Clinical Neurophysiology 113 (2002) 435445 www.elsevier.

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Electroencephalographic measurement of possession trance in the eld

Tsutomu Oohashi a,b,c,*, Norie Kawai c,d, Manabu Honda e,f, Satoshi Nakamura e,g, Masako Morimoto h, Emi Nishina i, Tadao Maekawa j
b a Department of Information and Network Science, Chiba Institute of Technology, Narashino 275-0016, Japan Department of KANSEI Brain Science, ATR Human Information Processing Research Laboratories, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan c Foundation for Advancement of International Science, Tsukuba 305-0062, Japan d Doctoral Programs of Medical Sciences, The University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8577, Japan e PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan f Laboratory of Cerebral Integration, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan g Biomedical Imaging Research Center, Fukui Medical University, Fukui 910-1193, Japan h Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo 102-8471, Japan i Human Interface Research and Development Section, National Institute of Multimedia Education, Chiba 261-0014, Japan j ATR Media Information Science Laboratories, Kyoto 619-0288, Japan

Accepted 17 December 2001

Abstract Objectives: To verify the utility of a portable electroencephalogram (EEG) measurement system developed for investigating spontaneous EEG from vigorously moving healthy subjects in a possession trance under a natural condition. Methods: A portable multi-channel EEG telemetry system was developed to record the EEGs of 3 healthy male Balinese while they were performing a ritual dedicatory drama in the eld. After reducing extraneous artifacts using a digital lter, the EEGs and their power spectra were analyzed in terms of evolution from one state to another. Results: During the drama, one of the subjects became possessed while the others did not. The EEG of the possessed subject did not show any pathological ndings including epileptic discharges, but indicated enhanced power in the theta and alpha frequency bands during the trance. This nding was not observed in the other two subjects, who did not go into trances, with no pathological EEG ndings. Conclusions: The measurement system and data analysis methods we developed have allowed us, for the rst time, to obtain an EEG from healthy subjects who are vigorously moving while in a possession trance. The present technique enables us to use a spontaneous EEG as a marker of the underlying physiology of a state of possession trance. q 2002 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Possession trance; Spontaneous electroencephalogram; Field recording; Portable electroencephalogram recording system; Topography; Spectral analysis

1. Introduction In some traditional cultures, it is widely observed that ordinary, healthy participants in a ritual ceremony enter a state of possession, or a possession trance, without psychoactive drugs. Based on a survey of 488 human societies worldwide, Bourguignon (1973) reported that 90% had institutionalized some form of altered state of consciousness and 57% associated these states with a possession trance. Therefore, it is likely that some biological mechanisms common to all human beings may underlie possession

* Corresponding author. Foundation for Advancement of International Science, Tokyo project ofce, 1-53-11-022 Higashinakano, Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-0003, Japan. Tel.: 181-3-3366-8788; fax: 181-3-3366-8737. E-mail address: QYL02655@nifty.com (T. Oohashi).

phenomena. Nevertheless, since possession trance has so rarely been investigated from a psychophysiological perspective, such mechanisms are not clear. In the late 1960s, Prince (1968) pointed out that possession states had not been studied physiologically although the unusual behavior and the alterations of consciousness that are associated with possession phenomena suggest an altered state of cerebral physiology. He suggested that future improvements in a portable electroencephalogram (EEG) recording system, including a telemetry system, would make it possible to record physiological data from possessed individuals in the eld under natural conditions. Until now, however, no one has yet successfully recorded an EEG under such conditions. There are at least three major problems facing researchers who wish to make a physiological study, under natural
CLINPH 2001113

1388-2457/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 1388-245 7(02)00002-0

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conditions, of a person in a state of possession. First, as Bourguignon and Peitay (1965) have pointed out, the sacred context of most possession phenomena make it extremely difcult to record physiological data in the eld. Second, the standard telemetry system does not work in the eld because there is no electric power supply and the system lacks portability. In addition, since the equipment is not shockproof, any vigorous movement that a possessed subject makes would easily cause malfunctions during the recording. Third, even if an EEG could be recorded, it would be seriously contaminated by various kinds of artifacts, especially those caused by physical vibratory shocks continuously applied to the electronic circuits of the transmitter during the recording. We have been trying to overcome these difculties for a long time. In the present study, we have two aims. The rst is to verify the practical utility of the EEG portable recording system that we developed for eld use and the reliability of the analysis procedure for a spontaneous EEG excluding the artifacts from body movement. The second is to report the rst EEG ndings on the subject of possession trances as a pilot study. We selected Bali Island, Indonesia, as the site for our study based on cultural anthropological studies. Bali is well known as a traditional society where possession trances frequently occur in ordinary healthy people in a ritual ceremony (Covarrubias, 1937; Mead, 1942; Belo, 1960). There are several festal dramas and ritual ceremonies in which participants go into possession trances, but they are performed in a garden deep inside a temple, on grounds that are open only to villagers. Foreigners are rarely allowed in. It is impossible for foreigners to even obtain information about the time and place of such a performance beforehand. We visited Bali several times since 1973 to nd a ritual drama or ceremony suitable for our study as well as to establish a relationship of mutual trust with the Balinese people. Due to the sanctity of the rituals and the inviolability of the performance space, it was difcult to persuade performers to put an electric device on their body during a performance, nor could we bring a recording system into the performance space. It took us 11 years to establish mutual trust with the local community and to obtain the consent for our research from executive ofcers of the temple and religious administrators. We nally received permission to enter a performance space for EEG recordings in 1984. We had begun the development of a portable multi-channel EEG telemetry system that could be used in the eld in the mid-1980s, and continued to test and improve it in the 1990s. With this system, we have been able to identify the temporal and spectral characteristics of extraneous artifacts in the data obtained from vigorously moving subjects, and have developed analysis methods to effectively reduce them. In this way, we have nally succeeded in recording a multi-channel EEG from a possessed subject in a Balinese ritual ceremony.

2. Methods 2.1. Subjects In Bali, Indonesia, the participants and/or spectators of ritual ceremonies and dramas are known to go into a possession trance without any psychoactive drugs. This phenomenon is called Kerauhan. One of the prominent characteristics of Kerauhan is the fact that it usually occurs not in a professional shaman but in ordinary healthy people en masse during ritual ceremonies. In this study, we focused on a Kerauhan that occurred during a dedicatory ritual drama called Calonarang. In this drama, several participants usually show a similar pattern of possession trance. Therefore, the homogeneity of this drama is potentially suitable for a physiological study. Two healthy right-handed male volunteers (aged 28 and 32) were studied (Subjects 1 and 2). Prior to the experiments, we carefully explained the experimental procedure to them and the subjects gave their informed consent. Basic personal data of each subject, such as family history, past medical history and possession experiences, were obtained through interviews. On a separate occasion, we recorded the EEG of another male subject (Subject 3, aged 31). This subject behaved as though possessed but was thought not to have gone into a possession trance during the drama according to his appearance (e.g. eyes, face) and behavior (e.g. muscle stiffness and tremor, recovery from the episode) during the drama and the lack of anterograde amnesia during the episode (see Section 3). 2.2. EEG recordings Many telemetry EEG recording systems are commercially available, however, most of them are designed to record EEGs in the laboratory. When we began our study, none of them could record EEGs from vigorously moving subjects in the eld with no electric power supply, although some commercial products are now available. In addition, it was very important that the EEG recording system not disturb the visual and auditory information of the sacred ceremonial space, and not distract the subjects participating in the drama. Therefore, we developed a multi-channel portable EEG recording system based on a WEE-6124 telemetric system (Nihon-Kohden, Tokyo, Japan) (Fig. 1). We made a stable, long-life battery-based, portable power supply to use the receiver system in the eld. We also redesigned the electrode cap (Electro-cap, Ohio, USA). Each electrode was tightly afxed to an elastic cap. The cap was xed to the subjects head by means of a strap that went under the chin in order to reduce constraints on the subject and simultaneously to keep it tightly in contact with the scalp. These modications prevented a major dislodgment of the electrodes. In addition, an electroconducting gel was put on the scalp to maintain the electrical contact between the electrodes and the scalp and to compensate

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Fig. 1. The multi-channel portable EEG recording system and analysis system developed for eld use.

for slight dislodgments of the electrodes. The electrode cap had holes for the subjects ears so that the earlobes were exposed and the subject could easily listen to the music with no undue unpleasantness. The length of the cable connecting the electrode cap and the head amplier was shortened to less than 10 cm. The head amplier was tightly afxed to the electrode cap. These modications signicantly reduced extraneous artifacts caused by electromagnetic induction and body movements. The transmitter was attached to a exible cloth belt, which was fastened tightly around the subjects waist. Receiving antennas with high-performance boosters, which improved sensitivity and expanded the area of reception, were installed at multiple locations around the performance eld. As a result of these modications, the EEG data were clearly received from subjects moving around in an area more than a 100 m 2. The EEG was recorded from 12 scalp sites (Fp1, Fp2, F7, Fz, F8, C3, C4, T5, Pz, T6, O1 and O2 according to the International 1020 System) using linked earlobe electrodes as a reference with a lter setting of 160 Hz (23 dB). Fp1 and Fp2 were linked and used as Fp for analysis. Data recorded from the two subjects were stored on an analog magnetic tape with a 28-channel data recorder (XR-9000, TEAC, Tokyo, Japan). Thirty minutes before the drama started, the electrodes were quickly attached to the subjects. It was conrmed that the subjects did not feel unpleasantness or constraint. The electrode cap and the transmitter were hidden under the costumes so that the subjects did not look different from the other performers. Before the performance began, a 3 min resting EEG was recorded with the subjects eyes closed. The EEGs were continuously recorded during the drama, which lasted approximately

70 min. When the performance was over, another 3 min resting EEG was recorded with eyes closed. Before the EEG recordings, the subjects were interviewed regarding personal facts and past history. Episodic recall and subjective impressions before, during and after the trance were obtained from each subject after the ritual drama ended, through a standard clinical interview by a Balinese medical doctor. The behavior of each subject during the drama was also recorded on a videotape. 2.3. Data analysis The entire observation period of Subject 1, who became possessed, was categorized into two states: normal state (NS) and trance state (TS). The NS was further subdivided into 3 phases: the resting phase with eyes closed before the drama (PRE), the music-playing phase (MUSIC) and the resting phase with eyes closed after the drama (POST). The TS was subdivided into 5 phases: the rst moving phase with eyes opened (MOVE-I), the rst falling-down phase with eyes closed (FALL-I), the second moving phase with eyes opened (MOVE-II), the second falling-down phase with eyes closed (FALL-II) and the nal phase (FINAL). The EEG data for Subject 2 (whose EEG was recorded simultaneously with that of Subject 1 but who did not become possessed) was compared phase by phase with that of Subject 1 in real-time. The data for Subject 3, whose EEG was recorded on a separate occasion, was also analyzed. He behaved as though possessed but did not go into a possession trance (see Section 3). Since the behavior of Subject 3 was similar to that of Subject 1, although he did not play a musical instrument, we used the phases of Subject

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1, except for MUSIC, for the analysis of Subject 3. WAIT was used in place of MUSIC for Subject 3 when he was waiting to come on the scene before his possession-like behavior. Note that all of the phases for Subject 3 are NS. We rst visually inspected the original raw EEG for epileptic discharges. Then, we digitalized the data with a sampling frequency of 256 Hz and ltered it with an equiripple FIR digital bandpass lter (pass-band cutoff frequencies, 4 and 30 Hz; stop-band cutoff frequencies, 3.5 and 30.5 Hz; stop-band attenuation, 20 dB; pass-band ripple, 0.1 dB; lter order, 768) to extract the frequency bands of interest: theta (48 Hz), alpha 1 (810 Hz), alpha 2 (10 13 Hz) and beta (1330 Hz). Artifacts caused by body movements, wire vibration and mechanical shocks were thus effectively reduced (see Fig. 2) without affecting the frequency band we were interested in. After this ltering procedure, epochs containing other artifacts with an extremely large amplitude including those arising from the subjects eye movement were carefully excluded from further analysis through visual inspection of both the raw and ltered EEGs. We then subjected the EEG data to power spectrum analysis. The power spectrum of the EEG at each electrode was calculated by fast fourier transform (FFT) analysis for every 2 s epoch with an overlap of 1 s, at the frequency resolution of 0.5 Hz with a sampling frequency of 256 Hz. Then the averaged power spectrum within each phase was calculated. The square root of the averaged power level in the theta, alpha 1, alpha 2 and beta bands at each electrode position was calculated to get the equivalent potential of the EEGs. Based on these values, colored contour line maps with 2565 scalp grid points were constructed by linear interpolation and extrapolation. This map is called a brain electrical activity map (BEAM), which describes the scalp distribution of the equivalent EEG potentials (Ueno and Matsuoka, 1976; Duffy et al., 1979; Oohashi et al., 2000).

several times (MOVE-I and MOVE-II). During this time, he fell down on the ground twice and closed his eyes (FALL-I and FALL-II) (Fig. 2B). He stiffened and showed tremors in FALL-II. After FALL-II, he wiggled on the ground with eyes closed (FINAL). When a priest sprinkled a few drops of sacred water on him and patted him, he was barely able to stand up with assistance and gradually returned to NS. The TS lasted 7 min and 50 s. While Subject 1 was in TS, the drama came to a climax at which time the music was being played very loudly. A questionnaire completed after the drama revealed that Subject 1 had anterograde amnesia during TS, namely he did not remember his own behavior during that time. By contrast, Subject 2 sat and played his instrument with concentration and strength throughout the drama with his eyes open. Note that although Subject 2 had experienced TS many times before, he did not go into a trance during this particular performance. Table 1 shows the time of each phase of the trances. 3.1.2. Subject 3 Subject 3 was recorded at another performance of the drama Calonarang in a similar setting. He attacked the witch with a sword several times and fell down on the ground twice with his eyes closed. His behavior was similar to that of Subject 1. However, he did not stiffen and did not have any tremors during FALL-I and FALL-II. After the drama, he suddenly and easily stood up without assistance and behaved as usual. He did not show anterograde amnesia at any point during the drama. 3.2. Achievement of the EEG recording system and digital bandpass lter It was difcult to keep a good contact between the electrodes and the scalp in the possessed subjects, who vigorously moved and sometimes fell down, especially when the subject tried to remove the electrodes from his body. Due to mechanical shocks caused by the subjects movement, the transmitter temporarily became inoperative. In addition, the signal was sometimes intercepted by an obstacle. Nevertheless, the multi-channel EEG data were successfully transmitted for approximately 90% of the time of the experiment. Fig. 2 shows an example of the raw and ltered EEG recorded from Subject 1 during the possession trance. The digital bandpass lter effectively removed low-frequency noises below 4 Hz caused by mechanical shock to the transmitter as well as high-frequency noises above 30 Hz. This ltering procedure enabled us to easily avoid the contamination of extraneous artifacts and to obtain an overview of the data. 3.3. EEG ndings 3.3.1. Visual inspection of the raw EEG of the possessed subject The raw EEG waveforms indicated that during the PRE and POST phases, Subject 1 showed a symmetrical domi-

3. Results 3.1. Appearance of the subjects 3.1.1. Subjects 1 and 2 Approximately 50 persons participated in the drama. At the beginning, 3040 players, including Subjects 1 and 2, entered the performance space and started vigorously beating a bamboo musical instrument with a stick. During the drama, they sat at the side of the performance space, continuously playing their instruments. At the climax, about 60 min into the drama, Subject 1 along with a few participants suddenly became possessed. He left his musical instrument and jumped into the center of the performance space. He then attacked the person playing a witch with a sword. He dashed himself against the witch, glowered at her, then staggered around for a while and dashed again (Fig. 2A). He repeated these automatism-like actions

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Fig. 2. A subject in TS and corresponding EEGs. (A, upper) Subject in an eyes-open moving phase of TS. The subject in TS (left) attacks the witchs (center) abdomen with a short sword. (A, lower) Subject 1s raw EEG, ltered EEG (430 Hz) and power spectra of ltered EEG at each electrode. The peak frequency of power was observed at 9 Hz. (B, upper) Subject in an eyes-closed falling phase of TS. (B, lower) Subject 1s raw EEG, ltered EEG (430 Hz) and power spectra of ltered EEG at each electrode. Prominent alpha 2 rhythm is observed predominantly in the occipital region. The peak frequency of the power was observed at 10.5 Hz.

nant rhythm in the occipital regions with normal waxing and waning. Peak frequencies were 11 and 10.5 Hz for PRE and POST, respectively. No apparent spikes or sharp waves were observed during the 3 min PRE and POST recordings. Considering the lter setting, we cannot denitively state that slow waves did not exist. However, no localized continuous or intermittent rhythmic slow waves have been

observed so far. Even just before TS, Subject 1 did not show any obvious rhythmic paroxysmal discharges or an electrical decremental pattern suggesting an ictal EEG. In MOVE-I and MOVE-II, it was difcult to evaluate the existence of spikes and sharp waves by a visual inspection of the raw EEG because of the extraneous artifacts. On the other hand, in FALL-I and FALL-II an occipital dominant rhythm

440 Table 1 Time of each phase of EEG recordings a Phase 1 PRE 120 180

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2 MUSIC 3564 2350

3 MOVE-I 188 208

4 FALL-I 29 32

5 MOVE-II 229 220

6 FALL-II 21 25

7 FINAL 113 105

8 POST 172 180

Subjects 1 and 2 Subject 3

a Numbers represent time in seconds of various phases of EEG recordings. Note that the EEG data from both Subject 1 and Subject 2 are categorized based on Subject 1s behavior.

peaking at 10.5 Hz was clearly observed without spikes, sharp waves or generalized slow waves. 3.3.2. Power spectrum analysis of the EEG In Subject 1, a remarkable difference between NS and TS was seen in the power spectra of the spontaneous EEG as well as between the different phases within TS. Fig. 3A compares the BEAMs of Subjects 1 and 2 chronologically. Subject 2 (Fig. 3A, lower panel) showed little change in EEG power throughout the drama except for a slight enhancement of the beta and theta bands in the frontal region at the climax of the drama. Subject 1 (Fig. 3A, upper panel) showed BEAMs similar to those of Subject 2 during the PRE and MUSIC phases in NS. During TS, by contrast, Subject 1 showed a distinctive increase in the power of the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 bands. The power of the alpha 1 band was relatively predominant during MOVE-I and MOVE-II, whereas that of the alpha 2 band was more prominent during FALL-I and FALL-II. The enhancement of the power in these frequency ranges became more prominent as time went on. This tendency is also recognizable in Fig. 3B, which shows the temporal evolution of the averaged EEG potential for each band across all the electrodes in Subjects 1 (upper panel) and 2 (lower panel). In addition, Subject 1 showed a greater enhancement of the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 bands during POST than during PRE, whereas Subject 2 did not show such an enhancement at all. Fig. 4 shows the time course of the BEAMs and the averaged power of each band across all the electrodes recorded from Subject 3, who did not become possessed but showed behavior, including vigorous body movement, similar to that of Subject 1. Subject 3 did not play a musical instrument but just waited for the scene with his eyes open during the WAIT phase. During the PRE and POST phases, an occipital dominant rhythm was clearly observed with a peak frequency at 10 Hz. During the MOVE and FALL phases, when he mimicked a possessed person and behaved as Subject 1 did but without actual possession, the BEAM did not show any remarkable changes, except for a slight enhancement of the alpha 1 and alpha 2 bands during FALLI and FALL-II (Fig. 4A). The time course of the power spectra of Subject 3 shown in Fig. 4B resembles that of Subject 2 (Fig. 3B, lower graph) who was not possessed and who continuously played his instrument throughout the drama without making any vigorous movement. A

lack of prominent change in the power spectra of Subject 3 is in marked contrast to those of Subject 1, who showed similar body movement during TS. 4. Discussion We successfully recorded EEGs during possession trances under natural conditions for the rst time. This was achieved by establishing a stable relationship of mutual trust with the Balinese people and by developing the necessary recording and analysis systems. The recorded EEG in this study showed an enhancement of the theta and alpha bands of spontaneous EEG activity, and differed from epileptic disorders and mental disorders. 4.1. Utility of the portable EEG telemetry system and analysis method The multi-channel portable EEG telemetry system that we developed for use in the eld enabled us to record the EEG data from the subjects under a possession trance. Major points that enabled us to do this are as follows: (1) improvements in the manner of afxing the electrode cap allowed a tight connection of the cap with less constraint; (2) strengthening and shortening the wire connections between the electrodes and the head amplier decreased artifacts caused by vibration and increased the resonance frequency of the input circuit and (3) application of a digital bandpass lter with a sharp frequency characteristic effectively reduced low-frequency artifacts, especially the drift of the baseline caused by mechanical vibration of the electric circuit. 4.2. Validation of the power spectrum analysis We hypothesized that the stationary aspect of the frequency structure of a spontaneous EEG, which can be elaborated by FFT and averaging multiple epochs, might reect a physiological change of neuronal activity specic to each phase of the possession trance because a spontaneous EEG is a good index of the global state of the brain. From this viewpoint, it is ideal for all of the EEG data recorded from each phase to be analyzed. In this case, however, we could not avoid deterioration of the quality of the data due to contamination by artifacts. Therefore, multiple epochs free from artifacts were carefully sampled from

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the data, and consequently, the time of the selected epochs in each phase might not be enough to manifest the general state of phase. To verify whether the ndings based on the sampled data represented each phase, we examined the power spectra of all data from each phase without excluding the epochs contaminated by artifacts. Then to evaluate the overall similarity between the data from all epochs and those from the sampled epochs in terms of spatial distribution and spectral proportion of BEAMs, Pearsons correlation coefcients were calculated in each phase using the values at all electrodes in all frequency bands. In all of the phases except for MOVE-I and MOVE-II for Subjects 1 and 3, which contained excessive artifacts because of the subjects intense movement, the power spectra of the entire period compared quite well with those obtained from the sampled data. Correlation coefcients ranged from 0.61 to 0.89 and the signicance was always less than 0.01. Therefore, it is likely that the sampled data represented the entire period of each phase in a possession trance. Regarding the MOVE-I and MOVE-II, the excessive noise introduced by the subjects intensive movements disabled us from evaluating similarity between the entire data and the sampled data. Therefore, we calculated correlation coefcients across the multiple sampled epochs in these phases to test their mutual similarity. Correlation coefcients calculated between two different sampled epochs were ranged from 0.31 to 0.91 and the probability was always less than 0.05, which means that the sampled epochs in the present study resembled each other in terms of the spatial distribution and spectral proportion of BEAMs. Thus, it is reasonable to consider that the sampled data reected a common character through the entire period even in these phases. These ndings suggest that the data obtained from our measurement and analysis methods reect the physiological states specic to each phase of a possession trance. There are several points we have to be cautious about when interpreting the results. In terms of BEAMs, it is necessary to consider the effect of activation of the linkedearlobe reference electrodes. Activation of the earlobe electrode by the occipital alpha rhythm could distort the scalp distribution and falsely localize the frontal activity of the alpha band shown in the frontal region in Subject 1. In addition, part of the slow activity induced by the noise of the earlobe electrode might have been contaminated in the BEAM of the theta range, although the digital bandpass lter followed by a careful visual inspection signicantly reduced such artifacts (Fig. 2). Spectral analysis with a better temporal resolution, such as the maximum entropy method, may provide useful information in this regard (Morimoto et al., 1998). It is unlikely that the enhancement of the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 bands observed in Subject 1 resulted from nonspecic effects associated with physical exercise. The data obtained from Subject 3 is useful in this regard because he performed similar physical exercise but did not show clear evidence of a possession trance, such as anterograde amne-

sia, during his possession-like behavior. As shown in Fig. 4, the EEG of Subject 3 lacked enhancement of the power spectra. His EEG resembles that of Subject 2, who did not become possessed. It is in sharp contrast to the EEG of Subject 1. These ndings suggest that the enhancement of the EEG power spectra observed in Subject 1 is specic to his possession trance. There is a possibility that a physiological difference between an NS and a possession trance can be detected in a spontaneous EEG as a difference in the stationary aspect of the frequency structure described by our analysis. On the other hand, transitional characteristics in microtime domains and relationships across different EEG bands cannot be assessed by the present method using the FFT. Other techniques of spectral analysis, such as the maximum entropy method, may be useful for this purpose (Morimoto et al., 1998). 4.3. EEG ndings and comparison with neurological and mental disorders Since this is a single case study, it is necessary to employ considerable caution in interpreting the present EEG ndings. Nevertheless, it may be instructive to compare the present ndings with those of some typical neurological or psychological disorders. 4.3.1. Epileptic disorders It is important to distinguish a Kerauhan from an epileptic disorder (Daly, 1990; Schaul, 1998). According to interviews with the subjects in the present study, none of them or anyone in their family had a history of epilepsy. The EEG waveform of Subject 1, who experienced a possession trance, did not show obvious paroxysmal discharges before, during or after TS. Moreover, the EEG during the FALL-I and FALL-II phases in TS showed a prominent occipital dominant rhythm, which is unlikely to be observed in an ictal EEG. 4.3.2. Mental disorders The possession trance observed in the present study must also be differentiated from schizophrenia or dissociative disorders that may show some state of possession. Miyauchi et al. (1996) reported that the various kinds of change in a spontaneous EEG, including enhancement of slow waves, decrease in alpha rhythm and increment or decrement of fast waves, can be observed in schizophrenia. EEG ndings in patients with dissociative disorders, such as multiple personality disorders in a possessed state, are accumulating but remain diverse (Coons et al., 1982; Cocores et al., 1984; Putnam, 1984; Hughes et al., 1990). These ndings are considered rather specic to the symptoms but not to the diseases themselves. It is difcult to formally make a diagnosis from the resting EEG in the present study because it was recorded outside for only 3 min. Nevertheless, since dissociative episodes or unusual behavior have never been

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Fig. 4. Change of EEG power in Subject 3, who did a similar amount of exercise without going into a possession trance. (A) Time course of BEAMs. (B) Time course of the mean of EEG power across all electrodes in each frequency band. Subject 3 shows stable EEG power during the exercise.

seen in the daily life of the subjects, and the possession trance was only observed in the highly organized ritual drama, it is unlikely that the possession trance observed in this study is due to a mental disorder.

EEG of Subject 1. The concentration of expiratory carbon dioxide must be measured to prove this point. 4.4. Enhancement of the EEG in the alpha rhythm The alpha rhythm of an EEG is considered to occur in relaxed yet alert subjects and to be sensitive to the subjects emotional as well as arousal state (Drennen and Oreilly, 1986; Iwaki et al., 1997). Although there is considerable intersubject variability in the amount of alpha rhythm, a normal alpha rhythm can be treated as an intraindividually stable trait in terms of its testretest reliability (Gasser et al., 1985; Kohrman et al., 1989; Fernandez et al., 1993). There is a considerable amount of literature reporting the enhancement of alpha-EEG during meditation or Zen (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1966; Banquet, 1973; Banquet and Sailhan, 1977; Dillbeck and Bronson, 1981; Khare and Nigam, 2000). Although the mechanisms underlying the generation of the

4.3.3. Hyperventilation During TS of Subject 1, the power in the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 frequency bands was greatly enhanced. This enhancement continued after Subject 1 returned to NS. To account for these changes, we should consider the possible effect of hyperventilation associated with the exercise done during the possession trance because hyperventilation causes a shift to a lower frequency of alpha or theta in a spontaneous EEG. Since Subject 3, who seemed to be doing almost the same amount of exercise, did not show this kind of hyperventilation-induced phenomenon, we do not think that hyperventilation is the sole reason for the spectral changes in the

Fig. 3. Change of EEG power associated with the transition to and from TS. (A) Time course of BEAMs. In Subject 1 (upper), who went into TS, the power of the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 frequency bands is markedly enhanced during TS. Such enhancement is also recognizable in the POST phase of NS. By contrast, Subject 2 (lower) did not show any change in EEG power during MUSIC. (B) Time course of the mean of the EEG power across all electrodes in each frequency band. Subject 1 (upper) shows increased power in the theta, alpha 1 and alpha 2 frequency bands in TS. The power of alpha 2 is more prominent in FALL-I, FALL-II than in MOVE-I, MOVE-II, while the opposite is seen in the alpha 1 band. By contrast, Subject 2 (lower) shows stable EEG power throughout the recording period.

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alpha rhythm have yet to be fully claried, an animal model suggests the involvement of at least the thalamocortical and intracortical networks (Steriade et al., 1990). A focal decrease of the background EEG in the alpha band occurs in association with corresponding cortical activation. It is known that an occipital alpha-EEG closely reects the activation of the visual cortex; a signicant negative correlation between the occipital alpha rhythm and activity in the visual cortex has been reported (Sadato et al., 1998). The remarkable enhancement of the occipital alpha-EEG during eyeclosed phases (e.g. PRE, FALL-I and II, FINAL and POST) in the present study is in parallel with this evidence. More importantly, when the eye-closed phases and eye-open phases are compared within each category, the enhancement of the alpha-EEG is more evident in the later part of the trance (Fig. 3B). Although there is marked variability in alpha power in normal individuals from one period of time to another, depending on their level of mental activity, this nding may suggest some linkage between the depth of trance and alpha-EEG. A positive correlation has been shown between the occipital alpha-EEG and the regional cerebral blood ow in the deep brain structure (Sadato et al., 1998), including the thalamus (Oohashi et al., 2000). Therefore, we need to consider the possibility that a possession trance may be associated with a change of activity in deep-lying structures, including the thalamus. However, we lack a sufcient number of subjects in a possession trance; it is necessary to collect more data in the eld to determine whether the observed ndings reect a physiological phenomenon specic to possession trances, or alternatively, if they are simply associated with that particular subject. In conclusion, we consider that we have veried the ability of the developed portable EEG recording system and the utility of the EEG analysis method for subjects with movement in the eld. Namely, this methodology was recognized as being useful to some extent for EEG recording under severe conditions and for investigating the features of spontaneous EEGs. We also succeeded in our second goal of measuring the EEG of a possessed subject under natural settings for the rst time. This EEG lacked apparent pathological ndings and showed an enhancement of EEG power in the theta and alpha frequency ranges. This is still only a single case study on the EEG ndings of a possession trance. In the near future, we plan to increase the number of cases using the present system to examine general physiological ndings of possession trance.

shiro Institute of Science and Culture for their technical support.

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Acknowledgements We express our special thanks to the Balinese people who accepted us and allowed us to carry out our experiment during their ritual ceremony. We also sincerely thank Ms Sari Sudo and Mr Ida Bagus Sunarta for their continuous support for 20 years in Bali, and the members of the Yama-

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