CHAPTER 1 ANATOMY

WHAT IS HUMAN ANATOMY?

Anatomy is the study and identification of structures in the human body. 1.1 BASIC ANATOMICAL LANGAGE In day to day language, certain terms are used to describe our orientation with reference to our surroundings. The same is used in anatomy to remove discrepancy, and to allow for accurate and precise communication. In the anatomical position, the body is standing erect. Feet are close and parallel to each other, with arms hanging by the side and the palms of the hands facing forward. The head would be the top and the feet would. When describing anatomy terms, you would reference the structures to one another based on this position, for example, the knee is inferior (or below) the hips; and the shoulder is superior (or above) the arm. There are three planes used as a reference system. These planes are at right angles to each other and are similar to the X, Y and Z plane in mathematics. Firstly, the median plane is the plane that divides the body into two symmetrical halves, vertically. It is directly through the middle of the body; through the nose, middle of the eyes; and umbilicus. Any plane that is parallel to the median plane is called the sagittal plane. The median plane can also be referred to as the midsagittal plane and the planes that run parallel can be referred to as parasagittal planes. Secondly, the coronal plane is the plane that divides your back from your front. This plane is also vertical but divides your body asymmetrically. Thirdly, the horizontal plane divides the body top from bottom. This plane is also known as the transverse plane and axial plane; it is at right angles to both the coronal and sagittal planes. This plane is useful in describing different levels of structures in respect to the vertebrae.

It is possible to use these terms in combination. For example, your umbilicus is anteroinferior to your axilla. There are more specific terms we can use. Consider the ribs. A rib has two surfaces; one faces outwards and the other inwards towards the centre of your body. These surfaces can be described as external (outer) or internal (inner). Other terms we can use are superficial and deep. It is permissible to describe the heart as deep to the ribs because it is more internal than your ribs in both anterior and posterior aspects. You can also describe the muscles of your body as deep or superficial. For example, your forearm has deep muscles that control your fingers, but it also has superficial muscles. We can describe the body in respect to particular features of the body. For example, the head would be described as the cranial end and your bottom end (or tail end in other animals) can be described as the caudal end. We can also use terms such as ventral to describe anterior structures and dorsal to describe posterior structures. Another combination of terms that is essential is proximal and distal. Proximal describes structures that are nearer; for example, your arm is more proximal to your chest than your forearm. Distal describes the opposite structures are farther. 1.11 REGIONS OF THE BODY It is important to use proper anatomical terms with precision. Limbs are not just arms and legs. They are known as upper limbs or lower limbs, referring to the arms and legs respectively. The forearm and arm are to be distinguished from one another; the leg and thigh; the wrist and hand; the leg and foot; and so forth. The chest is referred to as the thorax and the belly or stomach is known as the abdominal region. The head includes any part superior the line drawn along the mandible (lower jaw), just beneath the ear and just beneath the skull from behind. The neck extends to the line of the clavicle (collar bone) in front and across the tip of the shoulder posteriorly. The trunk of the body comprises of the abdomen and thorax. Unlike other areas of the body, these two areas overlap and are not clearly distinguished with structures. The pelvis is a subarea of the abdominal region and is the region that holds your bladder, reproductive organs and rectum. The gluteal region is the area of you buttocks. Your back can be referred to as the abdominal or thoracic areas of the back or just lower and upper, respectively. 1.3 SYSTEMS OF THE BODY There are eleven systems of the body; integumentary; nervous, urinary, skeletal, respiratory, reproductive, muscular, circulatory, lymphatic, digestive and skeletal. These systems are sometimes separated or combined from one another and thus ten is a relative number. The integumentary system of the body refers to the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of

Using these planes of reference, it is relatively easy to describe any part of the body in absolute terms to each other. For example, we can use close to or away from the median plane. Certain directional terms are preferred in anatomy over day-to-day language. The following six terms are essential in anatomy. In front is known as anterior. Behind is known as posterior. Above/Up is known as superior. Below/down is known as inferior Anything away from the midline is known as lateral. Anything towards the midline is known as medial.

water or abrasion from outside. The system comprises of the skin and its appendages (such as hair, scales, nails and so forth). It has a variety of functions that maintain homeostasis, detect pain and provide synthesis of vitamin D. The nervous system is responsible for coordinating the bodys voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The nervous system has a role in controlling your breathing rate, when you want to move your arm, when you sense pain and so forth. The nervous system consists of the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of two kidneys, ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The system is important for eliminating waste, regulating blood volume and pressure, controlling metabolite and electrolyte levels and regulating blood pH levels. The skeletal system consists of the bones of the body. The bones can be separated into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of bones in the trunk and head of the body and the appendicular skeleton is made up of bones from your appendages. The skeletal systems primary role is a structural role but it also has roles in protection, movement, storage, blood cell production and mineral homeostasis roles. The muscular system is responsible for movement of the body, posture, and circulation of blood. The organ system consists of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. The muscular system is controlled by the nervous system, although some muscles can be autonomous (self-controlling). Together with the skeletal system, it forms the musculoskeletal system. The reproductive system is the system of sex organs in an organism which work together for sexual reproduction. In humans, the reproductive system is sex-specific; males and females have different systems. The circulatory system is an organ system that permits the circulation of blood and lymph to transport nutrients such as amino acids and electrolytes, oxygen, hormones, carbon dioxide to and from the organs of the body to help fight diseases, nourish the organs, stabilize body temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. The lymphatic system can be considered a subset of the circulatory system and transports fluid called lymph towards the heart. Lymph is formed when interstitial fluid is collected through lymph capillaries. The digestive system is the system responsible for the breakdown of food into smaller components that the body can absorb. The digestion system begins at the oral cavity (or mouth), through to the oesophagus, stomach, intestines and rectum. The system is exposed to the external environment. The endocrine system refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secretes hormones into the circulatory system to be carried towards a target organ. The endocrine system is important for triggering certain organs to produce a biological response or effect. The respiratory system consists of the organs and structures that are used for the process of respiration in an organism. It is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the organism and the environment. It includes structures such as the trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.

1.4 INTRODUCTION TO HISTOLGY- CELLS TO ORGANS Histology is the