Part II:

Analysis Methods of
Electrical Power Systems
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Functions of Electrical Energy Systems
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Hierarchy and representation of electrical power systems
1.2.1. Transmission lines and apparatus
1.2.2. Transformers
1.2.3. Electric loads
1.2.. !enerators
Chapter 2: etwor! "epresentation
2.1. !raphical and topolo"ical description of a networ#
2.1.1. $e%iew of "raph theory
2.2. Networ# "lo&al modelin"' CI( model
2.3. (atri) representation of networ#s
2.3.1. Networ# matrices
2.3.1.1. Incidence matri)
2.3.1.2. (atri) of elementary networ#
2.3.1.3. Transfer matri)
Chapter #: Formation of etwor! Matrices
3.1. *ormation of the $
%us
matri)
3.2. *ormation of the &
%us
matri)


3.2.1. +ddin" &ranches
3.2.1.1. Calculation of ,
-i
terms
3.2.1.2. Calculation of ,
--
terms
3.2.2. +ddin" cords
3.2.2.1. Calculation of au"mented matri) elements
3.2.2.2. Elimination of fictitious node
3.3 E)ercises
3.3.1 E)ercise No. 12' Construction of ,
&us
matri)
3.3.2 E)ercise No. 13' Construction of networ# matrices
Chapter ': (oad Flow Calculations
.1. O&.ecti%es
.1.1. /efinition of networ# state
.1.2. /e%ice current ratin"
.1.3. 0ine losses
.1.. Strate"y for ad.ustment and control
.1.1. Optimi2in" power transfer capacity
.2. (odel of networ# elements
.2.1. 0ines and transformers
.2.2. !enerators and loads
.2.3. $epresentations of %olta"e
.3. 3ro&lem formulation
.3.1. !eneral e-uations
.3.2. Simplified models
.. Solution methods
..1. !auss4Seidel method
..2. Newton4$aphson method
..3. Calculation of power flows
.1. Software tools for networ# analysis
.5. +ppendi)' principle of numerical iterati%e methods
.5.1. !auss4Seidel method
.5.2. Newton4$aphson method
.6 E)ercises
.6.1 E)ercise No. 1' 0oad flow calculation
.6.2 E)ercise No. 11' 3ower flow
.6.3 E)ercise No. 15' (atrices and load flow

Chapter ): *ransient Analysis Methods
1.1. Interest in transient analysis
1.2. Transient networ# analy2er
1.2.1. 3rinciple of operation
1.2.2. +d%anta"es and disad%anta"es
1.3. (ethod of tra%elin" wa%es
1.3.1. 3rinciple
1.3.2. $epresentation of a line 7or ca&le8
1.3.3. $epresentation of a resistor
1.3.. $epresentation of an inductor
1.3.1. $epresentation of a capacitor
1.3.5. $epresentation of a %olta"e source
1.3.6. Operatin" principle
1.3.9. Illustration e)ample
1.. Conclusions
1.1. E)ercises
1.1.1. E)ercise No. 16' Transient analysis on a line
1.1.2 E)ercise No. 19. (atrices and transient analysis
1.1.3 E)ercise No. 1:. Transient analysis under li"htnin" stri#e
Chapter +: Fault Current Calculations
5.1. /efinition
5.2. Effects of short4circuit conditions
5.3. Common causes of faults
5.. Importance of short4circuit current calculations
5.1. Types of short4circuits
5.5. Notion of short4circuit power
5.6. 3olyphase &alanced and un&alanced systems
5.6.1. ;alanced three4phase systems
5.6.2. Comple) representation
5.6.3. Symmetrical components
5.6.. 3owers in terms of symmetrical components
5.6.1. Symmetrical components and impedance<admittance matrices
5.6.5. Concept of circulatin" matrices
5.6.6. Case of the synchronous machines
5.6.9. Short4circuit current calculations
5.6.9.1. Sin"le4phase4to4"round fault
5.6.9.2. Two4phase4to4"round fault
5.6.:. Other types of faults
5.9. !enerali2ation of fault calculation in comple) networ#s
5.:. Symmetrical 7three4phase8 faults
5.1=. Symmetrical fault currents' systematic approach
5.11. Short4circuit power
5.12. >nsymmetrical fault current calculations
5.12.1. !enerali2ation of symmetrical components
5.12.1.1. 3ositi%e se-uence 7direct8 networ#
5.12.1.2. Ne"ati%e se-uence 7in%erse8 networ#
5.12.1.3. ,ero se-uence 7homopolar8 networ#
5.12.2. Neutral and homopolar currents
5.12.3. Impedances of networ# components
5.12.3.1. Impedance of rotatin" machines
5.12.3.2. Impedance of lines and transformers
5.12.3.3. Homopolar impedance of lines
5.12.3.. Homopolar impedance of transformers
5.12.. Illustration e)ample
5.12.1. Systematic calculation of unsymmetrical fault currents
5.13 E)ercises
5.13.1 E)ercise No. 2=' *ault current in a simple networ#
5.13.2 E)ercise No. 21' Symmetrical faults in a networ#
Chapter ,: Sta%ility Analysis of Power Systems
6.1. O&.ecti%e
6.2. Introduction
6.3. Cate"ories and classes of sta&ility pro&lems
6.. The e-uation of motion
6.1. Simplified model of synchronous machine
6.5. 3ower4an"le considerations at steady4state
6.6. Case of small pertur&ations
6.9. Transient sta&ility
6.:. +pplication of e-ual4area criteria
6.:.1. Case of a short4circuit at "enerator terminals
6.:.2. Critical fault clearin" time
6.:.3. Case of a short4circuit on a line
6.1=. Case of a multi4machine system
6.11 E)ercises
6.11.1 E)ercise No. 22' Sta&ility and critical fault clearin" time
-i%liography
CH+3TE$ 1
*unctions of Electrical Ener"y Systems
1.1. Introduction
Electrical ener"y is produced in particular sites related to the nature of the
primary ener"y source'
mountain for hydroelectric plants?
ri%ers for hydroelectric or nuclear installations?
seaside for nuclear installations and the tidal power plants?
Countryside and coal mines for the thermal plants.
This ener"y is used in centers of consumption which are often located in
places away from the "eneratin" plants. These include
ur&an centers?
industrial centers?
steel and metallur"ical processin" plants?
electrical railway systems?
etc @
Since electric ener"y cannot &e stored in lar"e -uantitiesA it is necessary to
produce itA transmit itA and distri&ute it in real time to %arious customers for
consumption. The role of the transmission network is to essentially carry the
ener"y produced from %arious power plants to the load centers where it is
consumed.
*rom the operational point of %iewA we recall that the crucial role of the
networ# is to allow the supply of power at e%ery moment power re-uired &y
the consumer under "uaranteed fre-uency and %olta"e ma"nitudes. Howe%erA
this constraint re-uires an ad.ustment of the "eneratin" machines and
e-uipment so that'
all apparatus operate in "ood conditions?
the ener"y losses are minimi2ed?
the use of the spinnin" reser%es is optimi2ed?
The limits of the networ# %aria&les are respected under normal
circumstances.
Bhile the networ# is operated such that the a&o%e constrained are met under
normal circumstances throu"h monitoring and ad.ustmentsA there e)ist
howe%er une)pected incidents such asA
short4circuits?
&ad weather 7e.".A li"htnin" stri#es8?
>nintentional trippin".
The role of pre%enti%e maintenance and the security of the networ# are to
assure that the a&o%e incidents should not lead to widespread power outa"e.
The old electrical networ#s were o%ersi2ed and thus redundant &y their
desi"nA which too# into account the re-uirements of security. TodayCs
networ#sA howe%erA are %ery often e)ploited under conditions close to their
limits of operation &ecause of hi"h capital costsA stricter en%ironmental and
societal constraints 7i.e.A the accepta&ility &uildin" new transmission lines
&ecomin" increasin"ly pro&lematic8. The li&erali2ation of the ener"y
mar#ets facilitated power transactions &etween many playersA ener"y
producers as well as consumersA who can &e located in different territories.
This led to an increase in the num&er and %olume of ener"y transfers on the
networ# that was ori"inally desi"ned to operate in a monopolistic mode.
These power e)chan"esA which si"nificantly increased after the introduction
of mar#et competitionA are strainin" many parts of the transmission networ#.
This situation of fra"ilityA with respect to incidents &ein" a&le to occur in the
course of e)ploitationA has led the networ# operators to set up means of
reactin" in an ade-uate way at the time of critical situations for se%eral
decades 7well &efore the ad%ent of competition8. The dia"ram of *i"ure 1.1
&elow illustrates the installation of these measures. These issues which are
matters of analysis concern all the elements of the life of the networ#A from
its lon"4term plannin" to the study of fast transient phenomena.
Ncessit de
dcisions rapides
Automatisation
des actions
Contrle en temps rel
Rsolution pralable de nombreux
problmes
Translation'
Necessity de decisions rapides' Necessity of rapid decisions
+utomati2ation des actions' +utomated actions
Control en temps reel' $eal time control
$esolution preala&le de nom&reu) pro&lems' 3riority resolution of the numerous pro&lems
Figure 1.1. Strategic elements of network control.
The list &elow shows the ma.ority of the a&o%e su&.ects. The analytical
methods de%eloped in the chapters that follow will allow a precise and
thorou"h study'
networ# plannin"?
relia&ility studies?
simulation of operation?
load forecastin" and distri&ution?
short4circuit analysis?
hi"h %olta"e transients?
insulation coordination?
protection and ad.ustment of relays?
analysis of static and dynamic security?
optimal reser%e mana"ement?
con"estion mana"ement?
etc @
Each one of the a&o%e su&.ects has its own time4constant and re-uires a
resolution adapted to its time scale. ThusA the reinforcement of a networ#
must &e en%isa"ed years in ad%anceA while the elimination of a short4circuit
must &e carried out in a few milliseconds. The dia"ram of *i"ure 1.2 shows
the %arious time scales that one meets in the life of an electric "rid.
Time scale
1=
:
D 1= years 0on"4term plannin" 7strate"iesA scenarios8A
networ# reinforcementA maintenance.

1=
5
D 1= days 0oad forecastA load distri&ution.
1=
3
D 11 min Security studyA controlsA tur&ine monitorin"
and re"ulation.

1=
=
D 1sec. /ata transmissionA state estimationA %olta"e and
speed re"ulation.
1=
43
D 1ms 3rotection' o%er%olta"es 7li"htnin"A switchin"
operation8A short4circuits.
=
Figure 1.2 Time scale.
1.2. /ierarchy and representation of electrical power systems
Each of the studies listed a&o%e re-uires a "ood #nowled"e of the topolo"y
of the networ# and characteristics of its elementary components. Topolo"y
can &e descri&ed or represented &y a dia"ram of the networ# which is
"enerally a three4phase networ#. Its operation will in most cases &e reduced
to the study of the &eha%ior of one of its phasesA which allows it
representation &y a one4line dia"ram. *i"ures 1 .3a "i%es an illustration of
such dia"rams.
+lthou"h electrical power networ#s are in "eneral three4phaseA the
representation &y one phase is the first information source used 7&y
considerin" a &alanced networ#8. SchematicallyA one resorts to a
representation #nown as one line4dia"ram 7see *i"ure 1.3&8. This
representation is more compact &ut comprises a loss of information compared
to the precedin" representationA especially when the system under study not
completely &alanced. In this representationA one represents only the "eneral
structure of the networ#.

Figure 1.3a. Three-phase representation of a power network.
Figure 1.3b Equialent single-phase network.
Howe%erA it should &e noted that a complete representation of the networ#
would re-uire for e)ample a detailed description of the three4phase
transformersA circuit &rea#ers 7compressed airA oilA etc...8A line details 7si2eA
len"thA etc@8A insulator locationsA the "eometry of &us&arsA etc. This
representation is of course not necessary for the ma.ority of the studies -uoted
a&o%e. The unifilar representation will thus "i%e us the essence of the
EsimplifiedE information includin" the %arious %olta"e le%els in the networ#.
The unifilar networ# includesA in addition to the connections &etween the
%arious nodes of the networ#A information li#e line impedancesA the power
and the electromoti%e force 7emf8 of the "eneratorsA and the electric
representation of the loads. Bhen the study re-uires only the information of
connection &etween the %arious nodes and the lines which compose the
networ#A this latter can &e represented &y a "raph as indicated in *i"ure 1.3c
which schemati2es the networ# shown in fi"ures 1.3a and 1.3&. The
0
0
C
0
C
0
0
C
0
C
1 2
#
'
1
1 2
#
'
1
parameters which ma#e it possi&le to characteri2e the operation of the
networ# are defined &y their per4unit 7p.u.8 %alues which ma#e it possi&le to
fi) the nominal %alues at a %alue e-ual to 1.
Figure 1.3c !raph correspon"ing to unifilar network of Fig. 1.3b.
1.2.1. Transmission Lines and Apparatus
The transmission lines are defined &y F4model which characteri2es lines of
medium len"th whose parameters are resistance $A reactance G D H0 and
susceptance ; D HC. In case of the lon" linesA one can always use their
e-ui%alent F4model. The static compensators for %olta"e supportA the shunt
reactorsA and the series capacitors for the lon" lines are defined &y their
admittance I
c
or specific parameters.
1.2.2. Transformers
Transformers which operate at their nominal turn ratio do not appear in a
dia"ram where all the electric -uantities are represented in per4unit %alues.
On the other handA transformers e-uipped with tap chan"ers under load 7or in
%acuum8 are represented in a specific way. In the unifilar dia"ramA they are
denoted &y the sym&ol shown in *i"ure 1. &elow.
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5
4
7
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5
4
7

Figure 1.# $epresentation of transformer with tap changer.

1.2.#. Electric Loads
The loads can &e represented in se%eral ways'
a8 +cti%e power 738 and reacti%e power 7J8'
3 D $e 72IK8
J D Im 72IK8
where 2 and I are respecti%ely the %olta"e and current phasorsA and
the sym&ol 7K8 indicates comple) con.u"ate. This modelin"A which is
in polar formA is used in load flow calculations as one will see it in
Chapter .
&8 Impedance'
%
e & &
where
'
(
1
tan

This representation is often used in sta&ility studiesA and ma#es it
possi&le to reduce the e-ui%alent unifilar networ# to one that
contains only "eneration nodes.
c8 Current sin#'
I 3 24&
This representation is often used in modelin" distri&ution networ#s that
characteri2ed &y radial topolo"ical structures.
It is worth notin" that the a&o%e load representations are %alid for steady4
state analysis only 7EstaticE mode8. ThusA they do not ta#e account of the
dynamic characteristics of these loads.
1.2.'. Generators
The "eneratorsA the ma.ority of which consist of synchronous machinesA are
represented either &y their e-ui%alent circuit with acti%e power production
and internal %olta"e 73A L8 in studies in%ol%in" steady4state. Note that
"enerators are "enerally e-uipped with %olta"e re"ulators which ma#e it
possi&le to maintain the %olta"e ma"nitude at their terminals. *or the static
studiesA the power produced &y electric "enerators is also considered
constant.
CH+3TE$ 2
Networ# $epresentation
2.1. 0raphical and topological description of a networ!
The studies -uoted in Chapter 1 re-uire the modelin" of the networ#s. Be
&e"in this modelin" with a description of the topolo"y of these networ#s.
The "raph theory pro%ides us useful elements to carry out this modelin".
+ "raph is a concise manner of description of the &onds &etween topolo"ical
entities which are representati%e points of a "eometrical structureA called
nodesA and of the connectin" elements which connect these points. + "raph
can &e a "eometrical drawin" which illustrates these connections "raphically.
Howe%erA its informational representation is characteri2ed &y a ta&le which
has the properties of &inary matrices. The elements of these are = or 1 with
possi&ly a si"n when the "raph #nown to ha%e a directionA as it is in the
"eneral case of electrical networ#s. Be will successi%ely study the properties
of "raphs and those of their associated matrices.
2.1.1. Review of graph theory
!raph) a drawin" with defined points called no"es connected &y
elements called branches.
*nci"ence) a node and a &ranch are #nown as inci"ents if the node is
one of the terminals of the &ranch.
'ath) formed &y connected ed"es in such a way that one has at most
two incident &ranches at each node.
+riente" graph) "raph in which one assi"ns a direction in each
&ranch.
,onnecte" graph) "raph in which there e)ists a path &etween each
pair of nodes.
,ircuit) closed path.
Tree) "raph containin" all the nodes &ut no circuit.
-ranch) lin# of a tree.
,or") &ranch &elon"in" to the "raph &ut not to the tree.
,o-tree) a "roup of lin#s of a "raph which do not &elon" to a tree.
,ut) a "roup of lin#s whose e)traction causes the separation of the
"raph in se%eral dis.oined "raphs.
Fun"amental circuits) "roup of independent circuits each containin"
only one cord.
Fun"amental cuts) "roup of cuts each containin" only one &ranch.
3roposition' Consider a directed "raph containin" n nodes and e lin#s. Bhen
any tree is chosenA
the num&er of &ranches is' & D n41?
the num&er of cords is' l D e4nM1?
the num&er of fundamental circuits is' m D e4nM1?
the num&er of fundamental cuts is' c D n41?
the chosen orientation
of a circuit' that of the associated cord?
Of a cut' that of the associated &ranch.
*i"ures 2.1 illustrate these concepts on the "raph defined in the e)ample of
networ# representation earlier in Chapter 1. *i"ures 2.1aA &A cA and d
respecti%ely show the networ# representation &y a directed "raphA a tree with
cords and &ranchesA fundamental circuitsA and fundamental cuts.
Figure 2.1a $epresentation of a network of Fig 1.3 by a "irecte" graph.
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5
4
7
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5
4
7
Figure 2.1b Tree with branches .1-#/0 an" cor"s .1-2/.
Figure 2.1c Fun"amental circuits .E0 F0 !/.
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5
4
7
'
1
1
2
#
6
1
2
3
5 4
7
!
"
#
1
6
1
2
3
5 4
7
A
$
C
%
'
2
1
#
Figure 2.1" Fun"amental cuts .30 -0 ,0 4/.
Startin" from a description of the networ# &y a unifilar dia"ram and
e)traction of the "raph which is the topolo"ical representationA it is possi&le
to see# &y speciali2ed al"orithms possi&le trees and associated cordsA
&ranches and circuits. +s will &e seen in the sections that followA this
description will allow the deri%ation of the networ# e-uations.
2.2. etwor! glo%al modeling: CIM model
Electrical power networ#s are inter4connected and one cannot study part of a
system without ha%in" a sufficient #nowled"e of the nei"h&orin" systems. It
is therefore essential to esta&lish information e)chan"e &etween the networ#
operators &oth within the same electric utility company and &etween
different companies. +ny e)chan"e of data is consistent with the interchan"e
formats &ased on the models most commonly used in electric systems. Thus
a model which is used &y all companies internationally called ECommon
Information (odelE 7CI(8 was created.
CI( is a conceptual model which is de%eloped under the ae"is of the
International Electrotechnical Commission 7IEC8 in a lan"ua"e of the type
>(0 .5nifie" 6o"eling 7anguage/ N>(0 =3O. This model co%ers the
whole data necessary to the study and e)ploitation of electric systemsA
includin" the operations of mar#et &etween companies or producers and
consumers.
The complete model is of a "reat comple)ity and contains se%eral sections.
One particular sectionA which ma#es it possi&le to represent the data specific
to the networ# elements and the types of calculationA will &e descri&ed in the
followin" chapters. The section under consideration contains the topolo"y of
the systemA the electrical data of all the elements of the system 7linesA
transformersA circuit &rea#ersA electric power "enerators8 and load modelin".
+ detailed description of CI( model is &eyond the framewor# of this wor#
and interested readers may consult N+L+ =5O.
2.#. Matri5 representation of networ!s
The formulation of the e-uations of networ# is &ased on the definition of a
coherent and e)act mathematical model which descri&es the characteristics of
the indi%idual components 7machinesA linesA transformersA loads8 and the
interconnection &etween these components. The matri) e-uation is a suita&le
model adapted to the mathematical treatment and processin" under a
systemic aspect. The matri) elements can &e either impe"ances 7when node
%olta"es are written in terms of in.ected currents8A or a"mittances 7when
in.ected currents are written in terms of node %olta"es8.
2.3.1. etwor! "atrices
The networ# can &e descri&ed &y three types of matrices'
Elementary matrices 7or primiti%e8' these matrices descri&e the
indi%idual components &y ta#in" into accountA if necessaryA their
electroma"netic 7capaciti%e and inducti%e8 couplin"s for lines
ha%in" common or partial ri"ht4of4ways. They are of dia"onal
structure e)cept for the components whose couplin" is
represented &y non4dia"onal elements?
*nci"ence matrices' these matrices descri&e the interconnections
&etween the %arious components of the networ#. The terms of
these matrices are &inary di"its 1A =A 4 1A which represent the
&ond &etween &ranches and nodes of the networ# with their
orientation?
Transfer matrices' these matrices descri&e in a mathematical
way the electric &eha%ior of the mesh networ#. They are
essentially impedance or admittance matrices which correspond
to the nodes of the networ# 7nodal matrices8.
The relation &etween the a&o%e three matrices can &e descri&ed &y the
operational e-uation of *i"ure 2.2. The fi"ure shows that the transfer matri)
is o&tained from a comple) operation usin" the elementary matri) and the
incidence matri). This operation will studied in the followin" sections.
Translation'
(atrice primiti%e' Elementary (atri)
(atrice dCincidence' Incidence (atri)
(atrice de Transfer' Transfer (atri)
Figure 2.2 8etwork matrices.
&atrice
'rimiti(e
&atrice
d)*ncidence
&atrice de
+rans,ert
&atrice
'rimiti(e
&atrice
d)*ncidence
&atrice de
+rans,ert
2.3.1.1. *nci"ence 6atri9
+s indicated a&o%eA the incidence matrices characteri2e the relation &etween
the networ# elements 7"enerally called &ranches8 and the nodes connectin"
these elements.
2.3.1.1.1. Incidence (atri) branches-no"es' P3Q
/efinition' It is a matri) 3 with "eneral term Ra
i%
S and dimension 7e ) n8 such
as'
a
i%
# 1 if &ranch i is incident with node . and is directed towards this
node?
a
i%
# $ 1 if &ranch i is incident with node . and is directed away from
this node?
a
i%
# : if &ranch i is non4incident with node ..
3roperties T *or e%ery line i'
=
1
=

n
%
i%
a
Indeed on the same line correspondin" to the &ranch referred &y iA there are
only two non2ero elements' The first corresponds to the startin" node with
%alue 1A and the second corresponds to the arri%al node with the %alue 4 1.
The a&o%e property indicates that the num&er of rows of the matri) is lower
than n.
2.3.1.1.2. Incidence matri) &ranches4access' P3;Q
This corresponds to the incidence matri) &ranch4node in which the choice of
a node of reference 7for %olta"e8 led to the remo%al of a column of the matri)
P3Q 7in "eneral the first8. This matri) is of row n 4 1.
2.3.1.1.3. Incidence matri) &ranches4fundamental cuts' P-Q
/efinition' It is a matri) - of "eneral term R&
i.
S and dimension 7e ) &8 such
as'
b
i%
# % 1 if the i
th
&ranch &elon"s to the .
th
fundamental cut with same
orientation?
b
i%
# $ 1 if the i
th
&ranch &elon"s to the .
th
fundamental cut with
opposite orientation?
b
i%
# : if the i
th
&ranch does not &elon" to the .
th
fundamental cut.
3roperties ' 0et the followin" su&4matrices of P3Q and P-Q &e denoted &y'
3
b
) &ranches<accessA
3
c
' cords<access.
-
b
' fundamental &ranches<cutsA
-
c
' cords<fundamental cuts.
Since there is an identity &etween the &ranches and the fundamental cutsA
then the su&4matri) -
b
is equal to the unity matri9 *. (oreo%er one can
notice that the product'
-
c
<3
b
D incidence matri) cords<access
Bhich is precisely the su&4matri) 3
c
A i.e.A
-
c
<3
b
= 3
c
The a&o%e yields

-
c
=3
c
< 3
b
-1
ThusA one can &uild the matri) ; from su&4 matrices 3
b
and 3
c
of matri) 3
&y the formula'
1 1
O N

b c
3 3 -
2.3.1.1.. Incidence matri) lin#s4fundamental circuits) P,Q
/efinition' It is a matri) C of "eneral term Rc
i.
S and of dimension 7e ) m8
such as'
c
i%
= > 1 if the i
th
lin# &elon"s to the .
th
fundamental circuit with
same orientation?
c
i%
= - 1 if the i
th
lin# &elon"s to the .
th
fundamental circuit with
opposite orientation?
c
i%
# : if the i
th
does not &elon" to the .
th
fundamental circuit.
3roperties' 0et the followin" su&4matrices of P,Q &e denoted as follows'
,
b
' &ranches<fundamental circuits?
,
c
' cords<fundamental circuits.
Since there is identity &etween the cords and fundamental circuitA the su&4
matri) ,
c
is equal to the unity matri9 *.
E)ample of incidence matrices' If the "raphs of *i"ures 2.1a 4 2.1c are
condensed into one "raph as displayed in *i"ure 2.3 which shows the
&ranchesA cordsA fundamental circuits and fundamental A one can easily &uild
matrices 30 -A and , correspondin" to this "raph'
Figure 2.3 !raph for the matrices 30 -0 ,0 of network.
1
6
1
2
3
5 4
7
A
$
C
%
'
2
1
#
!
"
#
2.3.1.2. 6atrices of elementary network ?ST @AB
/efinition' One calls Eelementary networ#E the set of all components of the
networ# includin" their electric and ma"netic couplin"s.
Each component is defined &y its impedance 2
p-
or admittance y
p-
D 1<2
p-
where su&scripts p and - represent the startin" and arri%al nodesA
respecti%ely. (oreo%erA the "enerators are modeled &y an electromoti%e
force 7emf8 e
p-
in series with internal impedance 7The%enin e-ui%alent8A or a
current source U
p-
in parallel with internal admittance 7Norton e-ui%alent8.
2.3.1.2.1. E-uation in terms of impedance
*i"ure 2. &elow shows the The%enin circuit 7i.e.A electromoti%e force in
series with internal impedance8 of a "enerator. The terminal %olta"e %
p-
is
related to the current i
p-
A emf e
p-
and impedance 2
p-
as follows'
%
p-
M e
p-
D 2
p-
. i
p-
72.18
Figure 2.# !enerator represente" in impe"ance form.
2.3.1.2.2. E-uation in terms of admittance
*i"ure 2.1 shows the Norton e-ui%alent circuit of a "enerator 7i.e.A current
source in parallel with "enerator admittance8. In hereA the currents i
p-
and U
p-
and the "enerator terminal %olta"e %
p-
are related &y e-uation 72.28.
Figure 2.1 !enerator represente" in a"mittance form.
i
p-
M U
p-
D y
p-
.%
p-
72.28
U
p-
D 4 y
p-
.e
p-
The matri) of the elementary networ# is a matri) whose dia"onal elements
correspond to the impedances of each lin# of the networ#. These impedances
are referred to as self4impedancesA and are denoted &y four su&scripts

2
p-Ap-
to
indicate that it is the self4impedance of the lin# p-. On the other handA the
couplin" impedances of &etween the lin#s p- and rsA which represent the off4
y
pq
p q
E
p
E
q
i
p-
(
p-
. "
p
/ "
-
0
p-
y
pq
p q
E
p
E
q
i
p-
(
p-
. "
p
/ "
-
0
p-
z
pq
p q
E
p
E
q
z
pq
p q
E
p
E
q
(
p-
. "
p
/ "
-
e
pq
i
p-
dia"onal elements of the matri) 7as illustrated in *i"ure 2.58A are denoted &y
2
p-A rs
.
Figure 2.@ ,ouple" elements.
Since a transmission line is "enerally coupled with not more than two linesA
there will &e only few non4dia"onal elements in the matri) of the elementary
networ#. *i"ure 2.6 shows the current %ector iA the %olta"e %ector 6A and the
impedance 7 matri) of the elementary networ#A with dia"onal and off4
dia"onal elements illustrated for column rs and row p-.
Figure 2.2 Coltage-current relations in an elementary network.
SimilarlyA if one represents the current sources and electromoti%e forces &y
%ectors e and 8A one can o&tain the e-uations of the elementary networ#
&elow.
.
.
pq
.
rs I
12
I
13
.
.
.
I
23
.
.
.
I
pq
.
.
.
* =
v
12
v
13
.
.
.
v
23
.
.
.
v
pq
.
.
.
( = 1=
z
pq,pq
z
pq,rs
z
pq,pq
z
pq,rs
z
pq,rs
2
p-3rs
ou 4
p-3rs
p
q
r s
2
p-3rs
ou 4
p-3rs
p
q
r s
69e 3 7i

i 9 8 3 y6 72.38
y3 7
:1
E)ample of Elementary Networ# ' Consider the networ# &elow in *i"ure 2.9
with nodes and 1 lin#s. It is assumed that there is couplin" &etween line
pairs 142 and 14A as indicated &y the yellow arrows. *or identification
purposesA lin#s 1 and which are &oth connected in parallel &etween nodes 1
and 2 are denoted &y indices 718 and 728A respecti%ely.
Figure 2.A E9ample of elementary network.
The presentation of this networ# is shown &elow in the form of a connection
3
1
2
4
3
1
4
5
2
(1)
(2)
3
1
2
4
3
1
4
5
2
(1)
(2)
ta&le listin" the %alues of the self4impedances of the lin#s and the couplin"
impedances 7if applica&le8. The impedances are "i%en in per4unit %alues.
lin# +ccess Self4
Impedance
+ccess (utual4
Impedance
1
142 718
=.5
2 143 =.1
142 718
=.1
3 34 =.1

142 728
=.
142 718
=.2
1 24 =.2
Table 2.1 8etwork self- an" mutual-impe"ances.
If one adopts the classification of the lin#s defined in ta&le 2.1A we can then
&uild matri) , of impedance of the elementary networ#.
Figure 2.D Elementary impe"ance matri9.
Bhen one modifies the num&erin" of the lin#s 7which o&%iously does not
alter the operation model of the networ#8A the matri) & can &e con%erted to
dia"onal su&matrices. Such an alteration allows easier matri) operationA
especially when determinin" its in%erse. +s in illustrationA if the lin#s 3 and
are e)chan"edA the resultin" matri) is shown in *i"ure 2.1=.
0.2 5
0.4 0.2 4
0.5 3
0.5 0.1 2
0.2 0.1 0.6 1
5 4 3 2 1
1.
0.2 5
0.4 0.2 4
0.5 3
0.5 0.1 2
0.2 0.1 0.6 1
5 4 3 2 1
1.
Figure 2.1: Elementary impe"ance matri9 with e9change of links 3 an" #.
The in%erse of the matri) in *i"ure 2.1= is o&tained &y separately in%ertin" a
3 ) 3 matri) 7first three rows and columns8 and a 2 ) 2 dia"onal matri) 7last
two rows and columns8. The result is shown in *i"ure 2.11.
Figure 2.11 *nerse of matri9 & shown in Figure 2.1:.
2.3.1.3. Transfer 6atrices
yD2
:1
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 -1.04 3
2.5 -0.42 2
-1.04 -0.42 2.08 1
5 4 3 2 1
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 3
0.21 2
1
5 4 3 2 1
0.21 yD2
:1
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 -1.04 3
2.5 -0.42 2
-1.04 -0.42 2.08 1
5 4 3 2 1
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 3
0.21 2
1
5 4 3 2 1
0.21
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 -1.04 3
2.5 -0.42 2
-1.04 -0.42 2.08 1
5 4 3 2 1
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 3
0.21 2
1
5 4 3 2 1
0.21
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 0.2 3
0.5 0.1 2
0.2 0.1 0.6 1
5 4 3 2 1
Z=
0.2 5
0.5 4
0.4 0.2 3
0.5 0.1 2
0.2 0.1 0.6 1
5 4 3 2 1
Z=
2.3.1.3.1. Nodal transfer matrices
Consider a networ# containin" N nodesA num&ered =A 1A 2A ...A N41. 0et node
= &e the reference node to which all the node %olta"es are referred to.
*urthermoreA let 7E
1
A E
2
A E
N41
8 and 7I
1
A I
2
A I
N41
8 respecti%ely denote the node
%olta"es and in.ected currents at nodes 1A 2A N41A as illustrated in *i"ure
2.12. This notation allows one to &rin" &ac# the analysis of the networ# to its
indi%idual components 7such as they are seen outside8 without ta#in"
account of the internal structure which will &e represented &y the transfer
matrices.
Figure 2.12 8etwork with no"e oltages an" in%ecte" currents.
Thus the networ# of *i"ure 2.13 &elow can &e modified &e represented &y a
schematic as shown in *i"ure 2.1.
Figure 2.13 E9ample of #-no"e network.
Rseau
1
p
-
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
*
p
"
p
Rseau
11
pp
--
55
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
*
p
"
p
#
R
4 3
2 1
"
1
"
4
*
4 *
1
5
#
R
4 3
2 1
"
1
"
4
*
4 *
1
5
Figure 2.1# 6o"ifie" schematic of Figure 2.13.
Be then define the %ectors E%us 3; Ep< and I%us 3; Ip< whose elements contain the
node %olta"e and in.ected currents at that nodeA respecti%ely'
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1
q
p
bus
E
E
E
E
E and
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1
q
p
bus
*
*
*
*
*
The operation of the networ# is then modeled &y the relationship &etween
these -uantities throu"h the nodal impedance matri) &
%us
A or the nodal
admittance matri) $
%us
. These relationships are e)pressed &y e-uations 24
and 241 &elow'
5
4
3
2
1
R
#
*
4
"
4
5
4
3
2
1
R
#
*
4
"
4
Of course there is a stron" lin# &etween the transfer matricesA nodal
impedance matrices or nodal admittance matricesA and incidence matrices.
Consider the matri) e-uations of the elementary networ#'
i 9 8 3 y 6 72458
(ultiplyin" &oth sides of the a&o%e e-uation &y the transpose A
t
of matri)
AA we o&tain'
A
t
=i98>3A
t
.y.6 ? A
t
i 9 A
t
8 3 A
t
.y.6
The first term A
t
i is the sum of the currents arri%in" at each node of the
networ# isA accordin" to VirschoffCs current lawA e-ual to 2ero. The term A
t
8
is the sum of the currents in.ected into each node. This latter is &y definition
e-ual to I
%us
A the current in.ected into each node. Then the a&o%e e-uation
reduces to '
I
%us
3 A
t
.y.6 72468
Now let us calculate the total comple) power in.ected into the networ#. This
-uantity is the same as that when the networ# is represented in the form of
nodal %olta"es and currents or in its &asic form. It follows that'
P 3 7 I
%us
>@
t
E
%us
3 8@
t
6 7 2498
*
$us
. 7
bus
6 "
bus
&atrices des admittances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
(2-4) *
$us
. 7
bus
6 "
bus
&atrices des admittances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
*
$us
. 7
bus
6 "
bus
&atrices des admittances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
(2-4)
"
bus
. 1
bus
6 *
bus
&atrices des impdances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
(2-5) "
bus
. 1
bus
6 *
bus
&atrices des impdances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
"
bus
. 1
bus
6 *
bus
&atrices des impdances
de trans,ert 8nodales9
(2-5)
;ut since
I
%us
3 A
t
8A
ThenA
= I
%us
>@
t
3 = A
t
8 >@
t
Since matri) A is composed of real num&ersA it is e-ual to its con.u"ate 7A 3
A@8 and therefore'
= I
%us
>@
t
3 8 @
t
A

and thus E-uation 72498 &ecomes'
8@
t
+ E
%us
3 8@
t
6 A 724:8
This is true re"ardless of the %ector 8 and therefore implies that'
6 3 A E
%us
Since
I
%us
3 A
t
y
then A
A
t
y A E
%us
3 $
%us
. E
%us
So in conclusion'
$
%us
3A
t
y A 7241=8
and
&
%us
3 =$
%us
>
:1
724118

2.3.1.3.1. Transfer matrices of meshes
Consider a networ# that contains m fundamental circuits or meshes which
carry currents i
1
A i
2
A @i
m A
and e
1
A e
2
A@e
m
represent the %olta"e sources
inserted within each mesh. Be define E
%us
and

I
%us
and %olta"e and current
%ectors with "eneral term E
m
DRe
!
S and I
m
DR i
!
SA respecti%ely.

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

m
m
i
i
i
*
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1
and
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

m
m
e
e
e
E
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
1
The operation of the networ# in this reference frame of current and %olta"e is
e)pressed usin" the e-uations that relate the mesh currents to the %olta"e
sources inserted in each mesh. These relationships are e)pressed in matri)
from &y the mesh transfer impedances 7or mesh impedance matri)8 denoted
&y &
m
A or &y the mesh transfer admittances 7or mesh admittance matri)8
denoted &y $
m
.
The relationship &etween Em and Im are e)pressed throu"h these transfer
matrices &y E-uations 724118 and 724128 &elow'

*
m
. 7
m
6 "
m
&atrices des admittances
de maille
(2-11)
"
m
. 1
m
6 *
m
&atrices des impdances
de maille
(2-12)
"
m
. 1
m
6 *
m
&atrices des impdances
de maille
"
m
. 1
m
6 *
m
&atrices des impdances
de maille
(2-12)
+s stated earlierA there is a stron" relationship &etween these transfer
matricesA matrices of the elementary networ#A and incidence matrices. To
e)press these relationsA we will consider the comple) power in.ected into the
networ# to &e represented &y transfer matrices or matrices of the elementary
networ#.
In the elementary networ#A the circuit e-uation in matri) form is'
6 9 e 3 7 .i 72418
Ta#in" into account the interconnections &y multiplyin" &oth sides &y C
t
'
C
t
. 6 9 C
t
. e 3 C
t
. 7 . i
In the a&o%e e-uationA the first term is nil'
C
t
.6 3 1
This is due to the fact that the sum of the %olta"es around a loop is e-ual to
2ero 7i.e.A VhitchoffCs %olta"e law8. *urthermoreA the second term is
e-ui%alent to Em defined a&o%e'
C
t
.e 3E
m

HenceA we conclude that'
E
m
3 C
t
. e 3 C
t
. 7. i
E)pressin" the conser%ation of power &etween the two frames of reference'
BI
m
t
C@ E
m
3 =i@>
t
. e
and ta#in" into account the pre%ious relations &etween e and Em'
BI
m
t
C@ . C
t
. e3 =i@>
t
. e
This relationship is true re"ardless of the %ector e. Be deduce that'
=i@>
t
3 BI
m
t
C@ . C
t
and thereforeA
i 3 ;=BI
m
t
C@ . C
t
>
t
<@ 3 =C . I
m
t
@
t
>@ 3 C@ . I
m
3 C. I
m

Note that the matri) C is a matri) that &ased on real num&ersA thus e-ual to
its comple) con.u"ate. In conclusion'
E
m
3 =C
t
. 7 .C>. I
m
72.158
*herefore
&
m
3C
t
.7.C 72.168
+nd
$
m
3 =C
t
.7.C>
:1
72.198
In conclusion to this chapterA we can summari2e in Ta&le 2.2 &elow the
relationship &etween the transfer matrices and matrices of the primiti%e 7or
elementary8 networ# throu"h the incidence matri) that &asically represents
the interconnections &etween the elements in the primiti%e networ#.
Table 2-2 $elationship among "ifferent matrices of a network
&atrice
Rseau
'rimiti,
&ailles Accs
*mpdance
Admittance
2
4 . 2
/1
1
m
. C
t
6 2 6 C
7
m
. 1
m
1
bus
. 7
bus
/1
7
bus
.A
t
646 A
&atrice
Rseau
'rimiti,
&ailles Accs
*mpdance
Admittance
2
4 . 2
/1
1
m
. C
t
6 2 6 C
7
m
. 1
m
1
bus
. 7
bus
/1
7
bus
.A
t
646 A
CH+3TE$ 3
*ormation of Networ# (atrices
The pre%ious chapter identified the networ# transfer matri) from concrete
data of the networ# elements 7i.e.A line impedancesA shunt connected de%icesA
"enerator electromoti%e forceA etc....8. These transfer matrices are the &asis
for all models of the networ#A as will &e seen in the followin" sections.
Howe%erA the theoretical formulas for &uildin" the transfer matrices from the
elementary networ# are rarely used in practice. IndeedA the networ# that we
study at a "i%en moment is result from an earlier networ# confi"uration &y
addin" or remo%in" certain elements 7linesA ca&lesA switch"earA
"enerators ...8. HenceA it would &e %ery cum&ersome to reconstruct the full
transfer matrices without reflectin" these chan"in" situations.
In this chapterA we present a systematic and pro"ressi%e al"orithm to &uild
transfer matricesA especially when constructin" the &%us matri). Be will
restrict our presentation to the most important and commonly used matrices?
namelyA the &us impedance matri) &%us and &us admittance matri) $%us.
#.1. Formation of the $
%us
matri5
In the pre%ious chapterA we ha%e seen that each networ# component can &e
represented &y a circuit dia"ram that consists of a series elements and<or
shunt elements. *or e)ampleA a line or ca&le se"ment that is connected
&etween nodes i and . can &e represented &y a -uadripole as shown *i"ure
3.1 &elow. In hereA the series admittance y
i.
connects node i to node .A while
the shunt admittances y
ii.
and y
..i
respecti%ely connect nodes i and . to the
reference node.
The dia"ram in *i"ure 3.2 shows a representation of three networ#
components connectin" nodes i and .A i and #A # and 1A respecti%ely. This su&
networ# sets the sta"e for the deri%ation of networ# and e-uations and
related matrices.
Figure 3.1 $epresentation of line or cable segment.
Figure 3.. $epresentation of a sub-network with three series components
0et E
1
A E
2
A ...A E
i
A @E
.
&e the phasor %olta"es at nodes 1A2A ... A iA... .A when a
phasor current I
i
is in.ected at node i. These %olta"es and current I
i
are related
&y the E-uation 73.18 &elow'
8 7
1 1
% i
%
i% i
%
ii% i
E E y E y * +

,
_

73418

( )
% i
% i%
%
i
n
%
i% ii% i
E E
E y E y y *

+
+

,
_

+
i .
i. ii
1 1
I I
8 7
*rom the a&o%e relationA we can deduce the e)pressions of dia"onal terms
i
:

1
y
ii:
y
ii y
i
y
1
y
11
y
i:
y
i
y
1
"
:
"
i
"
1
*
i
4
::i
E
j
Y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
E
i
*
i
i :
E
j
Y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
E
i
*
i
i :
and off4dia"onal terms of the &us admittance matri) $
%us
as follows'
( )
i% i%
i %
i% ii% ii
y E
y y E

+

73428
Notes'
+. If we call y
ii
the some of all the admittances connectin" node i to the
reference nodeA y
ii
D W 7 y
ii.
8A the the dia"onal term I
ii
can &e
rewritten as'

+
i %
i% ii ii
y y E
73438
;. Bhen the &ranch i. is electroma"netically coupled with se%eral
&ranches with indices rsA then'

+
rs
rs i% ii i%
y y E
A
7348
C. Bhen multiple &ranches with indices rs are coupled with a &ranch
i#A then'

+
rs
rs ik ii ii
y E E
A
73418
#.2. Formation of the &
%us
matri5
The formation of the $
%us
matri) is simple &ecause it carries elements of
direct admittances. *urthermoreA since there are a limited num&er of
connections &etween different networ# elementsA the structure of this matri)
is usually %ery sparseA i.e.A there are a small percenta"e of matri) elements
that are non42eroA which further simplifies its construction.
Howe%er such a structural feature of the networ# does not simplify the
construction of the &
%us
matri). In factA the is often easier to deri%e $
%us
A then
used it to directly construct &
%us
&ecause matri) in%ersion is not more than
sol%in" a system of linear e-uations whose order is e-ual to that of the
matri). Sol%in" a linear system &y trian"ular factori2ation is simplified &y
the fact that the matri) has only a small num&er of non42ero terms. Howe%erA
a direct matri) in%ersion of $
%us
to o&tain &
%us
can &e time consumin" as
these comple) matrices of real networ#s tend to &e %ery lar"e.

In additionA the structure of a networ# at a "i%en moment is a result of a
small num&er of chan"es to the pre%ious state of the networ# &y addition or
deletion of some well identified components. It is therefore important to
ha%e a systematic and easy way to deduce the matri) &
%us
of the modified
networ# structure from that of the pre%ious networ# structure without "oin"
throu"h another matri) in%ersion process.
To do soA consider an initial networ# with m nodes num&ered from 1 to m as
shown in *i"ure 3.3 &elow. 0et &
%us
7with dimension m ) m8 &e the
impedance matri) of this networ#. Be will study the chan"es induced in this
matri) &y the two different additions illustrated in *i"ure 3.3 in red.
Figure 3.3 3""ing branch an"For cor" to a network.
3.2.1. Adding &ranches
In practiceA the addition of a new &ranch corresponds to the e)tension of a
line for new ser%ice in a distri&ution systemA or a new transmission line to
ser%e a new area. In "eneralA this line is placed in a new ri"ht4of4way? hence
no electroma"netic couplin" with e)istin" lines is e)pected. It may howe%er
share a certain part of its path with other lines which will lead us to consider
the "eneral caseA althou"h the latter is relati%ely rare.
This &ranch is supposed to ha%e a self4admittance y
p-Ap-
or self4impedance
2
p-Ap-
in the elementary networ#. It may &e coupled with a &ranch rs throu"h a
couplin" admittance y
p-A rs
. This will transform a networ# with m nodes to a
networ# with mM1 nodes. SimilarlyA it will transform the &
%us
matri) with
dimension 7m ) m8 matri) into a new dimension 7m M18 ) 7m M18. This new
-
m
5
1
2
p -
m
5
1
2
p
m
5
1
2
p
m
5
1
2
p
Rseau initial A:out d)une branc;e entre p et - A:out d)une corde entre p et -
-
m
5
1
2
p
-
m
5
1
2
p
matri) is'
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

D DD Dm Dp D2 D1
mD
pD
2D
1D
D
I & & ... ... & ... ... & &
&
&
&
&
E
m
p
mm mp m m
pm pp p p
p
m p
m
p
*
*
*
*
& & & &
& & & &
& & &
& & & &
E
E
E
E
...
...
...
...
.
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
...
...
...
...
2
1
2 1
2 1
2 22 21
1 1 12 11
2
1
734
58
The new node - is connected to node p of the pre%ious networ# trou"h
impedance ,
-p
. Ne)tA we will discuss the calculation of all the newly added
impedance elements in E-uation 73.58 a&o%e.
3.2.1.1. ,alculation of &
qi
terms
The impedance ,
-i
7iD1A 2A @ m with i X -8 is e-ual to the %olta"e E
-
that
appears at node - when we in.ect a current I
i
D 1 ampere at node i'
E
D
D ,
Di
I
i
D ,
Di
73468
HenceA the new off4dia"onal elements of the new impedance matri) are
e-ual to the correspondin" node %olta"es as a result of the in.ected current at
node i'
E
1
D ,
1i
I
i
D ,
1i
E
2
D ,
2i
I
i
D ,
2i
.
. 73498
.
E
p
D ,
pi
I
i
D ,
pi
.
.
.
E
m
D ,
mi
I
i
D ,
mi
*rom the elementary networ#A we ha%e'
pq p q
E E
and
rs
rs
rs pq pq pq pq pq
y y i . .
A A
+
;ut since I
p
D I
D
D =A and i
pD
D I
p
4 I
D
D=A we can conclude that'
rs
rs
rs pq
pq pq
pq
y
y
.
1
A
A


( )
s r
rs
rs pq
pq pq
pq
E E y
y

.
1
A
A
Hence'
( )
s r
rs
rs pq
pq pq
p q
E E y
y
E E

.
1
A
A

734:8
and ta#in" into account E-uations 73.98'
( )
-. i and m 1A......A i for
.
1
A
A

+
si ri
rs
rs pq
pq pq
pi qi
E & y
y
& &
7341=8
If the &ranch p- is coupled with any other &ranchA then'
,
Di
D ,
pi
for all i X -.
3.2.1.2. ,alculation of &
qq
term
Uust as we defined the ,
-i
terms a&o%eA we define ,
--
as the impedance that
carateri2es the %olta"e E
-h
that appears at node - when we in.ect a current I
-
D 1 +mpere at the same node. The currents in.ected at all other nodes are set
e-ual to I
i
D =. Hence'
E
D
D ,
DD
I
D
D ,
DD
734118
while the %olta"es appearin" at the other nodes are'
E
1
D ,
1D
I
D
D ,
1D
E
2
D ,
2D
I
D
D ,
2D
.
.
.
E
p
D ,
pD
I
D
D ,
pD
73.128
.
.
.
E
m
D ,
mD
I
D
D ,
mD
Howe%erA accordin" to the e-uations of elementary networ#'
pq p q
E E
and
rs
rs
rs pq pq pq pq pq
y y i . .
A A
+
;ust since I
p
D =A I
D
D1A i
pD
D I
p
4 I
D
D 41A from which we deduce that'
rs
rs
rs pq pq pq pq pq
y y i . . 1
A A
+
and'
pq pq
rs
rs
rs pq
pq
y
y

A
A
. 1

+

Su&stitutin" %
rs
'
( )
pq pq
s r
rs
rs pq
pq
y
E E y

A
A
. 1 +

Ta#in" into account E-uations 73.128'

( )
pq pq
sq rq
rs
rs pq
pq
y
E & y

A
A
. 1 +

*inally'
( )
pq pq
sq rq
rs
rs pq
pq qq
y
E & y
& &
A
A
. 1 +
+

734138
If the &ranch p- is coupled with any other then all terms y
p-A rs
are 2ero and'
,
--
D ,
p-
M 1<y
p-
A
p-
D ,
p-
M 2
p-
A
p-
73418
3.2.2. Adding cords
This operation corresponds to the stren"thenin" of the networ# &y the
addition of a new line &etween two e)istin" nodes. This addition does not
affect the num&er of e)istin" nodes and therefore the si2e and order of
matri)A &ut the inclusion of the impedance of this new line chan"es all terms
of &
%us
.
The calculation of the chan"e will &e made in two separate steps &y ta#in"
ad%anta"e of the procedure outlined in the pre%ious su&section'
4 In the first stepA insert &etween nodes p and - a node l and a
fictitious %olta"e source e
l
defined so that the current i
p-
is nil 7i
p-
D
=8. /urin" this stepA the si2e of the au"mented &
%us
matri) is
increased &y one unit due to the addition of node l?
4 In the second stepA the fictitious node l is eliminated and the added
%olta"e source is short4circuited. This step reduces the si2e of the
&us impedance matri) to its ori"inal %alue and chan"es the entire set
of matri) elements.
3.2.2.1. ,alculation of augmente" matri9 elements
Consider *i"ure 3. where a node l is inserted &etween nodes p and -A and a
%olta"e source e
1
&etween nodes l and -. Bhen &ranch pl is inserted in series
with the %olta"e source e
1
A the &
%us
matri) is modified as follows'
Figure 3.# 3""ition of a line between two e9isting no"es.
p
l
q
"
p
"
l
"
-
e
l-
p
l
q
"
p
"
l
"
-
e
l-
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

l
m
p
ll lm l l l
l mm mp m m
l pm pp p p
l p
l m p
l
m
p
*
*
*
*
& & & &
& & & &
& & &
& & & &
e
E
E
E
E
I & & ... ... & ... ... & &
&
&
&
&
p 2 1
m
p
2
1
...
...
...
...
.
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
...
...
...
...
2
1
2 1
2 1
2 22 21
1 1 12 11
2
1
734
118
Bith re"ards to the calculation of terms ,
l.
7for . D 1@m8A we proceed .ust
li#e the case of addin" a &ranch &y in.ectin" a current I
i
D 1 +mp at node i
and settin" all the in.ected currents at other node to ='
E
!
D &
!i
I
i
D ,
!i
7 for #D 1@@.m8
e
l
= &
l8
I
l
D ,
li
with'
e
l
D E
p
4 E
D
4 6
pl

+s indicted a&o%eA the %olta"e source e
1
must &e chosen so that i
pD
D i
pl
D =A
which leads to'
= . .
A A
+
rs
rs
rs pq pl pl pl pl pq
y y i i
from where w deri%es'
rs
rs
rs pl
pl pl
pl
y
y
.
1
A
A

( )
s r
rs
rs pl
pl pl
pl
E E y
y

.
1
A
A


( )
sl rl
rs
rs pl
pl pl
pl
& & y
y

.
1
A
A
ThereforeA

( )
sl rl
rs
rs pq
pq pq
ql pl l% l
& & y
y
& & & e +

.
1
A
A
*inallyA ta#in" into account that the node l is fictitious'
y
pl
A
pl
D y
p-
A
p-
and y
pl
A
rs
D y
p-
A
rs

we "et'
( )
si ri
rs
rs pq
pq pq
qi pi l%
& & y
y
& & & +

.
1
A
A
A for i D 1 ... m. 734158
Similarly we can calculate ,
ll
'
( )
pq pq
sl rl
rs
rs pq
ql pl ll
y
& & y
& & &
A
A
. 1 +
+

734168
Ha%in" esta&lished the method for calculatin" all the terms of the au"mented
matri)A the ne)t step is to reduce the matri) &ac# to its ori"inal si2e.
3.2.2.2. Elimination of fictitious no"e
;efore elimination of the fictitious nodeA the line p is represented as'
l pl k
m
k
pk k
* & * & E
Y
1
Y Y
+

734198
The current %alue is o&tained from the line 7m M 18'
l ll k
m
k
lk l
* & * & e
Y
1
Y
+

Since e
l
is a fictitious %olta"e source whose only usefulness was to allow the
calculation of the elements of the au"mented matri)A its %alue is 2ero. This
allows us to calculate I
l
as a function of the terms of the au"mented matri)'
=
Y
1
Y
+

l ll k
m
k
lk
* & * &
Therefore'
k
m
k
lk
ll
l
* &
&
*

1
Y
Y
1
Su&stitutin" this %alue in e-uation 73.198 results in'
k
m
k
lk
ll
pl
k
m
k
pk p
* &
&
&
* & E



1
Y
Y
1
Y Y
This allows us to e)press the "eneral term of the new &
%us
matri)'
n eliminatio ;efore New
. ,

Y
Y Y
pl
Y
ll
lk
pk pk
&
&
& &
7341:8
Notes'
18 In case where there is no electroma"netic couplin" &etween &ranches p-
and rsA i.e.A y
p-
A
rs
D =. ThenA
,
li
D ,
pi
4

,
-i
A and ,
ll
D ,
pl
4

,
-l
28 The &
%us
matri) is particularly important for short4circuit current
calculationsA as will &e seen in the upcomin" chapters. Ta&le 3.1 &elow
summari2es all formulas used for the construction of this matri).
Table 3.1 Summary of construction of '
&us
matri9.
#.# E5ercises
3.3.1 E(ercise o. 12) *onstruction of '
&us
matri(
Consider the primiti%e networ# shown in *i"ure E.12. The two coupled
&ranches 1 and connectin" nodes 1 and 2 are referred to as 142 718 and 142
728A respecti%ely. The per4unit %alues of the self and mutual impedances of
each &ranch of the networ# are "i%en in Ta&le E.12.

1
4
5
3
2
(1)
(2)
1 2
4 3
Figure E.12 8etwork un"er stu"y.
-ranch
Self =pu> Mutuel =pu>
Access Impedance Access Impedance
1 142718 =A5
142728 =A 142718 =A2
2 143 =A1 142718 =A1
3 34 =A1
1 24 =A2
Table E.12 Self- an" mutual- impe"ances .pu/.
+8 Construct the &
%us
matri) of the networ#.
;8 /etermine the modified &
%us
matri) after addin" a &ranch &etween
nodes p D 2 and - D . +ssume this new &ranch has a self4impedance
of =.3 puA and is coupled with &ranch 1 &y a mutual impedance of
=.1 pu.
3.3.2 E(ercise o 13) *onstruction of networ! matrices
+ networ# is defined &y the "raph in *i"ure E.13 &elow. The per4unit %alues
of the impedances of the 1 &ranches are listed in Ta&le E.13.

Figure E.13 !raph of network un"er stu"y.
-ranch odes Impedance Coupling
1 +4; =A=1 none
2 ;4C =A1 none
# C4/ 1A1 none
' /4+ =A= none
) +4C =A1 none
Table E.12 8etwork impe"ances .pu/.
C
1
2
3

1
+
;
/
+8 0et node + &e the reference nodeA then deri%e the &ranches4access
incidence matri) of the networ#.
;8 /etermine the primiti%e matri) of the networ#.
C8 +ssume the impedances listed in Ta&le E.13 are pure reactors. To
simplify calculationsA i"nore the ima"inary operator E.E. >se the
Estep &y stepE procedure to construct the transfer impedance matri)
&
%us
of the networ#.
/8 Calculate &
%us
usin" followin" e)pression in terms of the incidence
matri) A and primiti%e admittance matri) $' &
%us
3 =A
:1
.$.A>
:1
.
Compare the results with those of -uestion C8 a&o%e.
CH+3TE$
0oad flow calculations
'.1. E%8ecti6es
+.1.1. ,efinition of networ! state
The o&.ecti%e of load flow calculation in a networ# is to determine the
networ# status accordin" to the connected loads and the distri&ution of
consumption across all nodes in the networ#. This calculation is &ased on the
assumption that the networ# is operatin" at steady4state and that the
"enerators pro%ide power in the form of +C sinusoidalA &alanced three4phase
%olta"es. The purpose of the calculation is to pro%ide an accurate picture of
acti%e and reacti%e power flow in e%ery element of the transmission networ#A
as well as %olta"e le%els at e%ery node.
+.1.2. *alculation of current flow
Vnowin" the %alue of the current flowin" throu"h each component of the
networ# 7lineA ca&le or transformer8 ensures that this does not e)ceed the
current ratin"s of these components. Bithout this #nowled"eA e)cessi%e
current flow may occur and this can lead to component o%erheatin" and e%en
failure.
+.1.3. Line losses
SimilarlyA #nowled"e of current flow pro%ides an e%aluation of power losses
in lines and transformers. E)cessi%e power loss may call for networ#
reconfi"uration in order to minimi2e losses on the entire networ#.
+.1.+. -trategy for ad.ustment and control
The a&ility to determine node %olta"es and the acti%e and reacti%e power that
each "enerator should furnish in order to ensure power deli%ery to each load
centerA allows one to define "uidelines for the re"ulation of e%ery machine
connected to the networ#. Such a calculation is also used in sta&ility
analysis.
+.1./. 0ptimi1ing power transfer capacity
*inallyA it is possi&le from the al"orithms we will co%er in this chapterA to
introduce the concept of constraint and o&.ecti%e function to optimi2e the
power flow in order to increase the transfer capacity of a%aila&le power in
the networ#.
'.2. Model of networ! elements
+.2.1. Lines and transformers
The model commonly used to represent lines and insulated ca&les is the F
model of medium lines. Such a model allows us to ade-uately represent the
capacitance effect on the transmission lines without much complicationA
especially when modelin" lar"e power networ#s 7often with hundreds of
nodes and thousands of lines and ca&les8. This model illustrated the *i"ure
.1 where the line conductance is ne"lected and the capacitance is
represented &y two shunt admittances. SimilarlyA transformers are modeled
&y their e-ui%alent F model which allows the inclusion of iron losses as well
as the ma"neti2in" reactance. In this type of transformer modelA the shunt
admittances are different from each other for those transformers e-uipped
with tap chan"es.
Figure #.1 7ine0 cable an" transformer mo"el
.y
%i
G y
%i
for transformers with tap changes/.
Startin" from the impedances of these elementsA we can construct the $
%us
matri) of the networ# usin" the simple steps descri&ed in Chapter 3. This
admittance matri) is composed of two types of elements'
E
j
Y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
E
i
*
i
i :
E
j
Y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
E
i
*
i
i :
E
j
Y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
E
i
*
i
i :
4 The dia"onal elementsA

+
%
i% i% i%
y y E
4 The off4dia"onal elementsA
I
i.
D 4 y
i.
with y
i.
&ein" the admittance of the networ# element connected &etween
nodes i and ..
+.2.2. Generators and loads
The "enerators and loads are defined usin" a pair of fundamental -uantities
which include acti%e power 3A reacti%e power JA %olta"e ma"nitude LA and
%olta"e phase an"le Z. Bhen we descri&e a load at the so4called loa" busA we
represent it &y the comple) power it consumesA i.e.A it acti%e power and
reacti%e power. Bhen we descri&e a "enerator at a generator busA we
represent it &y the acti%e power it is scheduled to deli%er and the ma"nitude
of the %olta"e at that node. Be also define the ran"e of reacti%e power NJ
min
A
J
ma)
O that the "enerator is a&le to supply<a&sor& reacti%e power. +n
e)ception is madeA howe%erA for the most powerful machine connected to the
networ#. The node at which this machine is connected to is called the swing
bus 7or reference &us8 and ser%es as a reference for the phase an"les of the
%olta"es at all other &uses in the networ#. Be descri&e the swin" &us &y the
%olta"e ma"nitude and phase an"le Z D =
o
. Note that the "enerator connected
at the swin" &us must supply the acti%e power needed to &alance the load
demand and system losses which are not #now ahead of time.
+.2.3. Representation of voltage
The %olta"e in any node i is represented &y a comple) -uantity E
i
that can &e
defined in polar coordinates
i
%
i i
e C E

or in rectan"ular coordinates Ei D e
i
M . f
i
A where e
i
D L
i
cos7Z
i
8 and f
i
DL
i
sin7Z
i
>. The notation in polar
coordinates 7L
i
and Z
i
8 is the most used &ecause these components are
measura&le -uantities? henceA the latter notation will &e e)clusi%ely used in
this te)tA althou"h other authors NST+ 59OA recommended to use either one or
the other.
'.#. Pro%lem formulation
+.3.1. General e2uations
The power comple) S
i
3 3
i
M. J
i
in.ected to node i is "i%en &y the
followin" e-uation &y ta#in" into account the relationship &etween the
in.ected current I
i
at node i in terms of the node %olta"es in the
networ# and the elements of the &us admittance matri) $
%us
'
K K K
. . .
%
i %
i% i i i i i i
E E E * E %( ' S

+
7418
E-uation 7.18 can &e e)panded'
K
. . .

,
_

+ +

i %
% i% i ii i i i i
E E E E E %( ' S

+
i %
% i i% i i ii
E E E E E E
K K K K
. . . .


( )
% i
%
%
i %
i i% i ii
e C C E C E

+ . .
K 2 K
0et us define the real and ima"inary parts of each element of the &us
admittance matri) as follows'
I
ii
D !
ii
M . H
ii
and
I
i.
D !
i.
M . H
i.
Now we can separate the real and ima"inary parts of the comple) power
e-uationA a&o%eA and o&tain the two &asic e)pressions of acti%e and reacti%e
powers at node i'

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
% i i% % i i% %
i %
i i ii i
% i i% % i i% %
i %
i i ii i
H ! C C C H (
H ! C C C ! '


+
+ +

cos sin .
sin cos .
2
2

7428
*rom these e-uationsA we note that each node i is characteri2ed &y
electrical -uantities'

1. The acti%e power 3
i
in.ected into the networ# at this node 7this
-uantity will &e ne"ati%e for a load since it draws power from the
networ#8?
2. The reacti%e power J
i
in.ected into the networ# at this node 7li#e 3
i
a&o%eA this -uantity will &e ne"ati%e if drawn from the networ#8?
3. The ma"nitude of the %olta"e L
i
at node i?
. The phase an"le Z
i
of the %olta"e at node i.
The pair of electrical -uantities assi"ned to a &us depends on whether this
node is a swin" &usA load &usA or "enerator &us. +s stated earlierA there are
three types of &us'
!enerator bus where real power is in.ected into the networ#. In such
a nodeA the -uantities 3
i
and L
i
are #nown while J
i
and Z
i
are
un#nown. This node type is often referred to as [3L &us\?
7oa" bus where consumer power is drawn from the networ#. In
hereA the -uantities 3
i
and J
i
are #nown while the un#nowns are L
i
and Z
i
. This node type is often referred to as [3J &us\?
Swing bus corresponds to the reference &us where an un#nown
-uality of real power is in.ected into the networ#. In hereA L
i
and Z
i
7
D =
o
8 are "i%en while 3
i
and J
i
are un#nown. This node type is often
referred to as [3L node\ althou"h the real power is un#nown.
+.3.2. -implified models
The mathematical pro&lem defined &y e-uations 7.28 is a %ery comple) as it
in%ol%es sol%in" a lar"e system of non4linear transcendental al"e&raic
e-uations. Howe%erA electric utility companies were re-uired to sol%e this
pro&lem in connection with the operation their networ# with rudimentary
means rather than actual calculations. They therefore had to rely on
simplified models in%ol%in" the simplifyin" assumptions of electrical or
mathematical nature. These assumptions are &ased on the difference in
ma"nitude &etween the parameters of electrical lines.
Indeed the fre-uency of 1=H2 can &e seen that the resistance r and
capacitance c of a typical line are such that 71<cH8 ]] r ]] lHA where l the
inductance of the line. This fact led to ne"lectin" the capacitance and
resistance in &oth line and transformer models. >nder these appro)imationsA
the networ# is composed of inducti%e reactances only? henceA the admittance
&etween nodes i and . is simplified to y
i.
D 71<. l8A and the conductance
terms !
i.
in e-uations 7.28 can &e i"nored.
'.'. Solution methods
E-uations 7.28 apply to each node in the networ#. This means that for a
networ# of n nodesA we ha%e a system of 2n e-uations with 2n un#nowns to
sol%e. The un#nowns differ from one node to another dependin" on the type
of node' +t a "enerator &usA -uantities 73
i
AL
i
8 are #nown and 7J
i
A Z
i
8 are
un#nown. +t a load &usA -uantities 73
i
A J
i
8 are #nown and 7L
i
A Z
i
8 are
un#nown. *inallyA at the swin" &usA -uantities 7L
i
A Z
i
8 are #nown and 73
i
A J
i
8
are un#nown.
Solution methods that can &e applied for sol%in" these e-uations are iterati%e
in nature &ecause of the non4linearities in%ol%ed. Two types of methods are
commonly used' the !auss4Seidel method and the Newton4$aphson method.
The principle of each of these methods is descri&ed in the +ppendi).
+.+.1. Gauss$-eidel method
The idea of this method is to descri&e each node p with'
p p p p
%
q
n
q
pq p
%
p p
* E %( '
e C E *
e C E
q
p
.
1

7438
Be will descri&e this method assumin"A for the clarity of the statementA that
all nodes are considered load &uses where 3
p
and J
p
are #nown while E
p
and
Z
p
are un#nown. The method is di%ided into sta"es'
+8 Initiali2ation'
+t the initial sta"eA the ma"nitude and phase an"le of the %olta"e at each
node is assumed to &e #nown'
=
p
C
7or
=
p
E
8 and
=
p

for all nodes p D 1A 2A ...

n?
;8 $ela)ation'
*rom the a&o%e initial %aluesA we calculate the current flow into each node at
iteration num&er 1 from E-uations 7.18 and 7.38'
( )
K =
1
1 1
1
1
E
%( '
*

or
=
1
1
1
1 11
1
1
. .
q
q
q
E E E E *

+
Hence'
( )
11
=
2
1
K =
1
1 1
1
1
< E E E
E
%( '
E
q
n
q
q
1
1
]
1

SimilarlyA
( )
22
=
3
2
1
1 21
K =
2
2 2
1
2
< E E E E E
E
%( '
E
q
n
q
q
1
1
]
1

.
.
.
( )
pp q
n
p q
pq
p
q
q pq
p
p p
p
E E E E E
E
%( '
E <
=
1
1
1
1
K =
1
1
1
]
1

*rom these %alues we can calculate the new %olta"es for the currents at the
second iteration'
2
1
* A
2
2
* A @
2
p
*
A which in turn will ena&le us to calculate
the new %alues of %olta"esA #nowin"'
2
1
E A
2
2
E A@.
2
p
E
. The rela)ation
consists of runnin" this process until the %olta"es con%er"e to the solution
set.
C8 Con%er"ence test'
This test consists of calculatin" the difference &etween all %olta"es
calculated with iteration num&er 7#8 and those calculated at the ne)t iteration
7#M18. The ma)imum "ap &etween two successi%e iterations of all node
%olta"es is then compared to a predetermined tolerance %alue ^. IfA

{ }
<

+

1 k
p
k
p
p
E E
6a9
Then the solution is reached and the iteration process is halted.
/8 +cceleration of con%er"ence'
To speed up the con%er"ence of this processA it is possi&le to esta&lish a
modality which we call the acceleration of con%er"ence. The process of
acceleration is as follows' at each step for node p with a newly calculated
%olta"e
k
p
E
A the %alue of
1 + k
p
E
is "i%en &y'
( )
k
p
k
p
k
p
E E E + +
+ 1 1
1
Bhere the coefficient _ is called the rela)ation coefficientA and is usually
chosen &etween the %alues of 1 and 2. This coefficient can then amplify the
reduction of differences &etween two iterations. Howe%erA it is imperati%e to
carefully choose this coefficient as it hea%ily depends on the networ# under
study. IndeedA an inappropriate %alue of can cause di%er"ence of the
iterati%e process.
E8 Treatment of "enerator &uses'
+t a "enerator &usA a "enerator is connected to that &us and the ma"nitude of
the %olta"e L
"
is set alon" with the in.ected real power 3
"
. The un#nown
-uantities are the phase an"le Z
"
of the %olta"e and the reacti%e power J
"
that
must &e pro%ided or a&sor&ed &y the "enerator in -uestionA #nowin" that this
reacti%e power willA accordin" to the characteristics of the machine &e
&etween two e)treme %alues' J
min
]J
"
] J
ma)
. *or such a nodeA the principle
of the method is modified and consists of the followin" steps'
Calculate the "enerator %olta"e E
"
normally at iteration #'
k
g
e C E
g
k
g

Calculate the reacti%e power "enerated'

{ }

'

,
_

K
1
K
Im Im
n
q
k
q gq g g g
k
g
E E E * E (
Chec# the result a"ainst the "enerator limits' J
min
] J
"
#
] J
ma)
. If
these limits are metA the iterati%e process continues. Otherwise
assi"n to J
"
the %alue J
min
or J
ma)
as appropriateA and transform this
"enerator &us to a load &us 7i.e.A 3J &us8A and then continue the
iterati%e process until con%er"ence is reached.
*8 ad%anta"es and disad%anta"es of rela)ation methods'
The main ad%anta"e of rela)ation methodsA such as the !auss4Seidel
methodA is the ease of their implementation and the low num&er of
calculations re-uired in each iteration. This is the reason that has made them
successful in the past decades where the power and memory capacity of
computers were %ery limited.
Howe%erA the pro&lem of slow con%er"ence can ma#e the calculation process
%ery lon"A e%en when we use the acceleration of con%er"ence includin" the
choice of optimal %alue of coefficient _ which is heuristic and %aries from
one networ# to another. (oreo%er these methods depend hea%ily on the
initial %alues chosenA and an inappropriate %alue can cause di%er"ence of the
iterati%e process. ;ecause of these shortcomin"sA the "lo&al methods are
preferred. The most popular "lo&al method is the Newton4$aphson method
and is the su&.ect of the section that follows.
+.+.2. ewton$Raphson method
In the statement of the principle of this methodA we initially assume that all
nodes are 3J &uses. HenceA the #nown -uantities are the acti%e power 3
i
and
reacti%e power J
i
A and the un#nown -uantities are the %olta"e ma"nitude L
i
and phase an"le Z
i
. ThenA we will show how we ta#e "enerator &uses into
account.
The Newton4$aphson method consists of four main steps'
+8 initiali2ation' initially choose appro)imate %alues of %olta"es at each
node
=
1
C A
=
2
C @
=
i
C A ...
=
n
C and their phase an"les
=
1
A
=
2
A @.
=
i

...
=
n
A

from which we can calculate the acti%e power and reacti%e
power drawn at each node'
=
1
' A
=
2
' @
=
i
' A ...
=
n
' and
=
1
( A
=
2
( A ...
=
i
( @
=
n
( from e-uations 7.28'
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= = = = = = = A 2 =
= = = = = = = A 2 =
cos sin
sin cos
% i i% % i i% %
i %
i i ii i
% i i% % i i% %
i %
i i ii i
H ! C C C H (
H ! C C C ! '


+
+ +

These %alues are then compared to specified acti%e and reacti%e power
demand at each nodeA and the differences are defined as follows'
= =
= =
i
sp
i i
i
sp
i i
( ( (
' ' '


where
sp
i
' and
sp
i
( are the scheduled and fi)ed %alues of 3
i
and J
i
to
node i.
;8 Calculation of the ma)imum error &etween scheduled and calculated
acti%e and reacti%e powers. 0et i
'

and i
(

&e the acti%e and
reacti%e power %ectors. The norm of these %ectors is defined &y'
i
'
D i
i
' 6a9
A i
i
i
( 6a9 (
If these norms are &oth less than a predetermined tolerance %alue ^A then
the calculated %alues
=
i
' and
=
i
( are solutions of the system of
e-uations 7.28. If this is not the caseA it is necessary to ad.ust the initial
%alues of L
i
and Z
i
usin" incremental chan"es `L
i
and `Z
i
.
C8 /etermination of the corrections to the initial %alues. Be introduce the
followin" new %alues'
1
1
C A
1
2
C @..
1
i
C A @..
1
n
C and
1
1
A
1
2
A @..
1
i
.......
1
n
such that'
i i i
C C C +
= 1
A
i i i
+
= 1
The %alues of these de%iations are such that the errors
1
i
' and
1
i
(
are e-ual to 2ero. This re-uires new %alues of acti%e and reacti%e power
at order 1'
3
i
7
1
=
1
C C + A.. % %
C C +
=
A..
n n
C C +
=
A
1
=
1
+ A..
% %
+
=
A@
n n
+
=
8
D
( )

+
n
k
k
k
i
n
k
k
k
i
n % n % i
'
C
C
'
C C C '
1 1
= = =
1
= = =
1
A... A... A A.... A....

D
1 =
i i
sp
i
' ' ' +
J
i
7
1
=
1
C C + A.. % %
C C +
=
A..
n n
C C +
=
A
1
=
1
+ A..
% %
+
=
A @
n n
+
=
8
D
( )

+
n
k
k
k
i
n
k
k
k
i
n % n % i
(
C
C
(
C C C (
1 1
= = =
1
= = =
1
A... A... A A.... A....

D
1 =
i i
sp
i
( ( ( +
from which we deduce the followin" e-uations'

n
k
k
k
i
n
k
k
k
i
i
n
k
k
k
i
n
k
k
k
i
i
(
C
C
(
(
'
C
C
'
'
1 1
1
1 1
1

74
8
The a&o%e e)pressions consist of a system of 2n e-uations with 2n
un#nowns. Be can rewrite these e-uations in matri) form &y definin"
the followin" %ectors'
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
k
'
'
'
'
.
.
.
.
1
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
k
(
(
(
(
.
.
.
.
1
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
k
C
C
C
C
.
.
.
.
1
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
k

.
.
.
.
1

The system 7.8 can &e e)pressed as'

1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

C
(
C
(
'
C
'
(
'
.
0et us define the followin" su&matrices of dimension n)n' H D Na3<aZOA
N D Na3<aLOA ( D NaJ<aZOA 0 D NaJ<aZO. Then the a&o%e e-uation is
rewritten as'
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

C
7 6
8 H
(
'
.
7418
The matri)
U D
1
]
1

7 6
8 H

is called the Uaco&ian matri) of E-uations 7.8. The al"orithm is to
sol%e the system 7.18 in order to determine the ma"nitudes and phase
an"les of the %olta"es for iteration num&er 1'
1
1
C A
1
2
C @..
1
i
C A @..
=
n
C and
1
1
A
1
2
A @..
1
i
.......
1
n
.
*rom these %aluesA we deduce the acti%e and reacti%e powers at
interaction num&er 1 and their de%iations 7b3
1
and bJ
1
8 from the
scheduled %alues. These de%iations are not e-ual to 2eroA as we could
e)pectA &ecause the %alues of the elements of the Uaco&ian matri) are not
the e)act %alues that correspond to the %alues of L
i
and Z
i
.
It is therefore necessary to repeat the calculation while replacin" the
%alues of L
i
and Z
i
&y newly calculated in elements of the Uaco&ian
matri). + new solution of e-uations N.1O will determine the new %alues
for L
i
and Z
i
A and the chain of iterations continues until the process
reaches con%er"es to the solution.
/8 Lerification of con%er"ence' the con%er"ence will &e o&tained when all
the acti%e and reacti%e powers %ary &etween two successi%e iterations &y
a %alue less than ^'
k
i
k
i
' ' +
+1
] ^
k
i
k
i
( ( +
+1
] ^
The con%er"ence of the Newton4$aphson method is -uadraticA i.e.A the
error is di%ided &y a factor nearly e-ual to 2 which allows %ery fast
con%er"ence. !enerallyA a handful of iterations are sufficient to achie%e
an accurate solution.
The disad%anta"e of this "lo&al method is that each iteration re-uires
sol%in" a system of 2n e-uations with as many un#nownsA which is
computationally e)tensi%e. (any %ariations on this method are
de%eloped to reduce the computation time associated with sol%in" the
linear system defined &y the Uaco&ian matri). Be will descri&e some of
these after descri&in" the inclusion of "enerator &uses.
E8 Ta#in" "enerator nodes into account ' *or reasons of simplicity we will
assume that "enerator nodes are num&ered in an orderly fashion from 1
to p. +t a "enerator node #A the %olta"e L
#
is fi)ed and remains constant?
henceA bL
#
D =. It is therefore necessary to delete the row and column
correspondin" to # in matri) ( since the chan"e in this %olta"e is e-ual
to 2ero. The same applies to all "enerator &uses. ThereforeA the reacti%e
powers in.ected at these nodes can &e computed directly &y the second
e-uation of 7.28. It is then necessary to %erify that the calculated
reacti%e power at each "enerator &us i is within the specified reacti%e
power limits of that "enerator'
( ) ( )
% i i% % i i% %
i %
i i ii i
H ! C C C H ( +

cos sin
2
If J
min
] J
i
] J
ma)
A then the machine reacti%e power is to &e set to
this %alueA
If J
i
c J
ma
A then set J
i
D J
ma)
A and transform &us i into a load &usA
If J
i
] J
ma)
A then set J
i
D J
min
and transform this &us into a load
&us in which 3 and J are fi)ed and the iterations continue.
*8 Simplified models' +s indicated earlierA althou"h the Newton $aphson
method con%er"ence %ery fastA the lar"e num&er of operations performed
at each iteration made the application of this method relati%ely e)pensi%e
in terms of computin" time in the past. Bhile constraint has &ecome less
&indin" due to the increased computin" power of modern computersA it
is still important when the si2e of networ#s to &e analy2ed is %ery lar"e.
This is especially true when load flow calculations are a repeated step in
lar"e scale studies such as networ# sta&ility optimal networ# operations
in economic terms. It is then necessary to perform a many load flow
calculations on the same networ# &ut under different operatin"
conditions. This has led to the findin" ways to reduce the computation
time of each iterationA e%en if the num&er of iterations re-uired for the
con%er"ence of the al"orithm is hi"her.
One of the first simplifications proposed &y Bard and Hale was to
i"nore the off4dia"onal su&matrices ( and N of the Uaco&ian matri)
and retain only the dia"onal su&matrices H and 0A i.e.A update only
the terms a3i<aZi and aJ
i
<aL
i
. The ad%anta"e of such a
simplification is that the resolution of linear system 7.18 is
immediate &ecause the matri) is dia"onal. The disad%anta"e is that
the num&er of iterations rises %ery -uic#ly &ecause the modified
al"orithm is far from a -uadratic con%er"ence. This simplified model
is useful when one does not ha%e sufficient computin" power 7which
is unli#ely the case these days8.
*ast decoupled load flow' This model is &ased on appro)imations
induced &y electrical en"ineerin" consideration on the terms of the
e-uations 7.38. It is well #now that the ma"nitude of the %olta"e
affects mainly the reacti%e powerA while the phase an"le affects
mainly the acti%e power. Conse-uently'
aJ
i
<a Z
.
]] aJ
i
<aL
.

a3
i
<a L
.
]] a3
i
<aZ
.
This notice leads us to consider that off4dia"onal matrices of the
Uaco&ian matri) N D = and ( D =. Be then deduce that system of
e-uations 7.18 is decoupled'
`L D N aJ<aLO
:1
`J

and

` Z D Na3 <a ZO
41
`3
This leads us to sol%in" two systems of e-uations of order n instead a
system of order 2nA thus to di%ide the computin" time &y a factor of . In
additionA the followin" assumptions are .ustified when considerin" the
order of the electrical -uantities in%ol%ed'
cos7Z
i
T Z
.
8 d1A !
i.
sin77Z
i
T Z
.
8 ]] H
i.
A J
i
]] H
ii
L
i
e
These considerations indicate that the Uaco&ian elements are nearly
constant relati%e to the ma"nitude and phase an"le of the %olta"eA which
implies that Uaco&ian matri) does not ha%e to &e in%erted at each
iteration. ThusA we can sol%e the system &y matri) trian"ulari2ation
which should &e performed only once at the &e"innin" of the calculationA
and only the resolution &y &ac#ward su&stitution is performed at each
iteration.
The ad%anta"e of the decoupled load flow is that the need for memory
space and computation time is considera&ly reduced. Howe%erA one
should ta#e precautions when considerin" networ#s in which there are
lines with a hi"h de"ree of compensationA i.e.A where the ratio $<G is
%ery hi"h. In these networ#sA as elsewhere in hea%ily loaded networ#sA
the con%er"ence of iterati%e methods is %ery slow and sometimes they
may di%er"e and not &e a&le to reach a solution.
+.+.3. *alculation of power flows
One of the important results of the calculation of load flow is e%aluation of
the flow of acti%e and reacti%e power at &oth terminals of each element of
the networ#A as shown in *i"ure .2 &elow. If we consider an element that
connects nodes i and .A we can write the comple) power that passes throu"h
this element as a function of %olta"es E
i
and E
.
at the terminals of this
element.
Figure #.2 'ower flow at terminals of an element.
The comple) power flowin" from nodes i to . is'
S
i.
D y
i.
7E
i
4E
.
8
K
E
i
M 7yC
i.
E
i
8
K
E
i
746a8
The comple) power that tra%els from nodes . to i is e-ual to'
S
i.
D y
i.
7E
.
4E
i
8
K
E
.
M 7yC
.i
E
.
8
K
E
.
E
i
746&8
where I
i.
K
D 4 y
i.
K
D !
i.
4 .H
i.
A and yC
i.
K
D yC
.i
K
D "
i.
T. h
i.
D 4 .C<2 7since the
conductance "
i.
is often ne"li"i&le8.
/ecomposin" e-uations 7.68 into real and ima"inary parts allows us to
o&tain the acti%e and reacti%e powers'
S
i8
D 3
i.
M. J
i.
and S
8i
D 3
.i
M. J
.i

*rom 7.68 S
i8
can &e rewritten as'
S
i.
D 7 4!
i.
M . H
i.
8 7 E
i
K
4E
.
K
8E
i
M74. h
i.
8E
i
E
i
K
with' E
i
DL
i
e
8Zi
and E
.
D L
.
e
8Z.
8
S
i.
D 7 4!
i.
M . 7H
i.
4h
i.
88L
i
e
4 74!
i.
M. H
i.
8 L
i
L
.
e
.7Zi4 Z.8
8
The same applies for S
8i
'
S
.i
D 7 4!
i.
M 8 7H
i.
4h
i.
88L
.
e 4 74!
i.
M8 H
i.
8 L
i
L
.
e
87Z.4 Zi8
8
Now the acti%e and reacti%e powers e)pressions can &e deduced'
y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
i
:
'
i:
'
:i
<
i:
<
:i
y
ij
y
ji
y
ij
i
:
'
i:
'
:i
<
i:
<
:i
3
i.
D 4!
i.
L
i
e M!
i.
L
i
L
.
cos 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8 M H
i.
L
i
L
.
sin 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8
J
i.
D7H
i.
4h
i.
8L
i
e 4 7H
i.
L
i
L
.
cos 7Z
i
4 Z
.
84!
i.
L
i
L
.
sin 7Z
i
4 Z
.
88
0i#ewise'
3
.i
D 4!
i.
L
.
e M!
i.
L
i
L
.
cos 7Z
.
4 Z
i
8 M H
i.
L
i
L
.
sin 7Z
.
4 Z
i
8
J
i.
D7H
i.
4h
i.
8L
.
e 4 7H
i.
L
i
L
.
cos 7Z
.
4 Z
i
84!
i.
L
i
L
.
sin 7Z
.
4 Z
i
88
;ut the power loss of line or transformer is "i%en &y the sum of the powers
in.ected into nodes i and .'
`3
i.
D3
i.
M3
.i
D 4!
i.
N 7L
i
ML
.
8F 4 2 L
i
L
.
cos 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8 O
`J
i.
DJ
i.
MJ
.i
D 7H
i.
4h
i.
8 7L
i
ML
.
8F 4 2 H
i.
cos 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8
+fter some mathematical manipulationsA we o&tain'
`3
i.
D 4!
i.
N 7L
i
4L
.
8F ML
i
L
.
sinF7 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8<28 O
`J
i.
D H
i.
N 7L
i
4L
.
8F 9L
i
L
.
sinF7 7Z
i
4 Z
.
8<28O Th
i.
7L
i
ML
.
8F
The analysis of these e-uations shows that the losses are proportional to the
s-uare of the %olta"e drop? henceA ade-uate %olta"e re"ulation to minimi2e
the loss in the line is warranted. +fter calculatin" the loss in each element of
the networ#A the total losses are added to the swin" &us "enerator'

elements
i% loss
' '
A and


elements
i% loss
( (
Be must ensure that the machine connected to the swin" &us is capa&le of
deli%erin" these additional powers in addition to the scheduled %alues.
'.). Software tools for load flow analysis
The calculation of load flow is often is essential and is often a pre4re-uisite
for other power system studies. *or e)ampleA software associated with
sta&ility analysis &e"ins with a calculation of load flow to determine the
initial state of e-uili&rium. ThusA a software tool that is dedicated
specifically for sta&ility studiesA such as Eurosta" NE>$ =OA has such a
function to initiali2e a sta&ility study. +s a conse-uenceA this particular
software pac#a"e can &e used for load flow analysis. +lso tools for system
security studiesA plannin"A short circuit analysisA and system optimi2ation
utili2e 7or are &ased on8 load flow analysis.
'.+. Appendi5: principle of numerical iterati6e methods
Se%eral numerical methods are a%aila&le of sol%in" non4linear al"e&raic
e-uations. In the conte)t of this wor#A we restrict our presentation to the
methods that can &e applied to load flow calculations? namelyA the !auss4
Seidel and the Newton4$aphson methods. Be apply these methods for
sol%in" the e-uation * 7)8 D =A where *7)8 is a non4linear function of one
%aria&le. *or con%enienceA the e-uation to &e sol%ed can &e rewritten as'
)D f7)8 7.68
+.3.1. Gauss$-eidel method
The principle of this method is rather simple. *rom an appro)imate initial
%alue )
7=8
A we construct a se-uence of iterated %alues )
7#8
&y applyin"
e-uation 7.68'
)
7#M18
D f7)
7#8
8
This iterationA if it con%er"esA will lead to a %alue )
7f8
such that'
)
7f8
D f7)
7f8
8


This will &e the solution of e-uation 7.68.
It is possi&le to represent "raphically the principle of this method &y drawin"
on the same "raph the function y D f 7)8 and y D ) as shown in *i"ure .3. It
is possi&le to accelerate the con%er"ence &y introducin" the concept of
rela)ation we discussed earlier
This principle introduces a rela)ation factor H which com&ines the %alues of
)
7#8
and that of )
calc
o&tained from the pre%ious calculationA i.e.A )
calc
D f 7)
7#8
8
to calculate the %alue of )
7# M18
usin" the formula'
)
7#M18
D )
calc
M 714 8 )
7#8

The coefficient H is usually such that 1 ]H ] 2.
Figure #.3 4irect iteratie metho" of soling the equation 9 = f .9/.
+.3.2. ewton$Raphson method
This method ta#es into account of chan"es in the function * 7)8 &y usin" its
deri%ati%e. *rom an initial %alue we calculate an increase or decrease in ) &y
b) such as'
*7)
7=8
M

`)8 D=
To &e"in withA we e)pand * 7)
7=8
Mb)8 usin" Taylor series e)pansion around
)
7=8
and #eep only the first term'
*7)
7=8
M

`)8 D *7)
7=8
8 M`) *C7)
7=8
8 D =
*rom which'
`) D 4 *7)
7=8
8< *C7)
7=8
8

Then we update )
7=8
&y )
718
as follows'
)
718
D )
7=8
4 *7)
7=8
8< *C7)
7=8
8
The iteration continues as follows for the #
th
se-uence'
yD)
yDf7)8
)
7=8
)
718
)
728
)
738
5
=G>
)
y
yD)
yDf7)8
)
7=8
)
718
)
728
)
738
5
=G>
)
y
)
7#M18
D )
7#8
4 *7)
7#8
8< *C7)
7#8
8
until it con%er"es to a %alue of ) such that
( ) < 9 F
A where ^ is a
predetermined tolerance %alue. + "raphical illustration of this iterati%e
process is shown in *i"ure . &elow.
Figure #.#. 8ewton-$aphson iteratie metho".
The ad%anta"e of the Newton4$aphson relati%e to con%entional rela)ation
methods is the speed of con%er"ence due to the use of information pro%ided
&y the deri%ati%e of * 7)8. It is possi&le to demonstrate that the con%er"ence
of this method is -uadratic in nature while the rela)ation methods con%er"e
in a linear fashion. This rapid con%er"ence led to wide4spread applications of
the Newton4$aphson method to sol%in" non4linear al"e&raic e-uations.
'., E5ercises
+.4.1 E(ercise o. 1+) Load flow calculations
+ power networ# consists of three &uses and three lines. The per4unit %alues
of the series impedance and shunt admittance of each line are "i%en in Ta&le
E.1.1 &elow.
(ine odes Series impedance Shunt admittance
1 142 =. M .=.1 =. M .=.
2 243 =. M .=.2 =. M .=.
yDf7)8
)
y
)
7=8
)
718
)
728
5
=G>
yDf7)8
)
y
)
7=8
)
718
)
728
5
=G>
# 143 =. M .=.2 =. M .=.
Table E.1#.1 7in series impe"ance an" shunt a"mittance.
Nodes 1 and 2 are considered as 34L nodes with fi)ed %olta"es. Each
"enerator at these &uses can produce an acti%e power = g 3 g 5 puA and
reacti%e power 41.1 g J g 2.1 pu. ;us 3 is a 3J node at which the connected
load consumes 3 D 3.53:2 pu and J D =.133: pu. The networ# operators
ha%e decided to esta&lish the followin"'
4 *i) the %olta"es at the "eneration nodes to L D 1.= pu at node 1A and
L D 1.1 pu at node 2?
4 +cti%e power "enerated at node 2' 3 D 1.3216 pu.
Note that this is situation in not practical since "eneration at node 2 is "reater
that the entire loadA hence the "enerator at node 1 has to dri%en in motor
mode to &alance the powerh
*or the calculationA we consider the data presented in Ta&le E.1.2 &elow.
3erform an iteration of load flow usin" the Newton4$aphson method.
-us *ype
0eneration Consumption
2oltag
e
(imits H
3 J 3 J L (in. (a).
1 Swin" 4 4 4 1.= 4 4
2 3L 1.3216 4 4 1.1 41.1 2.1
# 3J 4 4 3.53:2
=.133
:
4 4
+.4.2 E(ercise o. 1/) 5ower flow
+ 132 #L networ# consists of elements as shown in *i"ure E.11 &elow.
Elements +;A +/A /C are o%erhead linesA while element ;C is an
under"round ca&le. The electrical parameters of these elements are listed in
Ta&le E.11. Be want to study this networ# under %arious operatin"
conditions.

Figure E.11 8etwork un"er stu"y.
Parameter
E6erhead
(ine
Inderground
Ca%le
Inductance l D 2.1 mH<#m l D =.5 mH<#m
Capacitance c D 11 n*<#m c D 3== n*<#m
"esistance r D =A21 /#m r D =.1= /#m
Conductance " D = " D =
Table E.11 +erhea" an" un"ergroun" cable circuit parameters.
+8 +ssume that all the elements as dipoles 7short lines8 without loss.
;uild the admittance matri) $
%us
when ta#in" node + as the
reference node. Calculate the matri) ,&us associated with the
method step &y step.
;8 ;uild the new $
%us
matri) when ta#in" all the line parameters into
accountA and ta#in" and ta#in" the earth 7neutral8 as reference.
C8 Now node + is maintained at the rated %olta"e of 132 #L 7i.e.A L
+
D
1 pu8A while node ;A CA / are load centers with the followin" acti%e
and reacti%e power consumption'
ode P =MJ> H =M2A">
- 5= =
C 1== 2=
K 1= 1=
Calculate the %olta"es at the a&o%e load centers after 2 or 3 iterations
of the Newton $aphson method 7use $
%us
calculated in ;8 a&o%e8.
/8 Calculate the resultin" power flow in each element.
E8 Calculate the total networ# losses in the power "enerated at node +.
+.4.3 E(ercise o. 13) "atrices and load flow
*i"ure E.15 shows a one4line dia"ram of an electric power transmission
networ# that consists of 3 nodes and 3 identical o%erhead lines 7each is 1==
#m lon"8. The total series impedance and shunt admittance of each line are
as follows' impedance , D =.=2 M . =.=9A admittance I D .=.=2 S.
Figure E.1@ Three-bus network un"er stu"y.
+8 3ro%ide an e-ui%alent circuit of the networ#.
;8 Ta#in" the earth as reference nodeA determine the &us admittance
matri) $
%us
of this networ#.
C8 Be are now interested in the power flow under the operatin"
conditions listed in the Ta&le E.15 &elowA where 3 and J represent the
in.ected real and reacti%e powers into the networ#A while L and Z
1
2 3
correspond to the ma"nitude and phase an"le of the %olta"e at each
node.
;us ;us Type 3 J L Z
1 Swin" 1.= =.=
2 0oad 73J8 =.1 =.1
3 !enerator 73L8 41.1 1.=
Table E.1@ *nput "ata for power flow.
a8 E)press the acti%e powers 32A 33

and reacti%e power J2 as
functions of L2A 2A 3
.
&8 >sin" L2
7=8
D 1A

Z2
7=8

D Z3
7=8

D

= as initial %aluesA calculate the
%alues of L2A Z2A Z3 after the first iteration of the Newton4
$aphson iterati%e methods. Then calculate the resultin" %alue of
the relati%e power J3
718
in.ected at node 3 after this first iteration.
CH+3TE$ 1
Transient +nalysis (ethods
).1. Interest in transient analysis
The e%er increasin" electric ener"y consumption o%er the past few decades
has resulted in networ# operation close to the capacity limits of its
components. ThereforeA any o%er%olta"e or o%ercurrent caused &y an
unintended topolo"y or operatin" condition is li#ely to cause a ma.or outa"e.
ThusA protection de%ices must &e desi"ned with hi"her accuracy to o%ercome
these potential pro&lems.
/ifferent types of transients must &e analy2ed in terms of their ma"nitude
and duration and their impact on different materials. Lolta"e transients can
result from'
4 0i"htnin" stri#es?
4 Switchin" sur"es?
4 *erro4resonance?
4 (omentary faults.
+ careful analysis must &e underta#en on the se%erity of each of these types
of transients in order to ta#e ade-uate measures to a%oid cascaded trippin" of
protection de%ices or e-uipment failure 7e.".A sur"es arrestersA circuit
&rea#ersA transformers8.
Bhate%er the situationA the calculation or simulation of transients is
e)tensi%e &ecause they in%ol%e &oth the inclusion of propa"ation phenomena
on the lines as well as non4linearities of %arious networ# elements such as
li"htnin" arresters and transformers. The difficulty is compounded &y the
nature of the transient phenomenon which is the propa"ation of
electroma"netic wa%es with %ery steep fronts of the order of microseconds.
The primary analysis tool has &een the Transient Networ# +naly2er 7or
TN+8 which was widely used in the last three decades of the twentieth
century. The TN+ was -uic#ly replaced &y numerical methods &ased on
0aplace and *ourier transformationsA and &y the method of finite differences.
(ethods &ased on 0aplace or *ourier transforms soon pro%ed to &e not
sufficiently accurate when representin" the steep fronts of the wa%es
encountered in electrical networ#s.
The finite difference method is to decompose the time t into %ery small
inter%als ItA and the len"th of each transmission line into %ery small
se"ments of len"th I9A to reali2e the first order appro)imation of the
deri%ati%es of %olta"e and current in time and in space. The result is a system
of al"e&raic e-uations whose un#nowns are the %alues of %olta"e and current
at e%ery time instantA and at each point alon" the line. This method is %ery
accurate if the discreti2ation is fine enou"hA &ut the need to represent
chan"es in %olta"e or current with %ery steep fronts re-uires us to choose a
%ery short time step 7in the nanosecond ran"e8. +s a conse-uenceA the
application of finite difference method tends to &e %ery cum&ersome and
%ery demandin" in terms of computation time. If the study is to &e
performed on a networ# with se%eral linesA transformers and apparatusA this
method &ecomes no applica&le &ecause of its comple)ity.
ThereafterA an ori"inal method &ased on the analytical e-uations of wa%e
propa"ation on the lines appeared. ;y first ne"lectin" the resistance and
conductance of the lineA this method consists of splitiin" the line in se%eral
sectionsA then reintroducin" the resistance &etween the sections of the line.
This method is simply called [the method of tra%elin" wa%es\A and the
software associated with it was pu&lished under the name Electro-6agnetic
Transient 'rogram .E6T'/ &y H. /ommel. This method and the E(T3 are
uni%ersally used nowadays.
In the ne)t sectionA we will descri&e the operation and use of the transient
networ# analy2er since it is still used in some cases. This will &e followed &y
a description of the method of tra%elin" wa%es.
).2. *ransient networ! analy7er
/.2.1. 5rinciple of operation
The Transient Networ# +naly2er is an analo"ue representation of the
networ# components. The representation of transformersA alternatorsA circuit
&rea#ers and inductors poses no particular &ecause of their small scale
representation. It is howe%er important to respect the characteristics of
electrical transients such as time constantsA dampin" coefficients and
fre-uencies of oscillation durin" the construction of these machines. It is
throu"h careful desi"n that ta#es into account these phenomena at the le%el
of inductorsA resistors and capacitors that we ha%e a "ood -uality results
durin" testin".
The most delicate point in the construction of the analy2er is the
representation of lines and ca&les. The line and ca&le ha%e distri&uted
elementsA hence cannot &e represented as such &ecause this would re-uire a
len"thy ca&le. In factA these elements are su&di%ided into more or less
discrete cellsA each of which represents se%eral #ilometers of line or ca&leA as
shown in the dia"ram *i"ure 1.1 &elow.
Figure 1.1 Schematic "iagram of a line .or cable/ segment.
/.2.2. Advantages and disadvantages

Operatin" a TN+ is &ased on the principle of discreti2ation of the line. This
implies an increase in the num&er of cells there&y impro%in" the accuracy of
resultsA i.e.A the representation of transient phenomena that are we are
see#in" to reproduce.
Howe%erA the increase in the num&er of cells leads to the "eneration of
parasitic modes? namelyA oscillation phenomena due to the natural
fre-uencies of the de%ice not related to operation of the line. The
superposition of these parasitic modes with the actual wa%e propa"ation on
the line distorts the results &y either cappin" or distortin" the sur"e. It is then
necessary to insert dampin" resistors in these cells to reduce the effect of
these natural fre-uencies that may &e within the &andwidth of the filter that
is made up of the series connected cells. +fter succeedin" in eliminatin" the
effect of these parasitic oscillationsA the operation of the analy2er can &e
automated and pro%ides satisfactory results. It must &e said that this type of
de%ice is e)pensi%e to &uild and maintain &ecause the representation a small
networ# re-uires the construction of o%er 5== three4phase cells.
Howe%erA this type of tool is useful when one wants to study a typical
networ# from a topolo"ical point of %iew &ecause once the networ# model is
&uiltA is easy to conduct testin" on this networ#. The TN+ is a "reat tool for
statistical studies on switchin" sur"es &ecause on can easily plan se%eral
thousands of openin" and closin" se-uences 7in the order of 2= === trials8
and analy2e the recorded data statistically.
*inallyA many en"ineers li#e this type of de%ice for the analysis of nonlinear
phenomena which are difficult to represent numerically. +n e)ample of this
would &e the effect of o%er%olta"e on the saturation of ma"netic circuits of
the machines installed on the networ#. IndeedA &y its analo" natureA the TN+
allows one to understand the physical meanin" of transient phenomena more
easily than the numerical methods that we study.
Howe%erA a typical TN+ is rather &ul#y and this is a serious draw&ac# when
one must consider se%eral networ#s especially if different from each other. It
is this pro&lem that led electrical power companiesA which did not &uild a
TN+A to turn to numerical methods.
).#. *he method of tra6eling wa6es BSA- ,#C
/.3.1. 5rinciple
Consider a lossless line of len"th iA inductance and capacitance per unit
len"th of 0 and CA respecti%ely. The operatin" e-uations of this line can &e
written as'
aL< a) D 0 a I<a t ? aI< a) D C aL<a t 71418
where L and I respecti%ely represent the %olta"e and current at any point of
the line. /ifferentiatin" e-uations 71.18 with respect to distance ) results in'
aeL<a)e D 0C aeL<a te
71428
aeI<a)e D 0C aeI<a te
The solution of the a&o%e e-uations is of the form'
L D *
1
7)4 L
=
t8 M *
2
7) M L
=
t8
71438
I D 74*
1
7)4 t8 M *
2
7) M L
=
t88 <,
c

where
L
=
D1 <j70C8
is the speed of propa"ation of electroma"netic wa%es in air 7or in the
dielectric material for under"round ca&le8A and
,
c
Dj70<C8
is the characteristic impedance of the line 7or ca&le8? *unctions *
1
and

*
2
depend on the &oundary conditions at &oth ends of the line 7or ca&le8.
*rom E-uations 71.38A we can deri%e the relations &etween L and I as
follows'
L7)At8 T ,
c
I 7)At8 D 2 *
1
7) 4 L
=
t8
7148
L7)At8 M ,
c
I 7)At8 D 2 *
2
7) M L
=
t8
The a&o%e relations descri&e the representation of a line 7or ca&le8 &etween
two points.
/.3.2. Representation of a line 6or ca&le7
0et two nodes # and m of the networ# connected &y a line as shown in
*i"ure 1.2 &elowA where L
#
and i
#m
respecti%ely represent the %olta"e at node
# and current flow at node # towards node m. SimilarlyA L
m
and i
m#
respecti%ely represent the %olta"e at node m and current flow at node m
towards node #. 0et us define k Di<L
1 as the tra%el time of an
electroma"netic wa%e o%er the len"th of this line.
Figure 1.2 7ine .or cable/ representation between points k an" m.
The current and %olta"e ma"nitudes at time t and distance ) 7measured from
node m8 are e)pressed &y'
L7)At8 T ,
c
I 7)At8 D L7)4 iA t4 k8 T ,
c
I 7)4 i A t4 k8
71.18
L7)At8 M ,
c
I 7)At8 D L7)M iA t4 k8 M ,
c
I 7)M iA t 4k8
Ha%in" chosen m as the reference of distance ) alon" the lineA then the
%olta"e and current %alues at m 7i.e.A ) D =8 are'
L 7=At8D L
m
7t8A and I7=At8 D 4 i
m#
7t8A
Su&stitutin" these in E-uations 71.1.8'
L
m
7t8 T ,
c
i
m#
7t8 D L7iA t4 k8 M ,
c
I 7 iA t 4k8 71458
*urthermoreA ) D i corresponds to node #. Hence'
L7iA t8 D L
#
7t8A and I7i At8 D i
#m
7t8A
This leads us to deri%e the relations of terminal %olta"es and currents usin"
the a&o%e &oundary conditions'
L
m
7t8 T ,
c
i
m#
7t8 D L
#
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
#m
7t 4k8
71468
L
#
7t8 T ,
c
i
#m
7t8 D L
m
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
m#
7t 4k8
E-uations 71.68 are fundamental to the representation of a line or ca&le when
conductin" transient analysis. These e-uations can &e rewritten as shown
&elow for con%enience'
i
#m
7t8 D L
#
7t8<,
c
T 71<,
c
8R L
m
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
m#
7t 4k8 S
!
!
m
i
m
i
m

m
!
!
m
i
m
i
m
!
!
m
i
m
i
m
!
!
m
i
m
i
m

m
i
m#
7t8 D L
m
7t8<,
c
T 71<,
c
8R L
#
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
#m
7t 4k8 S
;y definin"'
I
#
7t8 D T 71<,
c
8R L
m
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
m#
7t 4k8 S
I
m
7t8 D T 71<,
c
8R L
#
7t4 k8 M ,
c
i
#m
7t 4k8 S
Be o&tain E-uations 71.:8 &elow'
i
#m
7t8 D L
#
7t8<,
c
M I
#
7t4 k8
714:8
i
m#
7t8 D L
m
7t8<,
c
M I
m
7t4 k8
E-uations 71.:8 are the &asis of the representation of the line when ta#in"
into account the propa"ation of tra%elin" wa%es.
Now let us di%ide time t into discrete steps It which are su&4multiples of k
such that k D pbt where p is an inte"erA as illustrated in *i"ure 1.3 &elow.
Then at time t
i
D ibtA we ha%e'
t
i
Tk D t
i
4 pbtD t
i:p
Figure 1.3 Time "iscretiJation.
Howe%er at time t
i
A I
#
7t
i4p
8 and I
m
7t
i4p
8 are #nown and may in fact &e
considered as current sources with #nown %alues. ThusA the line can &e
represented &y the followin" e-ui%alent circuit dia"ram in *i"ure 1.. This
dia"ram is that of a con%entional electrical circuit powered &y current
sources.
mL 3L
2L L =
t
t
i
mL 3L
2L L =
t
t
i
ID1<,
c ID1<,
c
i
!m
i
!m
I
!
7t
i:p
8 I
m
7t
i:p
8
L
!
L
m
#
m
ID1<,
c ID1<,
c
i
!m
i
!m
I
!
7t
i:p
8 I
m
7t
i:p
8
L
!
L
m
#
m
Figure 1.# $epresentation of a line between no"es k an" m.
+t any time t
i
A it is possi&le to calculate -uantities L
#
A L
m
A i
#mA
i
m# as a
function of other -uantities since the %alues of the current sources I
#
7t
i4p
8
and I
m
7t
i4p
8 are #nown at that instant of time. This representation of
transmission lines and ca&les in the form of an electric circuit is the &asis of
the method of tra%elin" wa%es.
To ena&le the modelin" of a networ#A it is necessary to propose models for
each element of the networ#. In particularA the resistanceA inductance and
capacitance will &e addressed in the followin" para"raphs.
/.3.3. Representation of a resistor
*i"ure 1.1 shows a resistor that is connected across node # and mA with L
#
and L
m
representin" the terminal %olta"esA and i
#m
the current flow from node
# to node m.
Figure 1.1 $epresentation of a resistance.
The %olta"e and current defined a&o%e are related &y OhmCs law'
L
#
T L
m
D $ i
#m
If the resistor $ is represented &y its conductance !
$
D 1<$A then'
i
#m
D !
$
7L
#
T L
m
8 where !
$
D1<$
/.3.+. Representation of an inductor
L
!
L
m
# m
I
$
D 1<$
i
!m
L
!
# m
i
!m
L
!
L
m
# m
I
$
D 1<$
i
!m
L
!
# m
i
!m
The %olta"e across an inductor 0 that is connected &etween nodes # and m is
related to the current flowin" throu"h it &y'
L
#
T L
m
D 0 di
#m
<dt
This e-uation can &e inte"rated &etween times t and 7t T bt8'
( ) ( )

t
t t
m k km km
"t t C t C t t i t i 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7
7141=8
In e-uation 71.1=8A the inte"ral to the ri"ht can &e appro)imated &y the
trape2oidal method of inte"ration since the time inter%al bt is sufficiently
small'
i
#m
7t8 4 i
#m
7t4 bt8D 7bt<208NL
#
7t8 4 L
m
7t8M L
#
7t4bt8 4 L
m
7t4bt8O
*rom which the current i
#m
7t8 is deduced '
i
#m
7t8 D 7bt <2087L
#
7t8 4 L
m
7t88
M i
#m
7t4 bt8M7bt <208 7L
#
7t4 bt8 4 L
m
7t4bt88 71411 8
If we let'
I
#m
7t8 D i
#m
7t8 M 7bt <2087L
#
7t8 4 L
m
7t88
and
I
(
D 7bt<208
E-uation 71.118 simples to'
i
#m
7t8 D I
0
7L
#
7t8 4 L
m
7t88 MI
#m
7t4bt8 714128
where at time tA I
#m
7t 4 bt8 is #nown and can therefore &e considered as a
current source. ThereforeA and inductor can &e modeled &y an e-ui%alent
electrical circuit as shown in *i"ure 1.5 &elow.
I
!m
7t4bt8
m
#
L
#
L
m
I
#m
m #
L
m
L
#
0
I
0
Figure 1.@. $epresentation of an in"uctor
/.3./. Representation of a capacitor
The %olta"e4current e-uation of a capacitor C connected &etween nodes #
and m is as follows'
( )
"t
t C t C "
, t i
m k
km
8 7 8 7
8 7

71418
+fter inte"ration &etween the time inter%als t and 7t T bt8A the a&o%e e-uation
&ecomes'
( )



t
t t
km m k m k
"t t i
,
t t C t t C t C t C 8 7
1
8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7
714118
SimilarlyA the inte"ral to the ri"ht of 71.18 can &e appro)imated usin" the
trape2oidal formula'
( ) ( ) 8 7 8 7
2
8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 t t i t i
,
t
t t C t t C t C t C
km km m k m k
+

714158
Sol%in" for i
#m
7t8 yields'
( ) ( ) 8 7 8 7
2
8 7 8 7 8 7
2
8 7 t t C t t C
t
,
t t i t C t C
t
,
t i
m k km m k km

714168
;y definin"'
( )
1
]
1

+ 8 7 8 7
2
8 7 8 7 t C t C
t
,
t i t *
m k km km
and
t
,
E
c

2
E-uation 71.158 simplifies to'
i
#m
7t8D I
c
7 L
#
7t84L
m
7t88 M I
#m
7t4bt8 714198
where i
#m
7t 4 bt8 is a #nown -uantity at time t and can therefore &e re"arded
as a current source. This allows us to represent a capacitor &y the e-ui%alent
circuit shown in *i"ure 1.6 &elow.
Figure 1.2 $epresentation of a capacitor.
/.3.3. Representation of a voltage source
The electrical networ# often contains a num&er of %olta"e sources that are
inserted &etween a pair of nodesA say # and m. +ny %olta"e source e
#m
with
internal impedance , can &e con%erted to an e-ui%alent current source &y
applyin" NortonYs theorem as shown in *i"ure 1.9 &elow. In the latter
dia"ramA I D 1<, and U
#m
D 4I e
#m
.
Figure 1.A $epresentation of a source of tension.
/.3.4. 0perating principle
The total time t durin" which one wishes to carry out a transient analysis on
I
!m
7t4bt8
m
#
L
#
L
m
I
C
C
I
#m
m
#
L
m
L
#
#
e
!m
L
!
L
m
m
,
i
!m
U
!m
L
!
L
m
#
ID1<,
m #
e
!m
L
!
L
m
m
,
i
!m
U
!m
L
!
L
m
#
ID1<,
m
a networ# is discreti2ed in time inter%als bt that are sufficiently small to
represent the phenomena sou"ht with suita&le accuracy 7e.".A when si2in"
protection de%ices8. The duration of the time inter%al bt is chosen such that it
is less than the lar"est su&4multiple of the propa"ation time k
#
of
electroma"netic wa%es o%er all the lines of the networ# under study.
*or each discrete time t
i
A the networ# is fully represented &y a set of dipolesA
each of which is defined &y its internal admittance and possi&ly a current
source accordin" to the circuit representations of the %arious elements we
co%ed in the pre%ious section. HenceA at time t
i
A the networ# is defined &y
admittances and current sources which are #nown at this time &ecause it is
possi&le to calculate these currents from the earlier calculations at time t
i41
.
Be can therefore consider that the operation of the networ# is defined at
time t
i
&y the moment matri) of admittances $
%us
and the %ector current
sources I
%us
. The networ# topolo"y is #nown at each moment &y the state
7EopenE or EclosedE8 of circuit &rea#ers located &etween the linesA ca&les and
other de%ices. HenceA it is possi&le to construct the matri) $
%us
and %ector I
%us
for each networ# topolo"y.
Be recall that the terms of the matri) $
%us
are defined &y'

k
ik ii
y E
A I
i. D 4
y
i.
SimilarlyA the "eneral term I
%us
is defined &y'

ik
k
ik i
K * * +

where the terms I

i#
represent the %alues of current sources attached to lines
and inducti%e and capaciti%e elementsA while U
i#
%alues are Norton current
sources deri%ed from the %olta"e sources.
The "lo&al matri) e-uation of the networ# is'

$
%us
2 D I
%us

where 2 is the %ector of networ# node %olta"es.
The %olta"e L
i
in each node in the networ# may &e o&tained &y sol%in" the
a&o%e linear e-uation 7e.".A &y !auss method8. Vnowled"e of these %olta"es
allows one to deduce the current sources in the %arious networ# elements
7accordin" to e-uations N1.6O to N1.15O8. This will in turn allow us to
calculate the %olta"e at the instant t
i M1
D t
i
M btA and the iteration continues
until we reach the time t
ma)
where the calculation ends.
Notes'
18 Introducin" resisti%e losses'
The &asic assumption of this method is to ne"lect the resistance of the line to
a&le to sol%e analytically the e-uations of propa"ation. This assumption is
incompati&le with the study of the transitional arran"ements as it leads
ne"lectin" the dampin" of the wa%es durin" the propa"ation. One practice to
o%ercome this ma.or draw&ac# is to di%ide the line into se%eral sections and
insert a resistance &etween ad.acent sections. The sum of these insertions
should add up to the total line resistance. *i"ure 1.: &elow illustrates this
concept where the line of len"th i is di%ided into 3 sectionsA and half of the
total line resistance is inserted &etween two ad.acent sections.
Figure 1.D. $esistance insertion between line sections.
One e)pects that di%idin" the line into a hi"her num&er of sections and
insertin" smaller fractions of the total line resistance leads to more accurate
results. Howe%erA a numerical analysis showed that the results do not chan"e
si"nificantly after splittin" the line into 3 sections as illustrated a&o%e.
28 Introduction of elements with non4linear features'
Networ# studies under transients often ta#e into account nonlinear elements
such as transformers. Howe%erA it is still possi&le to use this method &y
se"mentin" the non4linear cur%e of such elements and appro)imatin" each
se"ment &y strai"ht lines.
38 3rocessin" the matri) $
%us
'
It was indicated in the chapter de%oted to the construction of the admittance
matri) $
%us
that it is sparseA i.e.A the ma.ority of its elements are 2ero. It is
recommended to use a special method to store only the non42ero elements of
M
M4# M4# M4#
"42
"42
M
M4# M4# M4#
"42
"42
the matri) rather than the entire matri).
SimilarlyA when calculatin" the node %olta"esA we sol%e the linear system of
e-uations often &y trian"ularisation of the matri). Such an al"orithm
transforms the linear system into an e-ui%alent system where the elements of
the matri) &elow the main dia"onal terms are all 2ero. The resolution of such
a system of e-uations is then fast and strai"ht forward. Trian"ularisation of a
matri) is &y far the lon"est a costliest in terms of computin" time. It is
therefore ad%isa&le to or"ani2e the se-uence of calculations in such a way to
a%oid fre-uent chan"es in networ# topolo"yA since this leads to new matrices
each of which re-uires trian"ularisation.
/.3.8. 9llustration e(ample
In this su&sectionA we will consider an e)ample that illustrates the details of
the method includin" the different sta"es in%ol%ed in such a study. This
study shows a way to reduce o%er%olta"es alon" line &y insertin" a resistor
$
*
to dampen the amplitude of the %olta"e wa%e &efore propa"atin" on the
line. In this caseA the maneu%er is to "radually close secondary switches &y
%aryin" the closin" resistanceA and to close when the main switch when the
wa%e is sufficiently dampened. The networ# under study consists of a line
connected throu"h the closin" resistor $
*
to a "enerator with electromoti%e
force E
=
A resistance $
=
A su&transient inductance 0
=
and capacitance to "round
C
=
. This line is e-uipped at &oth ends with compensatin" inductors 0
1
and 0
2
as indicated in *i"ure 1.1=a.
Figure 1.1:a. 8etwork un"er stu"y.
E
=
0
=
$
=
C
=
$
*
0
1
0
2
E
=
0
=
$
=
C
=
$
*
0
1
0
2
I
C1
I
(
I
(
I
&c
I
(1
I
(1
I
(2
I
(1
I
&c
I
C1
E
=
I
0=
I
"1
I
"F
I
(1
I
C1
I
(
I
(
I
&c
I
(1
I
(1
I
(2
I
(1
I
&c
I
C1
E
=
I
0=
I
"1
I
"F
I
(1
Figure 1.1:b. Equialent circuit of network in Figure 1.1:a.
The application of the methods descri&ed a&o%e leads to the e-ui%alent
circuit shown in *i"ure 1.1=& at any instant t
i
within the inter%al time of
study. The transformation of the %olta"e source E
=
to a current source results
leads to the circuit in *i"ure 1.1=c.
Figure 1.1:c. Transformation of oltage souce to current source.
*inallyA the a&o%e circuit is simplified to that shown in *i"ure 1.1=d after
com&inin" admittances and current sources. This final circuit has 1 nodes
7with node = &ein" a reference for %olta"e8 and contains only current sources
and admittances.
Figure 1.1:". Final equialent circuit after combining a"mittances
an" current sources.
Settin" the node e-uations of this networ# results in the admittance matri)
$
%us
as descri&ed in Section 1.3.1'
I
(2
I
&c
I
&c
I
(1
I
C1
I
(2
I
(
I
(
I
(1
I
C1
I
(1
4I
(1
E
=
I
"F
I
(1
I
"1
I
(2
I
&c
I
&c
I
(1
I
C1
I
(2
I
(
I
(
I
(1
I
C1
I
(1
4I
(1
E
=
I
"F
I
(1
I
"1
I
C1
I
(1
MI
(
I
(2
MI
(
3

1 2
I
(1
4I
(1
E
=
I
(1
I
"1
I
"F
I
C1
I
(1
MI
&c
I
(2
MI
&c
I
C1
I
(1
MI
(
I
(2
MI
(
3

1 2
I
(1
4I
(1
E
=
I
(1
I
"1
I
"F
I
C1
I
(1
MI
&c
I
(2
MI
&c
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
+ +
+ +
+

2
1
= = =
= = =
= = =
= =
=
= =

3
2
1
7 &c
7 &c $F $F
$F $F , $ $
$ $ 7
bus
E E
E E E E
E E E E E
E E E
E
SimilarlyA we can calculate the %ectors I and U of the second part of the
matri) e-uation at each instant t
i
of the inter%al time to study'
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
+

1
1
1
1
]
1

8 7 8 7
8 7 8 7
8 7
I A
=
=
=
8 7 8 7
U
=
3 3=
=2
= =

i i
i i
i
i i 7
t * t *
t * t *
t *
t E t E
the %alue of each element of the a&o%e %ectors will &e e)plained &elow.
+t time instant t
i
A the solution of the matri) e-uation $
%us
2 3 I9N "i%es the
%alue of the %olta"e L
#
7t
i
8 in each node 7L
1
A L
2
A L
#
A L
'
8. This will ena&le us
to calculate the instantaneous currents in all &ranches of the circuit'
i
=1
7t
i
8D 4I
0=
L
1
M I
=1
7t
i41
8

i
2=
7t
i
8D I
C=
L
2
M I
2=
7t
i41
8
i
12
7t
i
8 D I
$=
7L
1
4 L
2
8 i
3=
7t
i
8D I
01
L
3
M I
3=
7t
i41
8
i
3
7t
i
8 D I
,c
L
3
M I
3
7t
i41
4k8 i
3
7t
i
8D I
,c
L

M I

7t
i41
4k8

i
=
7t
i
8 D I
02
L

M I
=
7t
i41
8
These %alues in turn allow us to calculate the %alues of the components of
the %ector I'
I
=1
7t
i
8 D i
1=
7t
i
8 4I
0=
L
1
I
=2
7ti8 D 4 i
2=
7t
i
8 TI
C=
L
2

I
3=
7t
i
8 D i
3=
7t
i
8 MI
01
L
3
I
3=
7ti8 D i
=
7t
i
8 MI
02
L

I
3
7t
i
8 D 47I
,c
L

7t
i
4k8 M i
3
7t
i
4k88
I

7t
i
8 D 7I
,c
L
3
7t
i
4k8 M i
3
7t
i
4k88
So for a "i%en time stepA we calculate the node %olta"esA then the &ranch
currentsA then identify current sources which are needed to calculate the
%olta"es the ne)t time around.
).'. Conclusions
This method is widely used today &ecause it is %ery powerful in terms of
computation time re-uired whichA despite the hi"h speed of current
microprocessorsA is still apprecia&le when lar"e scale studies are to &e
carried out in the framewor# of a statistical e%aluations. In additionA it is
simple to implementA and recent ad%ances in modelin" and simulations are
pro%idin" means of ta#in" into account the non4linear nature of power
electronic switchin" de%ices. *inallyA this is the &ase of the well4#nown
E(T3 software that is well pu&lici2ed and maintained N=1 /E!A =1 +HO.
Howe%erA we stress a disad%anta"e that must &e remem&eredA namely the
difficulty to control the accuracy of the results due to the nature of the
assumptions made in the de%elopment of the method. One should therefore
&e careful when analy2in" the results and to ensure the %alidity the method
&efore launchin" a full scale simulation study.
).). E5ercises
/./.1. E(ercise o. 14) Transient analysis on a line
*i"ure E.16 shows a circuit dia"ram of an induction furnace that is powered
from a thermal power plant throu"h a transformer and a transmission line.
The "enerator is represented &y a constant e.m.f. E
=
A resistance $
=
A
inductance 0
=
A and capacitance C
=
. The station transformer is represented &y
a series inductor 0
1
and shunt capacitance C
1
. The transmission line with
parameters ,
c
and kA is compensated &y a shunt inductor 0
c
. *inallyA the
furnace is represented &y inductor 0
f
and is fed throu"h an under"round
ca&le with parameters 0
c2
and k
2
.
Figure E.12 Equialent circuit of network un"er stu"y.
+. $epresent the a&o%e networ# &y an electrical circuit dia"ram for
transient analysis usin" the method of tra%elin" wa%es.
;. 3ropose a way to ta#e into account the resistance of the line and
ca&le.
/./.2 E(ercise o. 18) "atrices and transient analysis
The networ# in *i"ure E.19.1 &elow is part of the *rench transmission
system operatin" at 39= #L. The total inductanceA resistanceA and
capacitance of each of the 11 lines are descri&ed in Ta&le E.19.1. I"nore the
conductance of each line. The "enerators can &e modeled as shown in *i"ure
E.19.2 with parameter %alues as shown in Ta&le E.19.2.
Figure E.1A.1 8etwork schematic.
(ine 1 2 # ' ) + , O P 11 11
(ength =!m> 236 229 11 265 12= 9= := 12= 11= 111 9=
7 8 t H
7"
=A25 =A21 =A15 =A3 =A13 =A=: =A1 =A=13 =A16 =A16 =.=:
$"t7) 61 59 3 93 35 2 26 35 1 5 2
7 8 t F
,"
2A1 2A 1A1 2A: 1A2 =A9 =A: 1A2 =A15 =A15 =.=9
Table E.1A.1 7ine parameter alues.
Figure E.1A.2 !enerator circuit mo"el.
0enerator 01 02 0#
" =Q> 1A= 1A= =A1
( =/> =A1 =A3 =A=5
C =RF>
=A=2
1
=A=
1
=A=3
Table E.1A.2 !enerator parameter alues.
+8 Select a tree containin" nodes 1 4 5A then "i%e for the "raph
correspondin" to this networ# the followin"' the networ# incidence
matri) CA the fundamental circuits and two e)amples of cuts.
;8 /etermine the nodal admittance matri) of the networ# when operatin" at
1= H2 72Ff d 3== rad<s8. >se "round as reference.
C8 +ssume a reduced networ# contains nodes 1A 2A 3A . /eri%e an
e-ui%alent circuit of this su&4networ# that is suita&le for transient
analysis.
/./.3 E(ercise o. 1:) Transient analysis under lightning stri!e

Be wish to conduct a transient analysis on a line under a li"htnin" stri#e. To
do soA consider the circuit in *i"ure E.1: that represents a "eneratorA a
transmission lineA a sur"e arrester $
p
A and a capacitor C at the line terminal.
Figure E.1D ,ircuit "iagram un"er stu"y.
The "enerator is represented &y an emf E
=
A a series inductance 0
=
and shunt
capacitance C
=
. The arrester is represented &y a %aria&le resistor and is
placed at 1<3 of the line len"th from the "enerator end. *inallyA the line
parameters are as follows' len"th'
3== ? km
tra%el time
1 ? ms

resistance
3= . r

$epresent the a&o%e networ# with a schematic that is suita&le for transient
analysis usin" the theory of tra%elin" wa%es.
CH+3TE$ 5
*ault Current Calculations
+.1. Kefinition
+ short4circuit current "enerally occurs at the closure of any electrical circuit
on a 2ero or low %alue impedance. The most common case is where a short
occurs &etween one or more phases of a networ# and "round. +nother case is
the accidental connection &etween two phases with ne"li"i&le impedance.
The resultin" short4circuit current is often referred to as [fault current\ since
this represents an a&normal operation of the system and associated electrical
e-uipment. *ault currents are characteri2ed &y their %ery hi"h %alues. These
currents are se%eral times the nominal current 7o%er one order of ma"nitude8A
dependin" on the o%erall dri%in" point impedance of the system at the fault
location.

+.2. Effects of short:circuit conditions
The effects and conse-uences of short4circuits are e)tremely dama"in" to the
material and e-uipment of the electrical networ#. In IndeedA the electrical
e-uipment installed on power systems is not desi"ned to withstand such %ery
hi"h current %alues. These currents will therefore cause e)cessi%e heatin"
which can cause e-uipment destruction and fire ha2ards. Larious
malfunctions can &e o&ser%ed as a result of a faultA especially in measurin"
apparatus 7e.".A current transformers8 and telecommunication e-uipment.
It is therefore essential to protect the e-uipment from the effects of short4
circuits. This function is "enerally pro%ided &y a de%ice that can sense and
interrupt %ery hi"h currentsA namelyA the circuit &rea#er. Howe%erA these
&rea#ers are associated with protection de%ices which are e-uipped with
al"orithms for the detection of faults and coordination with other protection
de%ices 7selecti%ity8 within the networ#.
+.#. Common causes of faults
Causes of a short4circuit may &e di%erse'
Beather conditions 7li"htnin" stri#eA windA stormA etc.8 in these
se%ere weather conditionsA dielectric &rea#down 7followin"
temporary o%er%olta"es caused &y li"htnin" for e)ample8 or the
partial material destruction of e-uipment can cause short4circuits?
+"in" of the material' this phenomenon leads to rupture or local
failure which could result in short4circuits?
0ac# of electrical insulation' this defect is often at the root of some
short4circuits where insulation is no lon"er a&le to maintain its
functionA thus leadin" to a contact &etween phases or &etween turns
of a transformer for e)ample. The accidental contact &etween a line
air and %e"etation 7tree8 is considered as a defect in insulation since
the insulation distance &etween the line and the %e"etation 7earth8 is
no lon"er respected for whate%er the reason 7lac# of maintenance or
tree trimmin"8?
0ac# of fle)i&ility and human error' This type of maneu%er or error
often causes se%ere short4circuits. These can %ary from the o&li%ion
of a "roundin" durin" maintenanceA to an operational error that
causes a temporary o%er%olta"e which tri""ers a dielectric
&rea#down?
Landalism' throwin" an iron &ar on an o%erhead line ine%ita&ly
causes a short circuit?
+nimals' &irds often cause short4circuits. The stor# case of 3ortu"al
is famous. IndeedA in (ay 2===A the win"s of a stor# "ot stuc#
&etween two phases of an o%erhead line of 3ortu"uese "rid. +n
inade-uate response of the protection system has led to a power
failure encompassin" appro)imately half of the 3ortu"uese networ#.
+.'. Importance of short:circuit current calculations
Vnowled"e of the current %alues that may &e caused &y short4circuits is
essential for the desi"n of protecti%e e-uipment 7&rea#er and protection8. *or
circuit &rea#ersA these current ma"nitudes are re-uired for the dimensionin"
terms of the &rea#in" capacity. The interruptin" capacity of a &rea#er
sufficient to interrupt the hi"hest possi&le short4circuit current that may
occur in the protected area.
The calculation of short4circuit currents does not only imply #nowled"e of
the current at the fault locationA &ut also the distri&ution of these current
flows on other lines and phases of the networ# and their impact on the
%olta"es. These %alues allow us to choose the most suita&le protection for
each type of networ#.
The short4circuit currentsA althou"h they "i%e rise to when additional
transitional schemes are often calculated usin" steady4state analysisA
althou"h they occur durin" a transient state. HenceA the remainder of this
chapter is de%oted to fault calculations usin" such calculations. On the other
handA with the e)ception of a &alanced fault 7short4circuit in all three
phases8A an unsymmetrical fault causes im&alance in the currents and
%olta"es. ThereforeA the calculation methods &ased on a perfectly &alanced
networ# which allows per4phase analysis is lon"er %alid in this case. Be
therefore call for specific methods for addressin" unsymmetrical or
un&alanced circuits. The most popular of such methods is &ased on *ortescue
transformation and is referred to as Esymmetrical componentsE. Be
therefore introduce and apply this method for calculatin" short4circuit
currents. ;ut &efore doin" soA we will &riefly re%iew the treatment of
multiphase un&alanced situations.
+.). *ypes of short:circuits
There are mainly two types of short4circuits'
Symmetrical short4circuit' this consists of a &alanced three4phase
fault 7either phase4to4phase4to4phase or phase4to4phase4to4phase4to4
"round8. These are illustrated in *i"ure 5.1.
+symmetrical short4circuit' this consists of the followin"
un&alanced faults which are illustrated in *i"ure 5.2'
o Sin"le4phase4to4"round?
o phase4to4phase 7isolated8
o phase4to4phase4to4"round 7"rounded8
*or &oth types of short4circuits a&o%eA the faults may &e &olted 7i.e.A with
2ero fault resistance or impedance8 or with a fault impedance.
The three4phase short4circuits "enerally "enerate hi"her fault currents.
ThereforeA the interruptin" capacity of circuit &rea#ers is often defined &y
the %alues of these currents.
Figure @.1. -alance" short-circuit through fault impe"ance.
.a/ .b/
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
a
&
c
a
&
c
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
Z
"
a
&
c
a
&
c
a
&
c
a
&
c
,
f
,
f
a
&
c
a
&
c
,
f
,
f
a
&
c
,
f
a
&
c
,
f
.c/
Figure @.2. 4iagram of .a/ phase-to-phase fault0 b/ phase-to-phase-to-
groun" fault0 c/ single-phase-to-groun" fault.
The impedance ,
f
shown in *i"ures 5.1 and 5.2 represents the fault
impedance. If ,
f
D =A then the short4circuit is said to &e E&oltedE. It should &e
noted that the sin"le4phase4to4"round fault is the most common type of fault
in electrical power networ#s 7a&out 5= to 6=l of all types of faults8.
+.+. otion of short:circuit power
The concept of short4circuit power is often used to illustrate the ro&ustness
of the networ# at a particular point. The hi"her this powerA the more ro&ust is
the networ# seen from the point in -uestion. This is illustrated in particular
&y low %olta"e %ariations when a fault occurs in this networ#. This concept
is fictional since it com&ines the short4circuit current with that of the
nominal %olta"e.
The "eneral e)pression of the short4circuit power is'

cc n cc cc
* 5 * 5 S 3 3
=
754
18
Bhere >
=
and >
n
correspond to the line4to4line %olta"e &efore the fault and
the nominal %alueA respecti%elyA and I
cc
is the short4circuit current.
The short4circuit power can also pro%ide an idea of the se%erity of a short4
circuit current in a "i%en networ#. +s will &e seen laterA once the current
terms court4circuit currents are #nownA it is %ery easy to determine the %alue
of the short4circuit power at a "i%en point on the networ# when usin" per4
unit 7pu8 %alues.
+.,. Polyphase %alanced and un%alanced systems
+s stated pre%iouslyA polyphase networ#s are assumed to &e &alanced and
symmetrical under normal steady4state operation where the "enerated power
matches system load demand 7includin" losses8. IndeedA the networ#s are
statistically considered &alanced in practiceA e)cept for some a&normal
operatin" conditions 7such as un&alanced fault conditions8. HenceA their
study can therefore &e reduced to a per4phase analysis which "reatly
simplifies the calculations in%ol%ed in %arious studiesA e.".A load flowA
%olta"e dropA or system losses.
Bhen an asymmetrical fault or a pronounced im&alance occurs in the
networ#A the per4phase is no lon"er applica&le. In this caseA we must
represent and model the phenomena that occur in all three phases. These are
usually len"thy and complicated calculations that power en"ineers wish to
a%oid. Than#s to the method of ESymmetrical componentsE or *ortescue
method that allows considera&le simplifications in the analysis of
un&alanced circuits. These methods actually wor# on &alanced networ#s %ia
symmetrical transformations. The principle of these transformations is &ased
on the fact that an un&alanced 34phase networ# can &e decomposed into 3
&alanced systems each containin" 34phases that are referred to as the
[symmetrical componentsE of the un&alanced system. The method is "eneral
and applies to any polyphase system containin" n phases.
3.4.1. ;alanced three$phase systems
There are 3 separate &alanced three4phase systems 7for a "i%en an"ular
fre-uency HA ma"nitude E!E and phase m8. These systems called EdirectEA
Ein%erseE and EhomopolarE. ;y adoptin" the *resnel representation 7%ector8A
these systems are represented &y the followin" formulas'
direct in%erse homopolar
7cloc#wise8 7counter4cloc#wise8
Figure @.3. Three-phase systems ."irect0 inerse an" homopolar/
"
1
"
2
"
3
2<3
"
1
"
3
"
2
2<3
"
1
"
2
"
3
"
1
"
2
"
3
2<3
"
1
"
2
"
3
2<3
"
1
"
3
"
2
2<3
"
1
"
3
"
2
2<3
"
1
"
2
"
3
In the e-uations of these systems a&o%eA the %aria&le E%ectorE " represents
the electrical 7%olta"eA current or emf8A ! amplitude and phase shift m
relati%e to a "i%en reference.
In practiceA the electromoti%e forces induced at the terminals of "enerators
are &alanced and represent a direct system. HenceA the normal steady4state
system operates in a direct mode.
3.4.2. *omple( representation
The -uantities representin" the &alanced system of *i"ure 5.3 can also &e
represented &y comple) num&ers as'
"D! e
.m
or in the +n"lo4Sa)on literature as'
"D!
m
This notation defines an operator representin" the comple) phase shift of the
three4phase -uantities in relation to anotherA i.e.A 2F<3'
a D e
.2F<3
D cos72F<38 M . sin 72F<38
This operator is referred to as the Eoperator of 34phase rotation\. ThereforeA
we can conclude that'
a
2
D e
.F <3
and'
a
3
D1
Hence'
a M a
2
M 1 D =
representin" a &alanced system where the sum of the 3 -uantities is e-ual to
2ero. Be can then represent the &alanced system usin" one %aria&leA such "
1
'
;alanced system direct'

1
! ? a
41

1
! ? a
42

1
! 7
1
! ? a
2

1
! ? a
1
! 8
;alanced system in%erse'
1
! ? a 1
! ? a
2

1
!
3.4.3. -ymmetrical components
C.0. *ortescue has shown that any 34phase asymmetrical system can &e
decomposed into'
4 + &alanced three4phase direct' direct component?
4 + &alanced three4phase in%erse' in%erse component?
4 + &alanced three4phase homopolar' homopolar component.
+ three4phase sinusoidal system can &e e)pressed as a linear com&ination of
these three components. 0et the %ector of phase currents I
p
and phase
%olta"es L
p
&e written as'

,
_

,
_

c
b
a
c
b
a
p

C
i
i
i
*
p
? 75428
where currents 7i
a
A i
&
A i
c
8 are the un&alanced currentsA 7%
a
A %
&
A %
c
8 represent
un&alanced %olta"es. These phase currents and %olta"es can &e written as a
linear com&ination of other symmetrical currents and %olta"es as follows'
[ ] [ ]
s
. ? . C T C * T *
p s p

75438
where the inde) EsE is associated with -uantities representin" the
symmetrical componentsA and the inde) EpE representin" the phase
-uantities. In the case of symmetrical componentsA I
s
and L
s
are %ectors
containin" components representati%e of direct in%erse and homopolar 7see
*i"ure 5.38.
The elements of the transformation matri) T in E-uation 75438 are constant
7comple) or real8 and independent of time. This transformation allows us to
e)press the un&alanced phase -uantities in terms of other -uantities that are
symmetrical and &alanced. ThusA each phase current or %olta"e can &e
e)pressed as a linear com&ination of directA in%erse and homopolar
components. In the case of %olta"es'

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
h
c
i
c
"
c c
h
b
i
b
"
b b
h
a
i
a
"
a a
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
754a8
where' L
aA&Ac
are the %olta"es of phases aA &A and cA respecti%ely? and L
dA iA h
are the directA in%erse and homopolar symmetrical componentsA
respecti%ely. The same applies to the currents'

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
h
c
i
c
"
c c
h
b
i
b
"
b b
h
a
i
a
"
a a
* * * *
* * * *
* * * *
754&8
where' I
aA&Ac
are the currents of phases aA &A and cA respecti%ely? and I
dA iA h
are
the directA in%erse and homopolar symmetrical componentsA respecti%ely.

Be therefore e)press a system of 3 un&alanced %aria&les as a system of :
%aria&les &elon"in" to &alanced 3 &alanced systems.
0et us first ta#e a loo# at the characteristics of a &alanced system'




2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2

'

'

'

'

h
c
h
b
h
a
h
c
h
b
h
a
i
a
%
i
a
i
c
i
a
%
i
a
i
b
i
a
%
i
a
i
c
i
a
%
i
a
i
b
"
a
%
"
a
"
c
"
a
%
"
a
"
b
"
a
%
"
a
"
c
"
a
%
"
a
"
b
* * * C C C
* a e * *
* a e * *
C a e C C
C a e C C
* a e * *
* a e * *
C a e C C
C a e C C

75418
ThusA the system of e-uations 7548 &ecomes'

'

+ +
+ +
+ +

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
h
a
i
a
"
a c
h
a
i
a
"
a b
h
a
i
a
"
a a
h
a
i
a
"
a c
h
a
i
a
"
a b
h
a
i
a
"
a a
* * a * a *
* * a * a *
* * * *
C C a C a C
C C a C a C
C C C C
2
2
2
2

and

75458
Be note that all -uantities are e)pressed in terms of the symmetrical
components of phase EaE 7su&script8. To simplify the notationA we can then
remo%e this su&script for con%enienceA and E-uation 75458 &ecomes'

'

+ +
+ +
+ +

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
h
i
"
c
h i "
b
h i "
a
h i "
c
h i "
b
h i "
a
* * a * a *
* * a * a *
* * * *
C C a C a C
C C a C a C
C C C C
2
2
2
2

and

754
68
The a&o%e system of e-uations can &e con%eniently written in matri) form'
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

h
i
"
c
b
a
C
C
C
a a
a a
C
C
C
.
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
and
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

h
i
"
c
b
a
*
*
*
a a
a a
*
*
*
.
1
1
1 1 1
2
2
7549a8
Or in a&&re%iated form as'
[ ]
s p
C T C .
et
[ ]
s p
* T * .
7549&8
where'

,
_

c
b
a
p
C
C
C
C ?

,
_

c
b
a
p
*
*
*
* ?

,
_

h
i
"
s
C
C
C
C
?

,
_

h
i
"
s
*
*
*
*
and
[ ]
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1 1 1
2
2
a a
a a T
The a&o%e relation e)presses the phase components in terms of the
symmetrical components. On the other handA we can e)press the symmetrical
components in terms of the phase components &y in%ertin" the
transformation matri) T'
[ ]
p s
C T C .
41

and'
[ ]
p s
* T * .
41

where'
[ ]
1
1
1
]
1

1 1 1
1
1
3
1
2
2
1
a a
a a
T
Or in the e)panded form of E-uation 75468'
( )
( )
( )

'

+ +
+ +
+ +

'

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +

3
1

3
1

3
1
and

3
1

3
1

3
1
2
c
2
2
2
c b a
h
c b a
i
b a
"
c b a
h
c b a
i
c b a
"
* * * *
* a * a * *
* a * a * *
C C C C
C a C a C C
C a C a C C
754:8
3.4.+. 5owers in terms of symmetrical components
The e)pression of the comple) three4phase power is "i%en &y the followin"
formula'
K K K
c c b b a a * C * C * C %( ' S + + + D
K
p
T
p * C
7541=8
where'
K
p * represents the comple) con.u"ate %ector of phase current? and
T
p C
represents the transposed %ector of phase %olta"es.
>sin" the e)pressions "i%en &y e-uation 75438A we deduce'
[ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] [ ]
K
K
K
. . . . . . s
T
T
s s
T
s * T T C * T C T %( ' S +
;ut the product'
[ ] [ ]
K
. T T
T
D 3 NIO
where NIO is the identity matri). Therefore'
K K K K
3 3 3 . 3
h h i i " "
s
T
s
* C * C * C * C %( ' S + + +
754118
The e)pression 754118 shows that the total power of a 34phase system is
e-ual to 3 times the sum of the powers of symmetrical components. This also
shows pseudo power in%ariance.
3.4./. -ymmetrical components and impedance<admittance matrices
The %ectors of phase %olta"es and the in.ected phase currents at different
nodes are related &y the impedance<admittance matri) as follows'
[ ] [ ] . and .
p p p p
C E * * & C
754128
E)pressin" the phase -uantities in terms of symmetrical components
accordin" to e-uation 75438 yields'
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] . . . and . . .
s s
C T E * T * T & C T
s s

Therefore'
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] . . . and . . . .
s
41 41
s
C T E T * * T & T C
s s

75413a8
Hence'
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] T & T &
s
. .
41
and [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] T E T E
s
. .
41
75413&8
The a&o%e impedance matri) [ ]
s
& and admittance [ ]
s
E correspond to the
system matrices transformed in symmetrical components. These relate the
%ectors of the symmetrical components of %olta"es and currents.
This transformation allows the dia"onali2ation of matricesA hence the
decouplin" of systems decoupled. This property shows the importance of
symmetrical components as it simplifies the calculations associated with
un&alanced circuits such as unsymmetrical faults.
3.4.3. otion of circulating matrices
Consider a system of 3 impedances 7or 3 admittances8A coupled or notA with a
symmetry of order 3A i.e.A insensiti%e to a circular permutation at its
terminals. This system is characteri2ed &y a cyclic impedance matri) 7or
admittance8.
*rom the relation 754128A we ha%e'
[ ] [ ] . and .
p p p p
C E * * & C
with'
[ ]

,
_

3 , -
- 3 ,
, - 3
& & &
& & &
& & &
, and [ ]

,
_

3 , -
- 3 ,
, - 3
E E E
E E E
E E E
I 75418
Bhen these matrices are transformed to symmetrical components %ia the
relations 754138A they &ecome dia"onal. In the case of impedance we ha%e'

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

,
_

+ +
+ +
+ +


, - 3
c - 3
c - 3
s
& a & a &
& a & a &
& & &
T & T &
2
2 1
= =
= =
= =

754118
O&%iously the transformed admittance is also dia"onal. The e)pression of
the a&o%e impedance may &e written as'
[ ]
= =
= =
= =

,
_

h
i
"
s
&
&
&
&
Bhere
impedance cyclic homopolar ' ,
impedance cyclic in%erse ' ,
impedance cyclic direct ' ,
h
i
d
It can &e seen that the transformation of *ortescue of any cyclic matri)
results in a dia"onal matri). This transformation decomposes a three4phase
system into a linear com&ination of three independent and &alanced systems
which are much easier to analy2e. This method applies not only to 34phase
systemsA &ut also to systems with a hi"her num&er of phases.
ThusA the relationship L
s
D N,
s
O I
s
results in a decoupled system when
transformed into symmetrical components'

,
_

,
_

,
_

h
i
"
h
i
"
h
i
"
*
*
*
&
&
&
C
C
C

= =
= =
= =
ThusA if the cyclic impedances are fed &y an un&alanced set of currentsA we
o&tain 3 sin"le4phase systems where each is characteri2ed &y a sin"le cyclic
impedance' direct ,
d
A in%erse ,
i
A and homopolar ,
h
. This clearly shows the
decouplin" resultin" form the *ortescue transformation.
3.4.4. *ase of synchronous machines
+ synchronous machine under &alanced load condition is characteri2ed &y
complete decouplin" &etween the phases. >nder these conditionsA the
terminal %olta"es of a synchronous "enerator are e)pressed &y'
[ ]
p p p
* & E C . 754158
where'
p
E
' %ector of the e.m.f of the synchronous machine?
p
C
' %ector of terminal %olta"e of the "enerator?
[ ] & ' cyclic characteristic impedance matri) 7not dia"onal8 of the
synchronous machine?
p
*
' %ector of phase currents of the synchronous machine.
+s stated earlierA in the case of three4phase synchronous machinesA the
induced electromoti%e forces p
E
are &alanced and considered direct in
terms of symmetrical components. The in%erse and homopolar symmetrical
components are therefore %oid.
On the other handA the currents p
*
and %olta"es p
C
can &e un&alanced if
the machine feeds an un&alanced load or networ#. ;y applyin" the
transformations "i%en &y the relationship 7549&8 on phase %olta"es and
currentsA we "et'
[ ] [ ][ ]
s p s
* T & E C T . . . 754168
(ultiplyin" the e-uation 754168 on &oth sides &y NTO
41
A we o&tain'
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
s p s
* T & T E T C . . . .
1 1
75419a8
which results in'
[ ] [ ]
s s p s
* & E T C . .
1


75419&8
The product term of the a&o%e e-uation[ ]
p
E T .
1
can &e written as '
[ ]
p
E T .
1
D
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

a
a
a
b
b
a
E a
E a
E
a a
a a
E
E
E
a a
a a
2 2
2
2
2
1 1 1
1
1
3
1
1 1 1
1
1
3
1
75419c8
Hence'
[ ]
p
E T .
1
D
1
1
1
]
1

=
=
a
E
75419d8
The relationship N5.19dO shows once a"ain that the electromoti%e force of a
synchronous machine contains only the direct componentA i.e.A it has no
in%erse component nor homopolar component.
Vnowin" that the matri) [ ]
s
& is dia"onalA e-uation N5.15O finally simplifies
to'

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

h
i
"
h
i
"
a
h
i
"
*
*
*
&
&
& E
C
C
C

= =
= =
= =
=
=
7541:a8
and therefore'

'

h h h
i i i
" "
a
"
* & C
* & C
* & E C
.
.
.
7541:&8
+s e)pectedA the decouplin" &etween the 3 systems is clearly noted in the
a&o%e e-uation.
3.4.8. -hort$circuit current calculations
To illustrate the application of the method of symmetrical components for
the calculation of short4circuit currentsA particularly in asymmetrical casesA
we will first illustrate this method on a simple case of a synchronous
machine under no load. Be then "enerali2ed the method for comple)
networ#s.
@.2.A.1. Single-phase-to-groun" fault
5.6.9.1.1. Case of a short4circuit throu"h an impedance
0et a short4circuit occur &etween phase a and "round as illustrated in *i"ure
5. &elow. The current circulatin" in phase I
a
is denoted &y I
sc
durin" the
fault. In the other phasesA the current I
&
and I
c
are o&%iously 2ero. In this
caseA we assume that the followin" -uantities are #nown'
E' e.m.f. %ecotor of synchronous machine?
[ ]
s
& ' dia"onal impedance matri) consistin" of directA in%erseA and
homopolar impedances of synchronous machine?
,
f
' fault impedance.
Figure @.#. 'hase-to-groun" fault at the terminals of an alternator.
The %ector of the phase currents for this particular fault is e-ual to'
1
1
1
]
1

=
=
a
p
*
*
The symmetrical components of the current are computed &y'
[ ]
p s
* T * .
41

Su&stitutin" the elements on the ri"ht yields'

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
]
1

3
3
3
=
= .
1 1 1
1
1
3
1
2
2
a
a
a
a
s
*
*
*
*
a a
a a
* 7542=a8
Therefore'
3
a
h i " *
* * *
Since'
[ ] [ ]
s s p s
* & E T C . .
1


The transformed %olta"es are calculated as follows'

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

3
3
3

= =
= =
= =
=
=
a
a
a
h
i
"
a
h
i
"
*
*
*
&
&
& E
C
C
C
7542=&8
On the other hand'
a
f
h i "
a * & C C C C . + +
ThenA
h i "
C C C + +
D
a C
D ( ) a
f
a
h i "
a * &
*
& & & E .
3
. + +
*inally we ha%e'
( )
cc
h i "
f
a
a *
& & & &
E
*
+ + +

3
1 7542=c8
where I
cc
is he short circuit current.
The resultin" %olta"es at the "enerator terminals are calculated ne)t. The
relation &etween phase b %olta"e and the 3 se-uence %olta"es is'
h i "
b C C a C a C + +
2
&y replacin" the %alues of
"
C
A
i
C
and
h
C
of e)pression N5.2=&OA we
find'
8
3
7 8
3
7 8
3
7
2
a
h
a
i
a
"
a b
*
&
*
& a
*
& E a C + +
Be further replace the %alue of
a *
has the e)pression "i%en &y N5.2=cO and
o&tain'
( )
h i "
f
h i
f
a b
& & & &
a & a a & & a
E C
+ + +
+ +

3
8 1 7 8 7 3
.
2 2 2
The %olta"e
c C
is o&tained in a similar way. The %olta"e
a C
can &e
o&tained usin" the relation'
cc
f
a * & C .
5.6.9.1.2. Case of a &olted phase4to4"round fault
+ &olted fault is characteri2ed &y 2ero fault impedance. Settin" ,
f
D = in the
e)pressions of short4circuit current and %olta"es deri%ed in the pre%ious case
yields'
( )
h i "
a
a cc
& & &
E
* *
+ +

3
= a C
( )

,
_

+ +
+ +

h i "
i " h
a b
& & &
& a & a &
a E C
2
2
.
( )

,
_

+ +
+ +

h i "
i " h
a c
& & &
& a & a &
a E C
2
.
NOTE ' If we calculate the sum
b C
M
c C
A we o&tain'
b C
M
c C
D3
h
C
#nowin" that'
h
C
D
3 3
cc
h
a
h *
&
*
&
we deduce that'
b C
M
c C
D37
3
cc
h *
& 8 D
cc
h
* &
Therefore'
cc
c b
h
*
C C
&
+

The latter e)pression shows that it is possi&le to determine the ma"nitude of

the homopolar impedance of a circuit 7alternator and other e-uipment8 in
-uestion. This is achie%ed &y measurin" the %ector sum of the two unfaulted
phase %olta"es and di%idin" the result &y the short4circuit current. This
method to determine the homopolar impedance is %alid only for sin"le4line4
to4"round &olted faults.
@.2.A.2. 'hase-to-phase-to-groun" fault
0et a short4circuit occur &etween phases b0 c and "round as illustrated in
*i"ure 5.1 &elow. Note that the fault &ein" considered in &olted 7i.e.A ,
f
D =8A
&ut the procedure can easily &e e)panded to include a fault impedance.
Figure @.1. -olte" two-phase-to-groun" fault at the terminals of an
alternator.
E
#
$
%
&l'er(#'e)r
I
%%
E
#
$
%
&l'er(#'e)r
I
%%
This short4circuit is therefore characteri2ed &y the followin" phase
-uantities'
= a *
and'
= c b C C
cc c b * * * +
The o&.ecti%e is to calculate the short4circuit current I
cc
and that the %olta"e
of phase a. Be &e"in with e)pression N5.1:&O and calculate the homopolar
current component'
( ) ( ) cc c b c b a
h
* * * * * * *
3
1
3
1
3
1
+ + +
Then we calculate the directA in%erse and homopolar %olta"e components'
( )
( )
( )


3
1

3
1

3
1
2
2

'

+ +
+ +
+ +
c b a
h
c b a
i
c b a
"
C C C C
C a C a C C
C a C a C C
Vnowin" that
b C
and
c C
are 2eroA we deduce'
"
C
D
i
C
D
h
C
D a C
3
1
D
h h
* &
D
3
cc
h *
&
The fact that'
i
C
D
h
C
D
h h
* & .
results in'
cc
i
h
i
*
&
&
*
3
1

SimilarlyA
"
C
D
h
C
D
h h
* & .
0eads to'
cc
h " "
a * & * & E
3
1
.
The a&o%e e)pression "i%es us the direct current component as a function of
short4circuit current'
cc
"
h
"
a
"
*
&
&
&
E
*
3
1
+
This e)pression can also &e re4written as follows'
cc
i
h
"
*
&
&
*

,
_

+ 1
3
1
SinceA
a *
D=A
we o&tain'
= + +
h i "
* * *
*inally we determine the short4circuit current in terms of #nown -uantities'
i
h "
h "
a
cc
&
& &
& &
E
*
.
3
+ +

754218
*or the phase a %olta"eA we ha%e'
a C
D
"
C
D
i
C
D
h
C
D3
h
C
D
h h
* & . 3
D
cc
h
* &
.
Su&stitutin" the short4circuit current in the a&o%e e)pression yields'
i
"
h
"
a
a
&
&
&
&
E
C
+ +

1
3
754228
NOTE' 0et us calculate the current of phase b'
h i "
b * * a * a * + +
2
+fter replacin" the directA in%erse and homopolar current %aluesA and di%in"
&oth sides of the e-uation &y the short4circuit currentA we o&tain'
i
h
cc
b
&
& a a a
*
*
3 3
1
2 2

754238
The a&o%e e)pression indicates that the current in the faulted phases 7b or c8
can &e hi"her than the short4circuit current. It is therefore essential to ta#e
precautions in this re"ard to a%oid any o%erheatin"A especially &y measurin"
the current in one the two phases in -uestion.
NOTE Consider the ratio of the unfaulted phase %olta"e o%er the short4
circuit current'
h
cc
a
&
*
C

ThereforeA we can o&tain the ma"nitude of the homopolar impedance ,
h
simply &y measurin" the %olta"e L
a
and short4circuit current I
cc
7&ein"
careful of course with the faulted phase currents8. This is one of the methods
that may &e used to determine e)perimentally the homopolar impedance of a
circuit. Once a"ainA this is %alid only when this type of fault is &olted.
3.4.:. 0ther types of faults
To a%oid &urdenin" this chapter with detailed calculations for other types of
faultsA we limit the presentation to the two pre%ious cases. Howe%erA the
method descri&ed pre%iously also applies to the isolated phase4to4phase fault
and to a symmetrical fault. Of courseA calculatin" the short4circuit current in
the latter type of fault can &e achie%ed without usin" the method of
symmetrical components. ;ut it is worth notin" that symmetrical
components are "eneralA and therefore apply also for the symmetrical case
7where the in%erse and homopolar components are no4e)istent8.
+.O. 0enerali7ation of fault calculation in comple5 networ!s
The e)amples presented in the pre%ious section illustrate the application of
the method of symmetrical components for a simple circuit that consists of
one synchronous machine operatin" under no load condition. Howe%erA
electricity networ#s are much more comple) and consist of hundreds or
thousands of components includin" synchronous machinesA o%erhead linesA
under"round ca&lesA transformersA and loads. These systems are therefore of
"reat dimensionA especially when considerin" the fact that the loads are
continuously chan"in". In the sections that followA we "enerali2e the
concepts presented a&o%e for the case of comple) networ#s.
Be will deal with the short4circuit calculations for these networ#s in the case
of symmetrical and asymmetrical faults. Be first &e"in with a symmetrical
faultA and then introduce a systematic calculation method for asymmetrical
faults. Be will see that this "enerali2ation always descri&es the networ# in
-uestion &y its Theremin e-ui%alent loo#in" from the faulted point in the
system. Of courseA in the case of asymmetrical faultsA the will &e crucial to
ha%e the 3 directA in%erse and homopolar e-ui%alent networ#s.
+.P. *hree:phase symmetrical fault current calculations
Be will first introduce the conceptA thenA "enerali2e to lar"e networ#s usin"
networ# matricesA includin" transfer matrices.
The method of calculation in this case is &ased on the application of the
The%enin method. IndeedA the The%enin theoremA alon" with the
superposition principle in linear systemsA is %ery useful when attemptin" to
determine chan"es in the currents and %olta"es as a result of addin" and
impedance &etween two points in the electrical circuit. This method allows
to the short4circuit as a chan"e that the networ# confi"uration.
Be can then easily apply the method of superposition of two networ# states'
the state &efore the fault and the state after the fault.
The%eninYs theorem states that Echanges affecting oltages an" currents in a
linear network as a result of a""ing an impe"ance between two no"es in a
network are i"entical to the oltages an" currents cause" by an e.m.f. .place
behin" series impe"ance/ of the same amplitu"e an" phase angle of the
oltage before the change in the network with all other oltage sources
short-circuite". E
Figure @.@. Fault impe"ance an" Theenin equialent circuit.
In the circuit of *i"ure 5.5 a&o%eA the fault can &e represented &y the addition
of the &ranch impedance ,
f
7fault impedance8 to the The%enin e-ui%alent
circuit 7E
TH
in series with ,
TH
8. The current resultin" from this chan"e is the
short4circuit or fault current. This current is "i%en &y'
f
TH
TH
cc
& &
E
*
+
754238
with'
TH E
' The%enin %olta"e identical to the pre4fault %olta"e
=
C
at the fault
location?
TH &
' The%enin impedance of the networ#. This corresponds to the
impedance measured for the fault point with all %olta"e sources short4
circuited?
f
&
' fault impedance.
Z
"
Z
*+
E
*+
I
%%
Z
"
Z
*+
E
*+
Z
"
Z
*+
E
*+
I
%%
In the case of a &olted fault 7,
f
D =8A the a&o%e e)pression simplifies to'
TH TH
TH
cc
&
C
&
E
*
=

The pro&lem is then to determine the The%enin e-ui%alent circuit of the
networ# when loo#in" from the fault location. On this &asisA we will address
the "eneral pro&lem of calculatin" systematical short4circuit currents in
power systems.
The resultin" fault currents in the &ranches calculated &y this method are
%ariations caused &y the short4circuit 7i.e.A after addin" the &ranch ,
f
8. The
resultin" current
f
*
in each &ranch of the networ# is thus the sum of
current %alues prior to the fault
=
*
and the %ariation
f
*
caused &y the
faultA i.e.A'

f f
* * * +
=
75428
0i#ewiseA the %olta"e
f
i C
at node i is e-ual to the sum of the %olta"e &efore
the fault
=
C
and the %ariation caused &y the fault'

f
i
i
f
i C C C +
=
754218
+.11. Symmetrical fault current: systematic approach
Bhen it comes to fault calculations on lar"e networ#sA the The%enin
e-ui%alent &ecome difficult to o&tainA especially for the impedance
TH &
.
It is therefore essential to ha%e a systematic calculation approach that can &e
incorporated into any model. This approach is &ased on the use of the
transfer matrices of the networ#A includin" the
bus &
matri) presented in the
pre%ious chapters.
In a "i%en networ#A the in.ected current represented &y the %ector
T
bus
* and
node %olta"es represented &y the %ector
T
bus
C are &ound &y the followin"
relationship'
-us -us -us * & C .
75425a8
where
bus &
represents the transfer impedance matri) of the networ#?
[ ]
n p -us
T
C C C C C A A A A 2 1
&ein" the %ector of node %olta"esA and
[ ] n p -us
T
* * * * * A A A A 2 1
&ein" the %ector of in.ected currents. These are illustrated in *i"ure 5.6
&elow.
Figure @.2. 8etwork transfer impe"ance matri9.
Be can now "enerali2e the a&o%e method &ased on The%enin theorem'
Consider a networ# that is represented &y its transfer impedance matri)
bus &
. It should &e noted that the matri)
bus &
must also inte"rate reactances
of the synchronous machines in the networ#. IndeedA these reactances ha%e
an impact on the ma"nitude of the fault current as well as resultin" current
flow throu"h %arious paths.
The chan"es in currents and %olta"es followin" a short4circuit at node r of the
Rseau
1
$us
1
p
-
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
*
p
=
p
Rseau
1
$us
11
pp
--
55
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
*
p
=
p
networ# can &e e)pressed &y'
-us
f
-us
f
-us
* & C .
75425&8
In the a&o%e e)pressionA the %ector of in.ected chan"e in currents
-us
f
*
contains only one %alue which corresponds to fault current at node rA i.e.A the
%ector
-us
f
*
is written as'

[ ] = A A A = A = r -us
T
* *
754268
;y con%entionA the in.ected current
r *
is in the opposite direction of short4
circuit current
cc *
'
r *
D
cc *
The transfer impedance matri) is e)pressed &y

[ ] [ ]
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

nn n n
rn rr r
n r
-us -us
& & &
& & &
& & &
E &
... ...
. . . . .
... ...
. . . . .
... ...
1 1
1
1 1 11
1
where [ ] -us E is the transfer admittance admittances of the networ#.
;y su&stitutin" e-uations N5.26O and N5.29O in N5.25&OA we o&tain'

'

cc nr
f
r nr
f
n
cc rr
f
r rr
f
r
cc r
f
r r
f
cc r
f
r r
f
* & * & C
* & * & C
* & * & C
* & * & C
. .
... ... ...
. .
... ... ...
. .
. .
2 2 2
1 1 1
5472:8
+nd accordin" to the relation N5.21OA we ha%e'

'

+
+
+
+
f
n n
f
n
f
r r
f
r
f f
f f
C C C
C C C
C C C
C C C
=
=
2
=
2 2
1
=
1 1
... ... ...
... ... ...
7543=8
*inallyA the post4fault node %olta"es are computed &y'
cc rr r
f
r
cc ir i
f
i
* & C C
* & C C
.
.
=
=


for
r i
n i

A...A 1
754318
Vnowin" that
cc
f
f
r * & C .
A we therefore ha%e
cc rr r cc
f
* & C * & . .
=

A
which "i%es us'
rr
f
r
cc
& &
C
*
+

=
754328
The relation N5.32O is similar to the relation N5.23O after su&stitutin"'

TH r E C
=
and
TH rr & &
.
ThusA the Thn%enin e-ui%alent impedance
rr &
is o&tained directly from the
transfer impedance matri)
-us &
. ThereforeA one can su&stitute
rr &
in place
of the The%enin e-ui%alent impedance at node rA as illustrated in *i"ure 5.9
&elow.
Figure @.A. ThLenin equialent circuit at no"e r.
*inally the post4fault node %olta"es are computed &y'
= =
= =
.
.
r
rr
f
f
r
f
r
r
rr
f
ir
i
f
i
C
& &
&
C C
C
& &
&
C C
+

+

for
r i
n i

A...A 1
754338
$elations N5.33O are "eneral and apply to any &alanced three4phase fault
occurrin" in the networ#. $elation N5.32O is used to calculate the fault current
as a function of the The%enin e-ui%alent impedance at the fault pointA the
%olta"e &efore the fault at that pointA and the fault impedance at that point.
+.11. E5pression of short:circuit current and short:circuit power
Be saw in section 5.5 that the short4circuit power is calculated usin" the
relation'
cc n cc cc
* 5 * 5 S 3 3
=

Vnowin" that the short4circuit current is "i%en &y the relation N5.32O and
Z
"
I
%%
Z
"
I
%%
assumin" a &olted fault 7,
f
D =8'
TH
n
TH
n
TH
r
cc
&
5
&
C
&
C
*
3
=

Be then ha%e'
TH
n
TH
n
TH
n
n
cc
&
C
&
5
&
5
5 S
2 2
3
3 3
. . 3 75438
E)pressin" the relation N5.3O in per4unit %alues'
TH
n
ref ref
cc
&
5
S 6C3 S
6C3 S
pu S
2
.
1
8 7
8 7
8 7
Vnowin" that the %olta"e is at or near it nominal %alue 7i.e.A &ase or
reference %olta"e8A we can appro)imate the a&o%e relation as follows'
TH
ref
ref
TH TH
ref
ref
TH
n
ref
J
S
5
& &
5
S &
5
S
pu S
1 1
.
1
.
1
8 7
2
2 2

,
_

754318
Bhere
TH J
is the per4unit 7pu8 %alue of the Thn%enin impedance. Be
therefore write'
TH J
pu S
1
8 7 A
The aboe relationship in"icates that the per-unit alue of the short-circuit
power at a no"e is equal to the inerse of the per-unit alue of the Theenin
impe"ance at that no"e.
+.12. Insymmetrical fault current calculations
3.12.1. Generali1ation of symmetrical components
+s mentioned in section 5.9A electricity networ#s are often lar"e. Hence the
calculation of short4circuit current in the case of asymmetrical faults re-uires
a "enerali2ation of the method of symmetrical components. This ensures to
always transform the networ# into 3 &alanced e-ui%alent networ#s
correspondin" to directA in%erse and homopolar components.
Bhen an asymmetrical fault occurs within a networ#A we always &e"in &y
determinin" the 3 e-ui%alent symmetrical networ#s 7directA in%erse and
homopolar8 %iewed from the faultA and each networ# is composed of only its
correspondin" se-uence.
@.12.1.1. Equialent network of "irect system
This contains all the components of the networ# of ori"in'
4 Electromoti%e forces of the synchronous machinesA
4 Impedances of different components 7ca&lesA transformersA etc.8
This networ# characteri2es the direct current
"
*
and direct %olta"e
"
C
components.
@.12.1.2. Equialent network of inerse system
TypicallyA this networ# is similar to the networ# of the direct se-uence a&o%e
e)cept'
4 It does not contain electromoti%e forces?
4 One needs to replace the impedances of different components &y
their in%erse %alues.
So this is a purely passi%e networ# which characteri2es the in%erse current
i
*
and in%erse %olta"e
i
C
components.
@.12.1.3. Equialent network of homopolar system
The determination of this e-ui%alent networ# particularly depends on the
e)istence of path for 2ero4se-uence 7or homopolar8 currents in the networ#
under study. Hence this networ# is often different from the two earlier
networ#sA and li#e the in%erse networ#A it is passi%e with no %olta"e sources.
IndeedA this networ# often contains fewer components or parts and the %alue
of the homopolar impedances are -uite different from the direct or in%erse
impedances. (ost importantlyA the networ# connection depends on how the
transformers are connected 7/eltaA "rounded4ByeA or un"rounded4Bye8 and
whether other components are connected to "round.
In shortA the homoploar networ# is %ery dependent on the paths for the flow
of homopolar currents. The followin" su&sections pro%ide some illustrations
on this su&.ect.
@.12.2. The neutral an" homopolar currents
To illustrate the conditions of e)istence of homopolar currentsA we simply
consider a system of three4phase impedances connected in Bye as shown
&elow.
Figure @.D. 8eutral current an" homopolar current
In *i"ure 5.:A we ha%e'
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
h
n
i " h
n
h i "
h i "
h i "
c b a n
* *
a a * a a * * *
* * a * a
* * a * a
* * * * * * *
3
1 1 3


2 2
2
2

+ + + + + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + +
Note that if the neutral is disconnectedA then the sum of phase currents is
2ero. The conse-uence is that the homopolar current is forced to &e 2eroA
e%en in case of im&alance. In this caseA only the direct and in%erse current
components 7
"
*
and
i
*
8 will &e present.
Be can therefore conclude the followin"' 3 homopolar system can e9ist only
in the presence of a connecte" neutral.
In case where the loads are connected in a /eltaA we ha%e of course the sum
of current 2ero. ThereforeA the homopolar current cannot e)ist. Howe%erA in
this caseA homopolar currents can circulate within the &ranches of the /elta
connection. This situation occurs particularly in the case of transformers
where the primary side is connected in "rounded4Bye 7thus allowin"
hompolar current flow8 and the secondary side is connected in /elta<
3.12.3. 9mpedances of networ! components
To determine the e-ui%alent networ#s representin" the directA in%erse and
hompolar systemsA we need to #now the networ# elements and their
indi%idual se-uence impedances. The components that come into
consideration are often rotatin" machinesA transformers and power lines.
+mon" these elementsA lines and transformers are static while the machines
are acti%e de%ices. The static aspect is manifested &y direct and in%erse
components. On the other handA homopolar components are dependent on
couplin"s 7for transformers8 and ways of dealin" with the neutrals 7when
they e)ist8.
In what followsA we e)amine schematic e-ui%alents of the symmetrical
components of these %arious networ# elements.
@.12.3.1. *mpe"ance of rotating machines
$otatin" machines can ha%e 3 different impedances 7
d
,
A
i
,
and
h
,
8.
These impedances are essentially inducti%e reactancesA althou"h we refer to
these as impedances.
*or the direct and in%erse impedancesA they depend on the reactance
correspondin" to each system mode 7direct or in%erse8. In cases of
synchronous machinesA for a system of direct currentA the field caused &y
armature reaction turns synchronously with the rotor field? hence we ha%e
the effecti%e reactance that corresponds to the synchronous reactance. The
impedance of the direct system is simply the synchronous reactance. *or a
system of in%erse currentsA the field of armature reaction runs in re%erse
relati%e to the rotor fieldA hence the effecti%e reactance that corresponds to
the reactance of the in%erse system. The latter can ha%e a lower than the
reactance of the direct system.
In case of a short4circuitA the first moments of fault current in%ol%e the
su&transient reactance of the machine. In practiceA we often i"nore the
su&transient current &ecause it is dampened in .ust few cycles. HenceA we
usually consider either the stead4state or transient state. The latter 7in%ol%in"
the transient reactance8 is used to calculate the short4circuit current that is
consistent with the cumulati%e operatin" time of protecti%e relays and circuit
&rea#ers. These transient reactances depend on the type machine 7round or
salient4pole rotor8.
The homopolar impedance of a synchronous "enerator depends on how
whether the neutral of the machine is either directly connoted to "round or
throu"h a "roundin" impedance 7which can &e reactance or resisti%e8. The
%alue of this impedance is "enerally lower than that of the in%erse or direct
impedance. These different impedances can &e o&tained either analytically or
e)perimentally.
@.12.3.2. *mpe"ances of lines an" transformers
0ines and transformers are static elements. +s a resultA the direct and in%erse
impedances are identical since they are insensiti%e to phase permutations. In
the case of transformersA these correspond to the lea#a"e impedances that
can &e o&tained from short4circuit tests 7Vapp dia"ram8.
Therefore'
d
,
D
i
,
*or the homopolar impedanceA the situation is different for lines and
transformers.
@.12.3.3. Homopolar impe"ance of lines
*or linesA the homopolar impedance depends on the return paths of
homopolar currents. This path is a com&ination of neutral wires and the
earth. Hence it depends on soil typeA moisture and other empirical factors.
*or these reasonsA the e)act %alue of this impedance is not easy to o&tain?
henceA we often resort to appro)imate or typical %alues.
@.12.3.#. Homopolar impe"ance of transformers
Three4phase transformers play a fundamental role in transmission 7or
&loc#a"e8 of homopolar currents. This is made possi&le &y two features' the
type of connection 7Bye < /elata8 and the method of "roundin" the neutral
7in case of Bye connection8. IndeedA the mode of "roundin" dictates the
e)istence of homopolar currentsA and the connection type determines
whether there is circulation of these currents 7from one side of the
transformer to another8. Be will therefore noteA in what followsA that si2e of
the networ# e-ui%alent correspondin" to the homopolar system is often
determined &y the type of transformer connection and their "roundin"
method 7if any8.
The homopolar impedance of a transformer %aries widely as it can from one
order of ma"nitude lar"er than the direct or in%erse impedance 7in case there
is a free flow of homopolar current8A to infinity 7in case there is no path for
homopolar current8.
Be usually determine these impedances e)perimentally. The methodolo"y is
similar to that of determinin" the series impedance 7throu"h a short4circuit
test8. The difference here is to feed the transformer with a homopolar %olta"e
source and measure the resultin" current. *i"ure 5.1= &elow illustrates the
concept for measurin" the homopolar impedance of a transformer. ThusA the
homoplar impedance can &e directly o&tained &y'
=
h
,
*
E

E
3I
0
I
0
I
0
I
0
*r#(s",r-#'e)r
E
3I
0
I
0
I
0
I
0
*r#(s",r-#'e)r
Figure @.1:. Schematic for measuring the homopolar impe"ance of
transformers.
Be now consider some common transformer connections to illustrate the
possi&le %alues of this impedance.
5.12.3..1. Bye4Bye connection with &oth neutrals "rounded7In<In8
!roundin" the two neutrals "uarantees the free mo%ement of homopolar
current from one side of the transformer to the other. These currents are
limited only &y the lea#a"e impedance of the transformer. ThereforeA this
impedance is e-ual to the homopolar impedanceA as well as the direct and
in%erse impedances'
d
,
D
i
,
D
h
,
The e-ui%alent homopolar circuit of this particular connection is shown in
*i"ure 5.11 &elow.
3rimary Secondary e-ui%alent
z
cc
Figure @.11. Equialent homopolar circuit for EnFEn transformer
connection.
5.12.3..2. Bye4Bye connection with one "rounded neutral 7In<I8
This connectionA where the primary neutral is "rounded and the secondary
neutral is floatin" 7un"rounded8A offers no path to the flow of homopolar
currents. *rom the secondary sideA the homopolar current sees an open
circuit. ThereforeA the impedance loo#in" from the secondary side is infinite.
*rom the primary sideA one sees the ma"neti2in" impedance of the
transformer. This latter has a %ery hi"h %alue when compared to the short4
circuit impedance. The e-ui%alent homopolar dia"ram for this connection is
shown in *i"ure 5.12 &elow.
3rimary Secondary e-ui%alent


z
h
o
Figure @.12. Equialent homopolar circuit for EnFE transformer connection.
+s the impedance of the transformer under no load is %ery hi"hA we often
ne"lect the e)citation current flowin" throu"h this impedance. Be can
therefore consider it as ha%in" a nearly infinite %alue. The e-ui%alent circuit
for the homopolar currents would then &e a open circuit on &oth sides of the
transformer.
5.12.3..3. Bye4/elta connection
Two cases may arise dependin" on whether the neutral of the Bye
connection is "rounded or not 7i.e.A either In</ or I</8.
Vnowin" that the homopolar current can circulate in the windin"s only if the
neutral of the Bye is "roundedA we deduce that in case of 7I</8 connectionA
the homopolar currents ha%e no path to flow. This means an open circuitA or
the e-ui%alent impedance on &oth sides is infinite.
Bith the neutral "rounded 7In</8A the homopolar currents can flow on the
primary side. The induced homopolar currents on the secondary side are a&le
to flow in the mesh formed &y the /elta connectionA &ut cannot e)it to the
secondary lines. These homopolar currents will therefore &e trapped within
the secondary windin"s. On the other handA the homopolar currents in the
primary side 7In8 are free to flow in the lines and will &e limited only &y
the short4circuit impedance of the transformer.
The e-ui%alent circuit seen from the secondary side &y the homopolar
currents is an open circuit as these currents do not lea%e the /elta. The
e-ui%alent homopolar dia"ram for the In</ transformer connection is
shown in *i"ure 5.13 &elow'
3rimary Secondary e-ui%alent
Figure @.13. Equialent homopolar circuit for EnF4 transformer connection.
3.12.+. E(ample of generali1ation on a comple( networ!
Considerin" the networ# shown in *i"ure 5.1 &elow.
Figure @.1#. E9ample network with a fault at no"e ,
The networ# contains two "eneratorsA two transformers and one power
transmission line. The fault occurs at node C. Be will therefore determine
the e-ui%alent dia"rams for the directA in%erse and homopolar system seen
from the fault location C. *or simplicityA we assume that all impedances
consist of pure reactances.
z
cc
The e-ui%alent circuit of the direct system for a fault at node C is shown in
*i"ure 5.11a &elow'
.a/ .b/
Figure @.11. a/ Schematic of "irect systemM b/ Theenin equialent
seen from no"e ,.
*i"ure 5.11& shows the The%enin e-ui%alent circuit loo#in" from node C.
ThusA the Thn%enin impedance
TH ,
in this case is e-ual to the e-ui%alent
impedance 7
3g
d
,
M
1
d
, T
M
7
d
,
8 in parallel with 7
4g
d
,
M
2
d
, T
8. The
Thn%enin %olta"e is e-ual to the %olta"e at node C &efore the fault occurs.
SimilarlyA the e-ui%alent circuit for the in%erse system is shown &elowA alon"
with the The%enin e-ui%alent loo#in" from node C.
Figure @.1@. Equialent circuit of the inerse system.
The e-ui%alent dia"ram of the in%erse system contains the same num&er of
impedances. Only the %alues are differentA since this corresponds to the
in%erse %alues. The main difference lies in the a&sence of e.m.f. for this
system.
*inallyA the e-ui%alent dia"ram in the homopolar system and its The%enin
e-ui%alent are shown &elow'
Figure @.12. Equialent circuit for homopolar system.
+s shown in *i"ure 5.16A the circuit opens on the /elta side of transformer
1. The "eneral e-uations "i%en &y N5.1:&O can now &e implemented on these
e-ui%alent circuits.
*or other transformer connectionsA one can always apply the rules set out for
the flow of homopolar currents. The reader may also refer to literature that
pro%ides the e-ui%alent dia"rams for all types of possi&le connections.
3.12./. -ystematic calculation of asymmetrical fault currents
Be will now "enerali2e the systematic calculations presented in section 5.1=
that were associated with asymmetrical faults. The concepts presented a&o%e
will &e used to determine the networ# e-ui%alent circuits.
These e-ui%alent networ#s will &e modeled &y the transfer matricesA
includin" ,
;us
. Be then ha%e to deal with three ,
;us
matrices'
4 The networ# e-ui%alent of direct system'
"
-us &
?
4 The networ# e-ui%alent of in%erse system'
i
-us &
?
4 The networ# e-ui%alent homopolar system'
h
-us &
.
Once the e-ui%alent networ#s of these three systems are determinedA we can
construct these transfer matrices 7I
;us
or ,
;us
8 for each e-ui%alent networ#.
Since they are used most often in short4circuit calculationsA the ,
;us
matrices
can &e &uilt either step4&y4stepA or &y in%ersion of the admittance matri)
I
;us
. The admittance matrices I
;us
can a"ain &e constructed easily and
directly &y the method descri&ed in the pre%ious chapters.
Bith the admittance matrices I
;us
A we will ha%e
"
-us E
A
i
-us E
and
h
-us E

representin" the directA in%erse and homopolar systemsA respecti%ely. *or
each systemA and therefore each networ#A there will &e a %olta"e4current
relationship'
-us -us -us * & C .
ThereforeA for the direct system'
"
-us
"
-us
"
-us * & C .
75435a8
for the in%erse system'

i
-us
i
-us
i
-us * & C .

75435&8
and for the homopolar system'
h
-us
h
-us
h
-us * & C .
75435c8
whereA
"
-us C
A
i
-us C
A
h
-us C
' the %ector of node %olta"es 7directA in%erse and
homopolar8?
"
-us *
A
i
-us *
A
h
-us *
' the %ector of in.ected currentA 7directA in%erse and
homopolar8.
Be can also "roup the 3 e-uations N5.35aO N5.35&O and N5.35cO into a sin"le
system'

-us s -us s -us s * & C A A A .
754368
where'
-us s C A
' %ector of node %olta"es in symmetrical components?
-us s * A
' %ector currents in.ected into symmetrical components?
-us s & A
' impedances transfer matri) in symmetrical components.
The system N5.36O is therefore of dimension 3n ) 3n where'
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

nn s n% s n s
n s %% s % s
n s % s s
-us s
& & &
& & &
& & &
&
A A 1 A
1 A A 1 A
1 A 1 A 11 A
A
... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... ...
... ... ... ... ...
... ...
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n s
% s
s
-us s
C
C
C
C
A
A
1 A
A
.
.
.
.
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

n s
% s
s
-us s
*
*
*
*
A
A
1 A
A
.
.
.
.
Each element of
-us s & A
A
-us s C A
and
-us s * A
is'
1
1
1
1
]
1

h
i%
i
i%
"
i%
i% s
&
&
&
&
= =
= =
= =
A A
1
1
1
1
]
1

h
%
i
%
"
%
% s
C
C
C
C A and
1
1
1
1
]
1

h
%
i
%
"
%
% s
*
*
*
* A
To determine the short4circuit currents and resultin" %olta"esA we apply the
relations N5.32O and N5.33O for each se-uence. Once the symmetrical
component %alues of current and %olta"e are calculatedA we can then return
to the phase %alues &y applyin" the *ortescue transformation.
Consider an asymmetrical fault at node % as illustrated in the *i"ure &elow.
Be can e)press the fault currents and %olta"es in node % on all 3 phases 7aA &
and c8 &y'
1
1
1
1
]
1

f
% c
f
% b
f
% a
f
% p
*
*
*
*
A
A
A
A
A and
1
1
1
1
]
1

f
% c
f
% b
f
% a
f
% p
C
C
C
C
A
A
A
A
Figure @.1A. Fault at no"e % through fault impe"ance.
In the a&o%e notationA the su&script p indicates phase -uantities. The
relationship &etween these two %ectors at the faulted node % is'
[ ]
f
% p
f f
% p
* & C
A A
. 754398
Bhere the matri) N,
f
O represents the fault impedance. Be can represent all
types of short4circuits of *i"ure 3 &y usin" this matri)A and its elements will
then depend on the type of fault. The transformation in symmetrical
components "i%es'
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ] ( )
f
% s
f f
% s
f
s
f
% s
* T & T * & C
A
1
A A
. .

7543:a8
+nd
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ] ( )
f
% s
f f
% s
f
s
f
% s
C T E T C E *
A
1
A A
. .

7543:&8
Z
"
#
$
%
./)0 :
Z
"
#
$
%
./)0 :
Bith NI
f
O representin" the fault admittance matri) 7in%erse of N,
f
O8.
+pplyin" the principle of e-uation N5.33O 7i.e.A superposition principle and
The%enin theorem8A we o&tain'
[ ]
f
-us s
-us s
-us s
f
-us s
* & C C
A
A
=
A A
. + 754=8
The %ector
f
-us s
*
A
does not contain the fault current 7at node .8. It is of the
form'
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

=
.
=
=
.
=
A A
f
% s
f
-us s *
*
Be #now
=
A-us s
C correspondin" to the %olta"e &efore the fault andA
[ ]. A-us s &
correspondin" to the transfer impedance matrices of the networ#A
&ut do not #now
f
-us s
*
A
&ecause it is the fault current.
Be must therefore proceed in the same way as the calculation of
symmetrical faults 7relation N5.33O8 &ut in symmetrical components'

'

f
% s
n% s n s
f
n s
f
% s
%% s % s
f
% s
f
% s
% s s
f
s
* & C C
* & C C
* & C C
A
A
=
A A
A
A
=
A A
A
1 A
=
1 A 1 A
.
.. .......... .......... ..........
.
.. .......... .......... ..........
.
75418
Eliminatin"A
f
% s C A
from N5.1O a&o%e &y replacin" it with the e)pression
"i%en &y N5.3:aO'
f
% s %% s % s
f
% s
f
s
* & C * & A A
=
A A . . 75428
The relation N5.2O allows us to calculate the fault current'
( )
=
A
1
A A . % s %% s
f
s
f
% s C & & *

+
75438
;y replacin" the current %alueA
f
% s * A
in N5.1OA we o&tain the %olta"e at any
node i of the networ# for a short4circuit at node %'
( ) . i A .... 1 i for . .
=
A
1
A A
=
A A +

n C & & & C C % s %% s
f
s
i% s i s
f
i s
754a8
( )
=
A
1
A
=
A A . . % s %% s
f
s
f
s
% s
f
% s C & & & C C

+
754&8
E)pressions N5.3O and N5.O are "eneral and can &e applied to a short4
circuit at any node in the networ#. These formulas allow calculation of
symmetrical components of current and %olta"e. The phase %alues are then
o&tained &y *ortescue transformation.
Lolta"es &efore the fault are assumed to &e #nown as they can &e deri%ed
from load flow calculation. (ore "enerallyA we can consider that these
%olta"es are &alanced and close to their assi"ned %alues.
It may &e noted that these formulas are &ased on the e)istence of the fault
matri). This may not &e defined in some casesA &ut the fault admittance
matri)
f
s
E is. In such a caseA we ha%e to e)press the relations N5.3O and
N5.O accordin" to the admittance matri) instead of
f
s
& '
4 Current at fault location'
( )
=
A
1
A
A
A . . . % s
f
s
%% s
f
s
f
% s
f
s
f
% s C E & * E C E *

+
4 Lolta"e at fault location'
( )
=
A
1
A A . . % s
f
s
%% s
f
% s C E & * C

+
4 Lolta"es at other nodes in the networ#'
( )
=
A
1
A A
=
A A A
=
A A . . . . . % s
f
s
%% s
f
s
i% s % s
f
% s i% s % s
f
i s C E & * E & C * & C C

+
where I is the identity matri).
+.1# E5ercises
3.13.1 E(ercise o. 2=) >ault current in a simple networ!
Two identical "enerators +1 and +2 are interconnected &y a 221 #L hi"h4
%olta"e line throu"h two identical transformers T1 and T2 as shown in
*i"ure E.2= &elow. The line can &e represented &y its series inductance
7i"nore the resistanceA conductance and capacitance8.

Figure E.2: +ne-line "iagram of network un"er stu"y.
The characteristics and parameters of these components follow'
4 !enerators' apparent power ratin" S
a
D 1== (L+A nominal line
%olta"e >
n
D 2= #LA su&transient reactance )\
d
D 12l.
4 Transformers 7/elta on low %olta"e 4Bye "rounded on hi"h
%olta"e8' apparent power ratin" S
a
D 1== (L+A nominal %olta"es 2=
#L<221 #LA reactance
15 l
"t it ht
9 9 9
. The "round
impedance is ne"li"i&le.
4 Transmission line' directA in%erseA and homopolar reactances
1 l? 1= l 7 1== 8
"l il hl
9 9 9 base 6C3 .
The o&.ecti%e of this e)ercise is to study the fault current when a short
circuit occurs at the left end of the line. +ssume that there is no load on the
networ# and the %olta"es are e-ual to their nominal %alues at the initial
moment of the fault.
+8 + symmetrical &olted fault 7, D =8 occurs at &us +.
a. /raw an e-ui%alent circuit that represents this condition
immediately after the faults occurs.
&. Calculate the short circuit current and the current that flows
throu"h the line and transformer T1.
;8 Now a &olted fault 7, D =8 occurs at &us ; &etween a phase and "round.
a. /raw an e-ui%alent circuit that represents this condition
immediately after the faults occurs.
&. Calculate the fault current.
c. Calculate the current flow in each phase of the transmission line.
C8 To limit the fault current calculated in the second case a&o%eA the two
transformer neutrals are connected to "round &y an inductor whose
reactance is ) D 1l 7&ased on 1== (L+8
a. $epeat -uestion ;8 after ta#in" the a&o%e inductor into account.
&. Calculate the %olta"e across these inductors 7i.e.A the rise in the
potential of the transformer neutral8.
3.13.2 E(ercise o. 21) -ymmetrical fault on a networ! 6source) ELGER7
Consider the three4phase &alanced networ# of *i"ure E.21.1. The networ#
consists of two "enerators !1 and !2A two transformers T1 and T2
7connectin" the "enerators to the hi"h %olta"e lines8A three lines 01A 02 and
03 and two loads at nodes 1 and 3. + symmetrical &olted fault 7,f D =8
occurs at node 3.

Figure E.21.1 8etwork un"er stu"y.
+8 >se The%enin theorem to calculate'
a. The fault current I
cc
3 to cycles after the default?
&. The short4circuit power?
c. The circulatin" currents in the networ# lines durin" the fault?
d. The %olta"e at nodes 1 and 2 durin" the fault.
;8 $epeat -uestions a4d a&o%e usin" the &
%us
matri).
System /ata'
18 0ines' The 3 lines are identical and can &e represented &y the o model in
*i"ure E.21.2 where the impedance and admittance %alues are "i%en in
per4unit 7&ase apparent power 1= (L+A and &ase %olta"e 12= #L8.
Figure E.21.2 7ine mo"el
28 Transformers and "enerators apparent powers'
4 +lternators' S!1 D 1== (L+A S!2 D 2== (L+?
4 Transformers' ST1 D 1== (L+A ST2 D 2== (L+.
38 !enerator reactances
4 /irect a)is transient reactance !1' )C
d
D =.2 pu
4 /irect a)is transient reactance !2' )C
d
D =.2 pu
8 Transformer reactances'
4 0ea#a"e reactance T1' )
T1
D =.1 p.u?
4 0ea#a"e reactance T2' )
T2
D =.1 p.u.
18 0oad comple) power 7&ased on 1= (L+A 12= #L8
S
/1
D p
1
M .-
1
D 71 M . =.18 p.u
S
/3
D p
3
M .-
3
D 7=.1 M . =.=8 p.u
CH+3TE$ 6
Sta&ility +nalysis of 3ower
Systems
,.1. E%8ecti6e
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and e)plain the phenomenon of
sta&ility in power networ#s. Be discuss the e-uations of motion of the
rotatin" masses and the criterion of e-ual areasA with the notion of critical
time to isolate the fault in case of a machine connected to a networ# of
infinite power. Then we will hi"hli"ht directions for studies of the so4called
[classical\ sta&ility in the case a multi4machine networ#.
,.2. Introduction
One important aspect of the desi"n and operation of electrical networ#s is to
maintain the security of the system at any moment. The operator who
operates the networ# ensures that the system can withstand the failure of one
or more components of the networ# without e)ceedin" the safety limits. He
or she must also inte"rate pre%enti%e function in order to ha%e enou"h time
to optimi2e the operation of the networ#A and ensure a swift and certain
reco%ery to a normal operatin" state. This analysis can &e %iewed from two
aspects' static and dynamic.
In static securityA we consider the electrical system at steady4state and i"nore
the transient state. This case it is &ased on the fact that in order to ensure a
"ood operation of a power "ridA it is essential that the %olta"e in different
parts of the networ# and the power 7or current8 flow is maintained within the
accepta&le limits. In dynamic securityA we consider the dynamic e%olution of
the electrical system in response to an any distur&ance 7such as short4circuitA
circuit trippin"A loss of loadA etc.8.
/ynamic security is thus defined as the systemYs a&ility to Esur%i%eE the
transient 7not electroma"netic8 and the dynamic that can occur after
distur&ance. /ynamic security is mainly &ased on assessin" the sta&ility of
the system. ThusA decisions and actions are ta#en &ased on the results of the
e%aluation of the sta&ility and dynamic &eha%ior of the system.
This chapter is de%oted to sta&ility and particularly to [an"ular\ sta&ility. Be
will re%iew the &asic definitions and the models for assessment of sta&ility.
,.#. Categories and classes of sta%ility pro%lems
There are se%eral forms of sta&ility. Bhile historically an"ular sta&ility 7with
reference to the timin" "enerators8 has &een the dominant pro&lem of
sta&ility of electricity "rids. Bith the e%olution of electrical networ#s and the
tendency to operate them near their physical limitsA other forms of sta&ility
ha%e emer"ed. These include %olta"e sta&ility and fre-uency sta&ilityA or
oscillatory sta&ility. *i"ure 6.1 summari2es these different forms of sta&ility
NV>N =O. These cate"ories are analy2ed for a &etter understandin" of the
phenomena in%ol%ed and means to tac#le them. In factA sta&ility of the
electrical system as a whole remains essentially the main issue.
Translation'
Sta&ilite des reseau) electri-ue' Sta&ility of electrical networ#s
Sta&ilte an"ulair' +n"ular sta&ility
Sta&ilite de tension' Lolta"e sta&ility
Sta&ilite de fre-uence' *re-uency sta&ility
Sta&ilite transitoir' Transient sta&ility
Court terme' Short term
0on" terme' 0on" term
Figure 2.1. 4ifferent forms of network stability
In this chapterA we are interested that the an"ular sta&ility. The interested
reader may refer to the literature to &ecome familiar with other concepts and
cate"ories of sta&ility and their definitions. ThusA for the remainder of the
chapterA &y sta&ility we mean Ean"ular\ sta&ility. Howe%erA as mentioned
earlierA an"ular sta&ility has transient and dynamic aspects. The historical
aspect static sta&ility is often incorporated either in dynamic and small
distur&ancesA or simply treated as a matter of &alancin" "eneration with the
load. Transient sta&ility is defined &y lar"e and sudden distur&ancesA such as
short4circuitsA while dynamic sta&ility is defined in relation to small
pertur&ations and slow electromechanical oscillations.
+s an"ular sta&ility is related to the synchronous machine which plays a
fundamental role in understandin" this type of phenomenon. IndeedA most of
the electric power "enerated is pro%ided &y synchronous type machines at
the synchronous fre-uency of 1= H2 or 5= H2 7see *i"ure 6.28. ThereforeA
the synchronous machine representation and modelin" plays a %ital role in
the analysis of sta&ility. Be assume that the reader is familiar with electrical
machines in "eneralA includin" the theory of synchronous machines. HenceA
we will not address this theory e)cept on the simplified model used to
analy2e the transient sta&ility.
Translation'
$eseau electri-ue' Electric "rid
Litesse' Speed
;ouche de re"ulation de tension' Lolta"e re"ulation
;ouche de re"ulation %itess<puissance' Speed<power re"ulation
;ouche dCamortissement' /ampin" re"ulation
Tur&ine' Tur&ine
Figure 2.2. !eneral schematic of a synchronous generator connecte" to the
gri" .
,.'. *he eDuation of motion
The &asic e-uations descri&in" the reaction of rotatin" masses of
synchronous machines to %arious distur&ances are related to the inertia of the
synchronous machineA and descri&e the resultin" im&alance &etween the
electroma"netic tor-ue and mechanical tor-ue of these machines.
This im&alance may &e e)pressed &y the followin" relationship'

e m a

76.18
4 p
a
' acceleration tor-ue N.m?
4 p
m
' mechanical tor-ue N.m?
4 p
e
' electroma"netic tor-ue N.m.
This e-uation applies for &oth "enerators and motors. Howe%erA for
"eneratorsA p
m
and p
e
are positi%e while in the case of motors they are
ne"ati%e. In the case of "eneratorsA p
m
is the tor-ue that mechanically
produced &y the tur&ine in the direction of rotation on the shaft of the
machine. This allows the rotor to accelerate in the positi%e direction of
rotation.
The electroma"netic tor-ue p
e
created &y the interaction of the ma"netic flu)
of the rotor and statorA opposes the mechanical tor-ue and corresponds to the
electric power across the air "ap of the machine. In the case of motorsA p
e
corresponds to the air "ap power pro%ided &y the networ# and p
m
is the
opposite tor-ue pro%ided &y the mechanical load and mechanical losses due
to friction. In what followsA we focus e)clusi%ely on the synchronous
"enerator.
>nder steady4state conditionsA the acceleratin" tor-ue is 2ero &ecause p
m
D
p
e
. In this caseA there is no acceleration or deceleration of mo%in" masses.
ThusA the speed is constant and corresponds to synchronous speed.
The e-uation of motion of masses in the case of synchronous machines is
&ased on e-uation N6.1O. Bhen an im&alance is product &etween p
e
and p
m
A
there is an acceleration 7or deceleration8 of the rotatin" masses. The latter is
e)pressed as the product of the moment of inertia of the masses &y its
an"ular accelerationA i.e.A
e m
m
a
"t
"
K

76428
where'
4 U' moment of inertia of all rotatin" masses includin" "enerator and tur&ine
shafts 7#"<m
2
8?
4 H
m
' an"ular %elocity of rotor 7mech rad< s8.
In factA e-uation N6.2O also contains an additional term opposin" the
mechanical tor-ue. This term encompasses all tor-ues correspondin" to
friction associated with rotation masses 7mechanical8 and the %arious
windin"s and ma"netic losses 7electroma"netic8A such as the damper
windin"s of synchronous machine. This tor-ue also opposes the rotationA so
the a&o%e e-uation is modified as follows'

rm m e m
m
4
"t
"
K .

76438
where /
rm
is the dampin" tor-ue coefficient.
This additional tor-ue is relati%ely small and is often ne"lected when
compared to mechanical tor-ue p
m
and electric tor-ue p
e
. Howe%erA for some
studiesA this dampin" tor-ue is ta#en into accountA particularly in the study of
mechanical oscillations. In what followsA and in the conte)t of transient
sta&ilityA we do will not consider this additional tor-ue.
The relationship &etween the tor-ues and powers is "i%en &y'
m m m
' . 7B8A mechanical power supplied &y the tur&ine?
e m e
' . 7B8A electroma"netic power.

Then'
e m
m
m
' '
"t
"
K

7648
where KN
m
represents the an"ular momentum of the rotor. One can then
introduce the concept of relati%e inertia constant H 7in per4unit %alue8 that
fre-uently used in sta&ility studies. This is defined as the #inetic ener"y
stored at the reference speed 7i.e.A synchronous speed8 normali2ed to the
reference power or apparent power ratin" 7S
ref
8 of the machine?
4 H D #inetic ener"y of rotatin" masses at reference speed < S
ref
.
Therefore'
ref
ms
S
K
H
2
.
2
1

76418
The moment of inertia K can then &e e)pressed in terms of H'
ref
ms
S
H
K
2
2

Su&stitutin" for K in e-uation N6.2OA we "et'

ms
ref
e m
ref
e ms m ms
ms
m
e m
m
ref
ms
S
S "t
"
H
"t
"
S
H

,
_

2
2
2
76468
Considerin" the fact that p
ref
D S
ref
<H
m
A we can write the e)pression N6.6O in
actual %alues as well as per4unit %alues. In per4unit 7pu8 %aluesA the e-uation
&ecomes'

e m
ms
m
"t
"
H

,
_

2 7pu8 76468

m
and
e
are mechanical and electrical tor-ues in per4unit %alues. SimilarlyA
the e-uation can &e rewritten as follows'
e m
ref
e m
ref
e ms m ms
ms
m
p p
S
' '
S "t
"
H

,
_

2
where p
e
and p
m
are the electric and mechanical powers in per4unit %alues.
The an"ular %elocities H
m
and H
ms
are in mechanical radian per second. ;ut
since the e-uation contains the ratio of these %elocitiesA they can &e
indifferently e)pressed in mechanical or electrical radians 7or de"rees8 per
second. IndeedA the ma"netic field in the rotor 7produced &y e)citation
current in the rotor windin" rotor8 rotates at the speed of the rotorA and
therefore at H
re
an"ular %elocity. SimilarlyA the stator ma"netic field rotates
at an electrical an"ular %elocity H
s
. Therefore'
e m
re
s
p p
"t
" H

2
7pu8 76498
The e)pression N6.9O usin" power is more preferred than e)pression N6.6O
usin" tor-ue as it is more con%enient to wor# with powers than tor-ues.
This e)pression can also &e deri%ed is a different way. Startin" with the
followin" relationships amon" an"ular %elocities'

,
_

,
_

2
2
p
re m
p
s ms
8
8


where N
p
is the num&er of ma"netic poles of the machine. This e)pression
allows us to ma#e the transition &etween the an"ular %elocity e)pressed in
mechanical radians per secondA and an"ular %elocity e)pressed in electrical
radians per second.
In considerin" q the an"ular position of rotor in electrical radians with
respect to the synchronously rotatin" frame of referenceA we ha%e'
s re
"t
"

and therefore'
"t
"
"t
"
re

2
2
E-uation N6.9O &ecomes'
e m
s
p p
"t
" H

2
2
2

7pu8 764:8
where q is in radians.
This e-uation is #nown as the e-uation of motion and is the &asis for &oth
an"ular and transient sta&ility analysis. The solution of this e-uation "i%es us
the temporal e%olution of the rotor an"le qA often called the internal an"le of
the machineA and can trac# the &eha%ior of the machine a"ainst synchronism
when a fault occurs in the networ#.
One further consideration to su&stitute H
s
D 2Ff where f is the fre-uency of
networ#. The e-uation N6.:aO &ecomes'
e m
p p
"t
"
f
H

2
2

7pu8 764:&8
NOTE' The -uantity H is in per4unit %alue with the rated power of the
machine as a &ase. H can &e e)pressed as 7(U < (L+8 or 7B.sec < L+8 or
any other coherent e)pression usin" SI units. Howe%erA when multiple
machines are connected to the networ# electricA we consider only on sin"le
(L+ &ase. Then the H of each machine 7if it is indicated on the &asis of the
power of the indi%idual machine8 has to &e con%erted to the new power &ase
of the system. Since e-uation N6.:O is e)pressed in per4unit %aluesA H can
also &e e)pressed in secondsA while the powers are in 7pu8 and the an"le q in
radians.
The con%ersion of H
"A i
&ased on the power &ase S
&aseA i
of machine i to a the
common power &ase of the networ# S
&ase
A is achie%ed &y a simple chan"e of
&ase'
i g
base
i base
i
H
S
S
H
A
A
764:c8
where H
i
is now &ased on the networ# power &ase S
&ase
.
,.). Simplified model of synchronous machine
+t steady4state there is "enerally a &alance &etween the mechanical power
and electrical power from the alternator. There is no acceleration and the
machine runs at synchronous speed. This corresponds to some e-uili&rium
%alue of the internal an"le q.
Bhen a fault occurs in a networ# or when there is a sudden load chan"eA the
electric power suddenly chan"es. Of courseA the mechanical power is
e)pected to offset this &alance &y actin" on the tur&ine. This is the role of
speed and power re"ulator 7i.e.A "o%ernor control8. This action is mechanical
and has &asically its own time constants that are naturally slower than
electrical time constants. *or this reasonA it is often assumed that
immediately after the faultA mechanical power 3
m
remains constant 7in the
e-uation of motion8.
IndeedA the tur&ine has not yet had time to respond to this im&alance in the
earliest moments of im&alance. This momentary im&alance will &e reflected
in the rotor speed which will accelerate or decelerate dependin" on the si"n
of this im&alance. In factA if mechanical power is "reater than the electric
powerA the e)cess ener"y will &e transformed into #inetic ener"y in the rotor.
This causes the rotor to accelerate and therefore de%iate from its
synchronous speed. This type of phenomenon occurs mainly durin" a sudden
chan"e in the networ# 7e.".A short4circuitA rapid increase or decrease of the
loadA etc.8.
These phenomena are accompanied &y electroma"netic transientsA which
will impact the models used in synchronous machine. IndeedA there are
%arious models of synchronous machinesA from the simplest to the most
complicatedA dependin" on the phenomenon to &e studied and the desired
de"ree of accuracy. +s we ha%e stated a&o%eA we consider that the reader is
familiar with the theory of synchronous machine. Howe%erA to simply
e)plain some phenomena related to transient sta&ility 7&ut also to static
sta&ility8A we will used a simplified model 7the most simple8 consistin" of a
transient reactance G
d
Y &ehind a fi)ed transient e.m.f. EY. $emem&er that at
steady4stateA the reactance in -uestion is the synchronous reactance G
s
and
the e.m.f. is the steady4state E.
In case where a simple model can &e used in transient sta&ility analysisA let
us further assume that the machine rotor is roundA and the rotor flu) does not
chan"e 7i.e.A the impact of the chan"e of rotor speed on induced %olta"es is
ne"li"i&le8. Such a simple machine model is shown in *i"ure 6.3 &elow. The
relation &etween the transient e.m.f.A transient reactanceA "enerator current
and terminal %olta"e is descri&ed &y e-uation 7641=8.
s
"
C * %O E +
Y
Y
7641=8
Figure 2.3. ,ircuit an" phasor "iagram of simplifie" machine mo"el.
*or a more comprehensi%e studyA and with the aid of %arious tools and
softwareA one can use a more detailed model of the machineA includin"
salient4pole machines.
,.+. Power:angle considerations at steady:state
The "enerator %olta"e is ad.usted throu"h the e)citation system. Be recall
that the e)citation windin" is fed &y a constant current. This current flow
"enerates a ma"netic field as it is rotated to the tur&ine? it induces an e.m.f.
in the stator windin"s. Considerin" the e-uation N6.1=O in case of steady4state
7with stator windin" resistance ne"lected8A we ha%e'
s
"
C * %O E + 764118
where G
d
is the direct a)is reactance at steady4stateA which of course
corresponds to the synchronous reactance. The terminal %olta"e L
s
is ta#en
as reference and the internal an"le q is defined as the an"le of E with respect
to L
s
. The comple) power per phase is defined as'
K
K
.

,
_

"
s
s s
%O
C E
C * C S 764128
E-uation N6.12O can &e re4written as follows'
"
s
%
"
s
O
C
% e
O
E C
S
2
8
2
7

Separatin" the real and ima"inary partsA we o&tain'

,
_

+
"
s
"
s
"
s
O
C
O
E C
%
O
E C
S
2
cos sin 764138
Be can therefore deduce the real and reacti%e powers per phase'
4 The acti%e power 7real part of S8'
sin
"
s
O
E C
'
76418
4 $eacti%e power 7ima"inary part of S8'
"
s
"
s
O
C
O
E C
(
2
cos 764118
These e)pressions are similar to those we could ha%e o&tained for a transfer
of ener"y &etween 2 nodes of a networ# lin#ed &y a line modeled &y its
reactance G
l
7when the effects and capaciti%e and resistance of the line are
i"nored8. These e)pressions therefore reflect the transfer of power 7acti%e
and reacti%e8 &etween the machine and the networ#. IndeedA the acti%e power
"i%en &y e)pression N6.1O is the power produced &y the machineA hence
corresponds to 3
e
in the e-uation of motion N6.:aO. SimilarlyA the reacti%e
power "i%en &y e)pression N6.11O hi"hli"hts the close relationship &etween
the reacti%e power J and the e.m.f. E of the machine and therefore the
e)citation system.
Consider e)pression N6.1O more closely. If we increase 3
e
&y actin" on the
tur&ine while L
s
and E are #ept constant 7G
d
remains constant8A we note that
the an"le q increases with 3
e
. Howe%erA this relationship is not linear since it
is a sinusoidal function. There is also a point that corresponds to a ma)imum
limit to the increase in power of the machine. The ma)imum power is
o&tained when the an"le q D :=r. Hence'
"
s
O
E C
'
ma)
764168
This limit is #nown as the static sta&ility limit of the machine. *i"ure 6.
&elow illustrates this characteristic 3 D f 7q8. If the machine is re-uested to
an increase its output power &eyond 3
ma)
A it cannot remain synchroni2ed with
the rest of the networ#.
Figure 2.#. ' .P/ characteristic of a synchronous machine.
In *i"ure 6.A we can o&ser%e that &y increasin" the power from 3
=
to 3
1
there will a correspondin" increase of the an"le from q
=
to q
1
. ;eyond the
static sta&ility limit 3
ma)
7q
limit
8 correspondin" to q c :=rA the machine is
considered unsta&le 7out of synchronism8. *or a "i%en power in E-uation
76.18A there are two an"les that satisfy this e)pressionA an an"le of less than
q
limit
and an an"le "reater than q
limit
. Only the an"les that are less than q
limit
result in a sta&le operation.
Note that e-uation N6.1O shows that the power transfer also depends on the
reactance of the machine. If the machine is connected to a networ# of infinite
power 7i.e.A infinite &us8 throu"h a power lineA the power transfer &etween
the machine and the infinite &us will also depend on the total reactance
&etween the two points 7with resisti%e and capaciti%e effects ne"lected8.
To illustrate this phenomenonA consider the simplified representation of the
dia"ram in *i"ure 6.1 &elow'
Figure 2.1. !enerator connecte" to infinite bus through a transformer an"
power line.
In this simple networ#A the "enerator is connected to the infinite networ#
throu"h a transformer and a transmission line. The transformer is represented
&y its lea#a"e reactanceA the line &y its series reactanceA and the networ# &y
e-ui%alent reactance. The node $ represents the infinite &us where the
%olta"e is constant at all time. *or simplification purposesA the resisti%e and
capaciti%e components are ne"lected.
The %olta"es L
s
an node S and L
r
at node $ will &e out of phase &y an an"le
that is induced &y the current I and the total reactance &etween these two
nodes. This an"le is often referred to as the transmission an"le. If the
transmission an"le is ZY and the internal an"le qA the an"le &etween the e.m.f.
E and L
r
is qY D q M ZC. The e)pression of the power transfer &ecomes'
Y
sin
8 7

+ + +

l l t "
r
O O O O
C E
'

764168
The correspondin" phasor dia"ram of this e)ample is shown in *i"ure 6.5.
Be note that the e)pression N6.16O has the same structure as e)pression
N6.1O and therefore reflects the transfer of power &etween two networ#sA
i.e.A &etween the machine e.m.f. and the infinite &us.
These relations N6.1O and N6.16O also show that under the simplified
conditions outlined a&o%eA the transfer of power &etween two nodes of
networ# with fi)ed %olta"es depends on the an"ular difference &etween these
%olta"es and the transfer reactance &etween the two nodes.
These relations 3 7q8 are #nown as [power4an"le\ relationsA and are
fundamental in the analysis and understandin" of sta&ility phenomena. This
simple networ# will also &e used to further illustrate the phenomena of
transient sta&ility in the sections that follow.
Figure 2.@. 'hasor "iagram correspon"ing to Figure 2.1.
,.,. Case of small pertur%ations
Consider a synchronous machine that connected to a networ# of infinite
power. Be will e)amine the case where the machine is su&.ect to small
%ariations due for e)ample to slow %ariations in load. In this illustration of
static sta&ilityA the actions of the %olta"e and speed re"ulators will not &e
considered.
E-uation N6.:aO is written as follows in the initial state'

sin
2
ma)
2
2
p p p p
"t
" H
m e m
s
7641:8
This e-uation shows a nonlinear relationship &etween the e-uation of motion
and the internal an"le q. Howe%erA &ecause small pertur&ations result in
small chan"esA we can e)amine the &eha%ior of the machine &y lineari2in"
the e-uation of motion around the e-uili&rium position of the rotor. This
point is represented &y the initial position of the internal an"le q. 0et this
initial %alue &e denoted &y q
=
. + linear analysis of a small de%iation from this
position due to a small distur&ance is then translated into' q
=
D q M bq.
+t steady4stateA q D q
=
and 3
m
D 3
e
. It follows that'
e m
s
p p
"t
" H

2
2
2

7642=8
This e-uation e)presses the effect of the de%iation from the e-uili&rium
position. Since the mechanical power is assumed constantA bp
m
D =. *or low
%alues of bq the difference in electric power &ecomes'
+ . cos 8 sin7
= ma) ma)
p p p
e
764218
Su&stitutin" these power de%iations in 7642=8 yields'

. cos
2
= ma)
2
2
p
"t
" H
s
764228
The e-uation to sol%e is then'
= . cos
2
= ma)
2
2
+

p
"t
" H
s
764238
This is an e-uation of 2
nd
order in bq which has solutions of the form e
rt
.
Considerin" that the losses are ne"lectedA so for the machine mo%ement to &e
sta&leA it is necessary that the response is decreasin"A i.e.A r
2
g =. The a&o%e
solution will ha%e two roots in the comple) planeA so the mo%ement is
oscillatory &ut it is dampened. OtherwiseA if r
2
c =A the answer is a "rowin"
e)ponential that leads insta&ility.
In realityA the roots of e-uation N6.22O depend on the term pma)cos
0
. This term
refers to the deri%ati%e of the electric power at the initial operatin" q
=
. This
term is referred to as the Esynchroni2in" powerE in relation to the
synchroni2in" tor-ue. The conditions that allow a sta&le mo%ement 7r
2
=8
correspond to a positi%e synchroni2in" power and therefore an an"le q
&etween = and := r 7left side of the cur%e of the *i"ure 6.8.
Static sta&ility studies are performed as illustrated a&o%e. IndeedA the static
sta&ility can &e defined as the networ# capacityA and therefore synchronous
"enerators which are connected to itA to maintain synchronism durin"
distur&ances of low amplitudes.
,.O. *ransient sta%ility
+s indicated earlierA the networ# suffers distur&ances which are more or less
se%ere on a re"ular &asis. *rom the point of %iew of sta&ilityA low amplitude
pertur&ations can &e treated in the studies of static sta&ility. Howe%erA se%ere
distur&ances 7such as a faultA a sudden loss of a si"nificant load or
"eneration8 are treated in the conte)t of transient sta&ility studies. IndeedA
this type of distur&ance often results in stron" reactions in the networ#
particularly in alternators. This leads to lar"e %ariations of different %aria&les
7%olta"eA powerA internal an"leA etc.8. In e)treme casesA part of the networ#A if
not allA &ecomes unsta&le.
Transient sta&ility is defined in relation to the networ# capacity to #eep the
machines synchroni2ed as a result of se%ere distur&ance. The system then
settles to a new point of sta&le operation once the distur&ance has
disappeared. The lineari2ation in this case is not appropriate. Sta&ility is
therefore analy2ed &ased on the solution of the e-uation of motion N6.:aO.
The study of transient sta&ility is relati%ely comple) and re-uires %arious
le%els of more or less comple) modelin". This comple)ity increases with the
accuracy of the models and si2e of the networ#. One will ha%e to use a
software tool that is dedicated to perform sta&ility studies. Howe%erA there is
a simple method that allows a rapid prediction of transient sta&ility with
simplifyin" assumptions. This method is #nown as the [method of e-ual
areas\.
The e-ual area method is used for the case of a machine connected to an
infinite &usA or a networ# with two machines. The method is not applica&le
for comple) multi4machine systems that re-uire hi"h le%els of modelin" and
hi"h precision. This method is &ased on the e)ploitation of *i"ure 6. to
predict the sta&ility of the machine followin" a pertur&ation. IndeedA the
ener"y stored in the masses of rotatin" machines can &e interpreted
"raphically in *i"ure 6. &efore and after the distur&ance. This method is
therefore important to understand the phenomena related to transient
sta&ility.
To e)plain the method of sta&ility analysisA consider a"ain a synchronous
machine connected to an infinite &us throu"h a line. 3henomena occurrin" in
the synchronous machine &eforeA durin" and after the distur&ance are in the
heart of this analysis. The transitional issues are considered %ery fast and the
%arious re"ulators of the machine ha%e no time to act.
*rom the e-uation of motion N6.:aOA we can deduce'
( )
e m
s
p p
H
"t
"

2
2
2

76428
(ultiplyin" &oth sides of this e-uation &y the term 72 dq<dt8 results in'
( )
1
]
1

1
]
1

"t
"
p p
H
"t
"
"t
"
e m
s

2
2
2
2
2
This e-uation can &e written as'
( )
"t
"
p p
H "t
"
"t
"
e m
s


1
1
]
1

,
_

2
Inte"ration of this e-uation "i%es'
( )

,
_

=
2
" p p
H "t
"
e m
s
764218
Therefore'
( )

,
_

=
" p p
H "t
"
e m
s
76421&8
The chan"e in speed 7compared to the synchronous speed8 e)pressed &y the
term dq<dt is initially 2ero 7e-uili&rium position8. The position of the internal
an"le q correspondin" to the initial position is desi"nated &y q
=
. Bhen the
system under"oes a distur&anceA the im&alance &etween mechanical power
and electric power e)pressed &y 7p
m
4 p
e
8 will induce a chan"e in the term
dq<dt and therefore a de%iation in the internal an"le q
=
. Howe%erA to ensure
sta&ilityA we need the term dq<dt to &ecome 2ero once the distur&ance has
disappeared 7after some time8. Be deduce therefore a criterion for sta&ility
as follows'
( ) = =
=

,
_

" p p
"t
"
e m
To &etter understand this e-uationA we will illustrate a "raph of the cur%e 3 D
f 7q8. To do thisA consider a"ain *i"ure 6. &ut ta#in" into account some form
of distur&ance such as a step in mechanical power. In this e)ampleA the
initial operatin" point 7&efore the distur&ance8 corresponds to an internal
an"le
0
and 3m=D3e=. This startin" point is shown in *i"ure 6.6 with YaY.
So when the mechanical power under"oes a sudden chan"eA it mo%es from
an initial state 3
m=
to a new state 3
m1
7see *i"ure 6.68. +t this pointA an
im&alance occurs &etween the mechanical power and electric power. +s the
mechanical power of the new 3
m1
state is "reater than the electric powerA the
power 3
a
&ecomes positi%e and the rotor under"oes acceleration. Howe%erA
&ecause of mechanical inertiaA the an"le q can not ad.ust instantaneously.
The an"le q remains at its q
=
initial position durin" the first moments of the
distur&anceA which is reflected in *i"ure 6.6 &y an instantaneous transition
point YaY to point YaY. The rotor acceleration creates an increase of the an"le q.
This increase will continue until the %alue q D
1
corresponds to a point of
e-uality &etween the mechanical power and electric power 7point E&E8. The
e)cess ener"y stored durin" the acceleration phase can &e e)pressed &y'
Figure 2.2. !raphic representation of the metho" of equal areas.
( )
1 1
8 Y 7
1
=
aire3 b aa aire " p p
e m

76426a8
Howe%erA sta&ili2ation has not yet &een reached &ecause althou"h
acceleration is theoretically 2eroA the rotor speed is e)ceedin" the
synchronous speed. The rotor cannot stop at point E&E &ecause of mechanical
inertias. The an"le q then continues to increase. ;ut for %alues of q c q
1
A the
mechanical power &ecomes lower than the electric powerA hence the
acceleratin" power &ecomes ne"ati%e. The rotor will then slow to return to
synchronous speed until sta&ili2ation at point E&E. /urin" this phaseA the
e)cursion of the an"le q can &e up to a ma)imum %alue of q D q
2
. The rotor
loses the ener"y it has accumulated durin" acceleration. !oin" &ac# to point
E&E is accompanied &y oscillations around this point 7&etween q
=
and q
2
8. The
%arious dampin" components present in the machines will dampen these
oscillations and e%entually sta&ili2e at q D q
1
which corresponds to the new
state of sta&le e-uili&rium.
/urin" the deceleration phase of the rotorA the ener"y lost 7or restored8 is'
( )
2 1
8 Y 7
2
1
aire3 c bb aire " p p
e m

76426&8
*or a system in which we ha%e ne"lected the lossesA the stored ener"y durin"
the acceleration phase is e-ual to that lost durin" deceleration. The
correspondin" areas should &e e-ual 7+1D+28 accordin" to the criterion of
e-ual areas. This method determines the ma)imum e)cursion of the an"le q
and thus the sta&ility without resortin" to the numerical solution of
differential e-uations related to the e-uation of motion.
The criterion of e-ual areas is therefore interestin" as it determines -uic#ly
the ma)imum amount of mechanical power which can &e added to the
system descri&ed a&o%e. *or such a sudden chan"e in powerA sta&ility is
maintained only if the area +
2
is at least e-ual to the area +
1
situated a&o%e
the line 3
m1
.
IndeedA if +2]+1A sta&ility will &e lost &ecause the an"le q &ecomes a&o%e
3
A
pm1cpe and the rotor will continue to accelerate rather than decelerate. The
an"le q
3
can &e seen in this caseA as the ma)imum an"le and it may &e
&eyond :=r. The e)cursion of the internal an"le q can therefore "o &eyond
:=r &ut only durin" the transient period.
The a&o%e reasonin" assumes a sudden chan"e of mechanical power and
analy2es its affect on transient sta&ility. In practiceA the mechanical power
chan"es rather slowly. Howe%erA the same reasonin" can &e applied to an
a&rupt %ariation of electric power. Such %ariation may &e caused &y a short
circuitA loss of a "eneratorA or simply loss of a line. So it is this type of
pro&lem that we are particularly interested in.
,.P. Application of eDual:area criteria
/urin" the process of analysis of transient sta&ilityA it is often assumed that
the distur&ance disappears. IndeedA protecti%e de%ices detect the failure and
circuit &rea#ers open and isolate the failure of the system. Be distin"uished
3 states that fall in the process of sta&ility analysis'
4 The state &efore the occurrence of the distur&ance?
4 The state durin" the distur&ance?
4 The state after the distur&ance is cleared.
To illustrate this processA we will consider the networ# &elow 7*i"ure 6.98
where a synchronous machine is connected to a networ# of infinite power
throu"h a transformer and two parallel lines. The simplifyin" assumptions
descri&ed a&o%e on machine and other components are #ept the same.
4.:.1. *ase of a short circuit at generator terminals
Consider a three4phase &olted fault at the alternator terminals 7node S in
*i"ure 6.98. ;efore the faultA the operatin" conditions is steady and the
e-uili&rium position of the internal an"le is q D q
=
and mechanical power of
the machine is constant and e-ual to 3
m
.
Figure 2.A. 6achine connecte" to a network with a fault at no"e S.
Bhen this type of fault occurs at the terminals of the machineA the %olta"e at
this point is 2ero. The electrical power will then also &e 2ero and of no power
will &e transmitted to the networ# durin" the fault. +ssume that the fault
clears -uic#ly and the system is &ac# to its initial confi"uration.
0et us loo# at the machine sta&ility &eforeA durin" and after the fault usin"
the method of e-ual areas. ;efore the failureA the machine is at the
e-uili&rium point EaE correspondin" to 3
e
D 3
m
and q D q
=
7see *i"ure 6.:8.
/urin" the failureA due to the cancellation of the electric power produced &y
the machineA the operatin" point on the cur%e 3
e
7q 8 mo%es from a to a;. /ue
to the inertia of rotatin" masseA the an"le q can not chan"e instantaneously.
The mechanical power &ecomes "reater than the electric powerA thus causin"
acceleration of the rotor 7positi%e acceleration power8. The rotor "ains
#inetic ener"y and the internal an"le q increases.
Suppose the fault is cleared when q D q
1
A 7at point Y&Y in *i"ure 6.:8A the
machine suddenly returns to the initial setup and the point of operation on
the power4an"le cur%e are found at EcE. +t this pointA the power &ecomes
"reater than the mechanical power. The rotor deceleratesA returnin" the
ener"y stored in the acceleration phase. /urin" this phaseA the rotor speed is
still hi"her than the synchronous speed? the an"le q continues to increase
until the addition of ener"y 7represented &y the area +
1
8 is fully restored.
The operatin" point in the power4an"le cur%e is then EdE which is
characteri2ed &y the e-uality of areas +1D+2. In this respectA the rotor speed
is e-ual to the synchronous speed and q D q
2
A the ma)imum %alue of the
internal an"le. ;ut the power is still hi"her than the mechanical power. The
rotor will continue to deceleration and speed drops &elow the synchronous
speed. The internal an"le q will then decrease and the point of operation on
the cur%e will follow the Edescendin"E path from point EdE to a minimum
an"leA throu"h EcE and EaE. This minimum an"le is "o%erned &y the criterion
of e-ual areas after the fault. The rotor will then oscillate around its initial
%alue q
=
so indefinitely in the a&sence of dampin" with constant amplitude
and at the natural fre-uency of the rotor. Howe%erA different dampin" factors
e)ist in reality and these oscillations will decay and disappear after a certain
timeA and the rotor return to its ori"inal position q
=
.
Figure 2.D. *luustration of metho" of equal areas.
4.:.2. *ritical fault clearing time
The %alue of the correspondin" internal an"le at the time the fault clears
plays an important role in the outcome of sta&ility analysis. IndeedA the area
+
1
depends on the time &etween the occurrence of the fault and its clearance
7or its remo%al &y protecti%e de%ices8. If this time e)ceeds a certain limit
&eyond which the area +
1
&ecomes "reater than the area +
2
A sta&ility will &e
lost. This time limit is [critical clearin" time\ CCT. This time also
corresponds to a Ecritical an"le q
cr
E for which +
1
D +
2
as illustrated in *i"ure
1= &elow.
Figure 2.1:. ,ritical clearing angle.

The an"le and time of clearin" of critical faults can &e determined from the
cur%e in *i"ure 6.1=. The area +
1
is determined &y'
( )
= 1
=

cr m m
p " p 3
cr
76426a8
The area +
2
is determined &y'
( ) ( ) ( )
cr m cr m
p p " p p 3
cr

ma) ma) ma) ma) 2

cos cos sin
ma)

76426&8
The criterion of e-ual areas "i%es us'
( ) ( ) ( )
cr m cr cr m
p p p 3 3
ma) ma) ma) = 2 1
cos cos
;y separatin" the terms of q
cr
A we "et'
( )
ma) = ma)
ma)
cos cos +
p
p
m
cr
764298
On the other handA from the power4an"le cur%eA we ha%e'

ma)

0
7642:a8
and'
p
m
D p
ma)
sin
0
7642:&8
;y replacin" q
ma)
and 3
ma)
and &y their e)pressions N6.2:aO and N6.2:&O in
e-uation N6.29OA we o&tain the e)pression of q
cr
as'
( ) [ ]
= = =
1
cos sin 2 cos

cr
7643=8
To find the critical time correspondin" to this critical an"leA we will need to
sol%e the e-uation of motion. This time can &e calculated &y considerin" the
phase an"le durin" the faultA i.e.A &etween the time of occurrence of the fault
t= and time of its clearance tcr 7phase q
=
4 q
cr
8. /urin" this phaseA the power is
2ero 73
e
D =8A and the e-uation of motion simplifies to'
m
s
p
H
"t
"
2
2
2

764318
;y inte"ratin" this e-uation we ha%e'
t p
H
"t p
H "t
"
m
s
t
m
s
2 2
=
2

764328
The inte"ration of the e-uation N6.32aO "i%es us the internal an"le as a
function of time'
=
2

+ t p
H
m
s
764328
If q D q
cr
A this corresponds to t D CCTA we ha%e'
=
2

+
cr m
s
cr
t p
H
764338
hence the critical time to eliminate the fault is'

( )
m s
cr
cr
p
H
t

=

76438
Note that if the fault is remo%ed &eyond the critical time 7+1c +28A when the
operatin" point is at EdEA the #inetic ener"y stored durin" the acceleration
phase would not &e totally returned to the system 7the e)tra ener"y is not
2ero8A the rotor speed is still hi"her than the synchronous speed and an"le q
will continue to increase 7instead of decrease8. ;eyond point EdEA the
electrical power is less than the mechanical power. This will accelerate the
rotor resultin" in the loss of synchronism.
4.:.3. *ase of a short circuit on a line
Consider a"ain the networ# of *i"ure 6.9 &ut in the case a three4phase short
circuit occurrin" in the middle of the line 2 as illustrated in *i"ure 6.11
&elow.
Figure 2.11. 6achine connecte" to a network of infinite power
with a short circuit at no"e F
Be ha%e the 3 followin" states'
State &efore the fault' D
0
and 3
e
D 3
m
A cur%e C
=
of *i"ure 6.12?
State durin" the fault' cur%e C
2
of *i"ure 6.12. The amplitude of this
cur%e is smaller than the initial situation as the e-ui%alent reactance
&ecomes lar"er. The ma)imum transmitted power is therefore lower?
State after remo%al of the fault' cur%e C
1
of *i"ure 6.12A the machine
is connected to node $ throu"h the transformer and line 1 only 7line
2 is open8.
*or all the 3 statesA the mechanical power is considered constant. The cur%es
of the 3 states are shown in *i"ure 6.12.
Figure 2.12. 'e- cures an" criterion of equal areas.
;efore the fault occursA the operatin" point is a on C
=
cur%e 7*i"ure 6.128.
>pon the occurrence of the faultA the point of operation mo%es to a; on C
2
cur%e. /ue to the inertia of rotatin" massesA the an"le q can not chan"e
instantaneously. (echanical power &ecomes "reater than the electric powerA
hence causin" an acceleration of the rotor 7i.e.A positi%e acceleration power8.
+s the rotor acceleratesA it "ains #inetic ener"yA and the internal an"le
increases until the fault is remo%ed at q D q
1
correspondin" to operatin" point
b; of C
2
cur%e. Bhen the fault is cleared &y remo%in" line 2A we switch to C
1
cur%eA thus the operatin" point will .ump from bQ to c. +t this pointA the
electrical power &ecomes "reater than the mechanical power. The rotor
decelerates thus releasin" the stored #inetic ener"y "ained durin" the
acceleration phase.
/urin" this phaseA the rotor speed is still hi"her than the synchronous speed?
hence the an"le q continues to increase until that the additional ener"y
7represented &y the area +18 is fully returned. The operatin" point in the
power4an"le cur%e is then " characteri2ed &y e-uality of areas +1 D +2. +t
point "A the rotor speed is e-ual to the synchronous speed and q D q
2
A the
ma)imum %alue of the internal an"le. ;ut electric power is always "reater
than the mechanical power. HenceA the rotor will continue to slow and its
speed falls &elow the synchronous speed. The internal an"le q will then
decrease to an operatin" point on the cur%e C
1
and will follow the
Edescendin"\ path from d to a minimum an"le.
The minimum an"le is "o%erned &y the criterion of e-ual areas
correspondin" to the situation after the fault. The rotor will then oscillate
around the operatin" point c. /ifferent dampin" will sta&ili2e around the
machine a new e-uili&rium point correspondin" to the intersection of 3
m
and
C
1
. +s in the pre%ious caseA if the fault is eliminated &eyond the critical timeA
the speed and the an"le will continuously "rowA leadin" to loss of
synchronism.
,.11. Case of a multi:machine system
The sta&ility analysis descri&ed a&o%e is &ased on the case of a machine
connected to a networ# of infinite power. The criterion of e-ual areas applies
only to this case and to the case of two machines. In additionA we ha%e
ne"lected the effects re"ulators which ha%e a si"nificant impact in the
process of sta&ility especially in the dynamic post4fault phase and
oscillations that follow. Howe%erA in lar"er networ#s electricalA se%eral
hundreds of machines may &e connected to the system and these machines
are of %arious types and technolo"ies.
+ sta&ility study for a multi4machine system re-uires ta#in" into account all
the components of the system. *or a &etter accuracyA the components and the
"enerators in particular must &e modeled in detail includin" re"ulations. The
study of sta&ility &ecomes comple) in such real cases. Se%eral computer
software tools are a%aila&le for these studiesA and allow %arious le%els of
details in modelin". +mon" themA one can cite E>$OST+! software
de%eloped &y Electricitn de *rance and Tracte&el.

Howe%erA if we want to focus only on the %ery first moments after the
occurrence of faultA it is always possi&le to simplify the modelin" and thus
the comple)ity of calculation &y ta#in" the same simplifyin" assumptions as
those used on "enerators durin" the presentation of transient sta&ility a&o%e'

Each machine can &e modeled &y a transient reactance &ehind a
constant emf 7
s
"
i C * %O E +
Y
Y
8. Lolta"e e)citation is considered
constant durin" and after the fault.
The rotors are also considered made of smooth poles?
(echanical power supplied &y the tur&ine remains constant durin"
the study period?
/ampin" tor-ues are ne"lected?
The mechanical rotor an"le of each machine coincides with the
internal electric an"le q of the machine.
In addition to these assumptions on the machinesA we can add another on
load &uses. Be can model the loads &y e-ui%alent admittances &etween the
nodes in -uestion and "round. This modelin" ma#es it possi&le to reduce
nodes &y not #eepin" the internal nodes of the "enerators in the study of the
sta&ility durin" the fault and after the fault is cleared. This reduction is
achie%ed &y eliminatin" the load &uses &y Vron reduction.
ThusA the e-uation of motion for each machine i can &e written as'
i e i m
i
s
i
p p
"t
" H
A A
2
2
2

76.318
where H
i
is "i%en in per4unit &ased on the networ# apparent power &ase 7see
e-uation N6.:cO8. In this caseA the electrical power is &y the power flow
e-uations'
( )
i% i% i% %
ng
%
i i e
E E E p

cos
Y
1
Y
A
76.368
with'
i e
p
A ' power of machine i?
Y
i
E ' ma"nitude of transient e.m.f of machine i?
Y
%
E ' ma"nitude of transient e.m.f. of machine %?
i% i%
E A
' ma"nitude and an"le of element i% of the matri) I&us A
i%
e E E
i%
i%

4
i

' an"le of e.m.f.

Y
i
E 7
i
%
i
i e E E
Y
Y

8?
% i i%

The motion of the rotor of each machine durin" and after the fault is
descri&ed &y e-uation N6.31O.
,.11 E5ercises
4.11.1 E(ercise o. 22) -ta&ility and critical fault clearing time
+ synchronous machine is connected to a networ# of infinite powerA throu"h
a transformer and two parallel transmission lines as shown in *i"ure E.22.1.
The lines and transformers can &e modeled &y pure reactors. The
synchronous machine has a round rotorA and assume that its emf EY is
maintained at a %alue e-ual to 1 pu.

EC
9
L
s L
l L
r
Transformateur
nln%ateur
0i"ne
$nseau
P puissance infinie Q
G
t
G
l1
S
" (
G
l2
F
EC
9
L
s L
l L
r
Transformateur
nln%ateur
0i"ne
$nseau
P puissance infinie Q
G
t
G
l1
S
" (
G
l2
F
Figure E.22 8etwork with fault at no"e 7.
The data of the networ# are "i%en &elow in per unit on a common &ase.
4 0ine reactances' G
l1
D G
l2
D =.3 p.u
4 Transformer reactance' G
t
D =.1 p.u
4 Lolta"e at infinit &us' L
r
D 1 p.u
4 Synchronous machine transient reactance' GY
d
D =.2 p.u
4 (achine inertia constant' H D 1(U<(L+.
4 (echanical power of machine' 3
m
D =.9 pu 7assume constant8
+8 Startin" at e-uili&rium 73
m
D 3
e
8A a three4phase short circuit occurs at
node 0. This short4circuit is immediately remo%ed &y protecti%e de%ices
and the system is restored to its ori"inal state.
;8 /etermine the e-uation of motion for this networ# &efore the fault.
C8 Calculate the internal an"le of the machine &efore the fault.
/8 Calculate the critical time to remo%e the fault.
E8 Now a three4phase short4circuit occurs at point E in the middle of line
02 7see *i"ure E.22.28. The short4circuit is remo%ed &y protecti%e
de%ices without re4en"a"ementA thus disconnectin" the faulted line from
the system.


Figure E.22.2 8etwork with fault at no"e E.
*8 Calculate the electric power durin" the fault and after the fault is cleared.
!8 /etermine the e-uation of motion correspondin" to situations durin" and
after the fault.
;I;0IO!$+3HI
N+L+ =5O +%an U.A V. H>NTE$A CS3( minimum data re-uirements in
terms of IEC CI(A in (arch 2==5.
N/E! =1O /E!NI T.A +. EN!0E$A OSIV O.A E(odelin" of /istri&uted
Ener"y $esources with +T34E(T3 EA European E(T34+T3 >sers !roup
(eetin" and ConferenceA BarsawA 3olandA 1241 Septem&er 2==1.
N61 E0!O E0!E$/ OIA Electric Ener"y system Theory' +n IntroductionA
(c !raw HillA 0i&rary of Con"ress Catalo" Card Num&er 664111A 1:61.
NE>$ =O E>$OST+!A >ser !uideA Electricitn de *rance 4 Tracte&el
Octo&er 2==.
N!$+ :O UU !rain"erA B/ Ste%enson Ur.A 3ower System +nalysisA
(c!raw4HillA New Ior#A 1::.
NV>N =O 3. VundurA U. 3+SE$;+A Litet S.A E/efinition and O%er%iew on
Classification of 3ower System Sta&ility EA IEEE On ;eharfof < Uoint Cl!$E
Tas# *orce on Sta&ility Terms and /efinitionsA IEEE Transactions on 3ower
SystemsA %ol. 1:A No. 2A (ay 2==.
NV>N :O 3. VundurA 3ower System Sta&ility and ControlA The E3$I Series
3ower En"ineerin"A (c!raw4HillA New Ior#A 1::3.
N+H =1O (ahsered.ian U.A /ENNETIs$E S.A /u&n 0.A VHO/+;+VHI+N
!t$IN 0+UOIE4;0A EOn a new approach for the simulation of transients in
power systems I3ST ConferenceA 2==1.
N3+C ::O H. S++/+T 3ower System +nalysisA (c!raw4HillA New Ior#A
1:::. 1:5 lines and electricity "rids 2
NS+; 63O S+;ONN+/IE$E UCA 3. +>$IO0A EO%er4%olta"es in
maneu%erin" the HL and EHL networ#sA E$e%ue "nnnrale de lYnlectricitnA
t.2A No. 11A p. 611 44 639A 1:63.
NST+ 59O !B ST+!!A E0 +;I+/ +(A Computer methods in power
systems analysisA (c !raw Hill ;oo#A New Ior#A 1:59.
NTIG ::O 3. TIG+/O$A components of electrical networ#sA the TS courseA
ENSIE!A 1:::.
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