuous deck to prevent leaking while absorbing the thermal deformations of the spans. SHCC is an ideal material for accommodating the types of large tensile strain deformations associated with link slab technology. Furthermore, the inherent steady-state crack width of SHCC allows the use of low reinforcement ratios, resulting in a very flexible link slab. This flexibility is desirable since it allows the link slab to act as a hinge between adjacent simple spans, minimally changing the original designmoment distributions. This results in a much simpler design along with better crack-width control. A demonstration project was completed during summer 2005 (Lepech and Li 2009). The 225 mmthick SHCC link measured 5.5 m by 20.25 m. Two years after this ECC link slab was placed, its performance remains unchanged. With further long-term performance monitoring and additional demonstrated experience, SHCC link slabs can be an effective replacement for conventional expansion joints, resulting in significantly reduced bridge deck maintenance needs. 5 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

structures can be achieved. The application of thin TRC layers is simple and can be adapted to complex geometric forms. Furthermore, TRC is a flexible strengthening system enabling augmentation of maximum static loads upon current demands. The strengthening of RC structures with SHCC layers without additional reinforcement seems to be most meaningful with respect to increasing their resistance to dynamic, energetic loading as with earthquakes, impact, or exposures. In the case of quasi-static loading SHCC layers can be efficiently used for increasing the shear load carrying capacity of slender elements. Further possible applications of SHCC are strengthening of masonry and infill walls. In the case of use of TRC or SHCC for repair of RC structures, a protective function of repair layers is expected in the first place. This function can augment the strengthening function or be the main purpose of the repair measure. Since both TRC and SHCC exhibit high deformability due to fine, well distributed cracking, the repair layers made of such materials are suited to the bridging of existing and future cracks in the substrate. Furthermore, fine crack patterns are beneficial with respect to the protection of the substrate concrete and steel reinforcement against the ingress of water, ions and gases. There is still much work to be done to establish these two new materials in their practical use and to learn to utilise their great potential fully. Since the mechanical performance of strengthening and repair layers is fairly well investigated already, it can be expected that robust design rules will be introduced in the next few years. However, since SHCC and TRC are new materials, there is no information available on their long-term field performance in structural elements and whole structures made from or strengthened with SHCC or TRC. To be able to utilise the superior qualities of this new material fully, it will be necessary to develop a realistic, reliable, performance-based durability design concept for such structures (Mechtcherine 2012). Recently Altmann et al. (2012a, b) took a first step towards such a design concept by developing a fuzzy-probabilistic approach to forecast chloride ingress into SHCC. This approach allows the quantification of parameters based on limited data and expert knowledge. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen Otto von Guericke e. V. (AiF). Additional thanks are due the authors partners at the Technische Universitt Dresden for providing data concerning the strengthening applications of TRC. He extends his thanks as well to the governmental agencies and private companies involved in these projects.

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The application of high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious composites such as TRC or SHCC opens new possibilities in the strengthening and repair of existing concrete structures. In the case of strengthening with TRC, a significant increase in the ultimate load of existing

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