1

FUNCTION :
Physical laws are nothing but statement regarding the way in which the certain physical quantities depend on
other physical quantity / quantities. ex energy of a bullet depends on its mass and its speed. so we need to
learn something we call function
Function is a rule of relationship between two variables in which one is assumed to be dependent
and the other independent variable, for example :
e.g. The temperatures at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point drops as
you ascend). Here elevation above sea level is the independent & temperature is the dependent variable
e.g. The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held. Here
time is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each of the above example, value of one variable quantity (dependent variable) , which we might call y,
depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since the
value of y is completely determined by the value of x, we say that y is a function of x and represent it math-
ematically as y =f(x).
Here f represents the function, x the independent
f
x
Input
(Domain)
Ouput
(Range)
f(x)
variable & y is the dependent variable.
All possible values of independent variables (x) are called domain of function.
All possible values of dependent variable (y) are called range of function.
Think of a function f as a kind of machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever we feed it an
input value x from its domain (figure).
When we study circles, we usually call the area A and the radius r. Since area depends on radius, we
say that A is a function of r, A =f(r)

. The equation A =tr
2
is a rule that tells how to calculate a unique
(single) output value of A for each possible input value of the radius r.
A =f(r) =tr
2
. (Here the rule of relationship which describes the function may be described as square
& multiply by t).
If r =1 A =t ; if r =2 A =4t ; if r =3 A =9t
The set of all possible input values for the radius is called the domain of the function. The set of all output
values of the area is the range of the function.
We usually denote functions in one of the two ways :
1. By giving a formula such as y =x
2
that uses a dependent variable y to denote the value of the function.
2. By giving a formula such as f(x) =x
2
that defines a function symbol f to name the function.
Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x),
y =sin x. Here the function is sine, x is the independent variable.
A mathematical function is just a law which governs the inter dependence of variable quantities it does not imply
the existence of of cause and effect between them
e.g. Boyles law PV = constant may be solved either for P or V as a function of other variable
P =
V
C
or V =
P
C
2
One Such Interdependence of Two Physical Quantities :
Galileo developed a formula for a bodys velocity during free fall by
rolling balls from rest down increasingly steep inclined planks and
looking for a limiting formula that would predict a balls behaviour
when the plank was vertical and the ball fell freely
(part a of the accompanying (figure). He found that, for any given
angle of the plank, the balls velocity t seconds into the motion was
a constant multiple of t. That is, the velocity was given by a formula
of the form v =kt.
The value of the constant k depended on the inclination of the plank.
In modern notation (part b of the figure), with distance in meters and time in seconds, what Galileo determined
by experiment was that, for any given angle u, the balls velocity t seconds after it is set into the roll was
v =9.8 (sin u) t m/sec.
thus he established the interdependence of two variables
velocity and time . 9.8 sinu becomes the proportionality factor
deciding the change of v with respect to t. Say the angle of inclination
is 30 then 9.8 sinu =9.8 1/2 =4.9 .
The graph shows the st line behaviour of the relation / function v =4.9t
v
t
A
A
is constant and is equal to tan30 ( here it is the slope of the st line)
Ex. 10 The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius r is given by the function V(r) =
3
) r ( ) 3 / 4 ( t
The volume of a ball of radius 3m is ?
Sol. V(3) =
3
) 3 ( 3 / 4 t =36t m
3
.
Ex. 11 Suppose that the function F is defined for all real numbers r by the formula F(r) =2(r 1) +3.
Evaluate F at the input values 0, 2, x +2, and F(2).
Sol. In each case we substitute the given input value for r into the formula for F :
F(0) =2(0 1) +3 = 2 +3 =1 ;
F(2) =2(2 1) +3 =2 +3 =5
F(x +2) =2(x +2 1) +3 =2x +5 ;
F(F(2)) =F(5) =2(5 1) +3 =11.
Ex. 12 A function ](x) is defined as ](x) =x
2
+3, Find ](0) , ](1), ](x
2
), ](x+1) and ](](1)).
Sol. ](0) =0
2
+3 =3 ;
](1) =1
2
+3 =4 ;
](x
2
) = (x
2
)
2
+3 =x
4
+3
](x+1) =(x +1)
2
+3 =x
2
+2x +4 ;
](](1)) =](4) =4
2
+3 =19
Ex. 13 If function F is defined for all real numbers x by the formula F(x) =x
2
.
Evaluate F at the input values 0,2, x +2 and F(2)
Sol. F(0) =0 ;
F(2) =2
2
=4 ;
F(x+2) =(x+2)
2
;
F(F(2)) = F(4) = 4
2
=16
3
AVERAGE RATES OF CHANGE :
Lets take a case where a disk sliding along an inclined plane is found to have its position at any
instant given by x =3t
2
+1, where x is in meters and t is in second.
Here x is a function of time ; x =f(t) =3t
2
+1.
Now, we find the average velocity for the following three time intervals
(a) 2 and 3 s (b) 2 and 2.1 s (c) 2 to 2.00001
For t =2 and 3 s, we have At =1 s
For t =3 s, x =3(3)
2
+1 =28 m
For t =2 s, x =3(2)
2
+1 =13 m
and Ax =28 m 13 m =15 m
Thus, v
avg
=
x
15
t
A
=
A
m/1 s =15 m/s
For t =2 and 2.1 s, we have At =0.1 s
For 2.1 s, x =3(2.1)
2
+1 =14.23 m
For t =2 s, x =3(2)
2
+1 =13 m
and Ax =1.23 m
Thus v
avg
=
x
1.23
t
A
=
A
m/0.1 s =12.3 m/s
You may verify that for t =2.00001 s, v
avg
=12.00003 m/s
But still these are average velocities over and interval. But what is the velocity AT the instant t = 2 s ??
F R O M F I N I TE TO I N F I N I TE LY S M A LL C H A N G E :
The infinitely small difference means very-very small difference. And this difference is represented by d notation
instead of A.
For example infinitely small difference in the values of y is written as dy
if y
2
=100 and y
1
=99.99999999........
then dy =0.000000...................00001
Now, back to the function f(t) =3t
2
+1
F R O M A VE R A G E R ATE TO R ATE H E R E A N D N O W :
First lets find the average velocity over time interval At in general
x =3t
2
+1
x +Ax =3 (t +Dt)
2
+1 =3t
2
+3At
2
+3.2tAt +1
Ax =3At
2
+3.2t At
t
x
A
A
=3At +3.2t (For any general interval At this is the average velocity)
0 t
lim
A
t 2 . 3
t
x
=
A
A
(here as At tends to 0 the first term 3At tends to 0 and so the limiting value of the ratio Ax/At becomes 3.2t)

dx
dt
=6t
at the instant t =2 s
dx
dt
=6.2 =12 m/s
4
Similarly at t =3 s
dx
dt
=6.3 =18 m/s
In other words, the instantaneous velocity v equals the limiting value of the ratio Ax/AT as AT
approaches zero but it cannot be zero as At being zero will mean Ax also becoming zero and velocity becoming
undefined.
v =
0 t
lim
A
t
x
A
A
(read it as the limiting value of the ratio
t
x
A
A
as At tends to zero)
In calculus notation, this limit is called the derivative of x with respect to t, written as dx/dt.
v =
0 t
lim
A
dt
dx
t
x
=
A
A
The idea here was to make an infinitesimal distance and the corresponding infinitesimal time form the ratio
and watch what happen to the ratio as the time gets smaller and smaller and smaller. This was something
unknown to you till now. and This idea was invented by Newton and leibinitz which is calculus.
Calculus is thus simply very advanced algebra and geometry that has been tweaked to solve more
sophisticated problems.
Question. How much energy does the man use to push the crate up the incline?
The regular way :

For the straight incline, the man pushes with an unchanging force, and the crate goes up the incline at an
unchanging speed. With some simple physics formulas and regular math (including algebra and trig), you
can compute how many calories of energy are required to push the crate up the incline.
The calculus way :
For the curving incline, on the other hand, things are constantly
changing. The steepness of the incline is changing and not
just in increments like its one steepness for the first 10 feet
then a different steepness for the next 10 feet its constantly
changing. And the man pushes with a constantly changing force the
steeper the incline, the harder the push. As a result, the amount of
energy expended is also changing, not every second or every
thousandth of a second, but constantly changing from one
moment to the next. Thats what makes it a calculus problem.
5
It is a mathematical way to express something that is CHANGING! It could be anything??
But here is the cool part :
Calculus allows you to ZOOM in on a small part of the problem and apply the regular math tools.
DEFINING DIFFERENTIATION IN GENERAL :
Given an arbitrary function y =f(x) we calculate the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval (x , x +Ax) by dividing the change in value of y, i.e. Ay =f(x +Ax) f(x), by length of interval Ax over
which the change occurred.
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x, x +Ax] =
x
) x ( f ) x x ( f
x
y
A
A +
=
A
A
Geometrically,
x
y
A
A
=
PR
QR
= tan u =Slope of the line PQ
x
y
x + x A
y+ y A
P
Q
u
Ay
Ax
R
In triangle QPR tan = u
Ay
Ax
therefore we can say that average rate of change of y with respect
to x is equal to slope of the line joining P & Q.
We know that, average rate of change of y w.r.t. x is
x
y
A
A
=
x
) x ( f ) x x ( f
A
A +
.
If the limit of this ratio exists as Ax 0, then it is called the derivative of given function f(x) and is denoted as
f(x) =
dx
dy
=
lim
0 x A

x
) x ( f ) x x ( f
A
A +
GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF DIFFERENTIATION :
The geometrical meaning of differentiation is very much useful in the analysis of graphs in physics. To understand
the geometrical meaning of derivatives we should have knowledge of secant and tangent to a curve
Secant and tangent to a curve :
Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points.
P
q Secant
x
y
Tangent:-
A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve at a particular point.
x
y
x + x A
y+ y A
P
Q
u
Ay
Ax
R
Figure - 1
Tangent is a limiting case of secant which intersects the curve at two
overlapping points. In the figure-1 shown, if value of Ax is gradually reduced
then the point Q will move nearer to the point P. If the process is continuously
repeated (Figure - 2) value of Ax will be infinitely small and secant PQ to the
given curve will become a tangent at point P .
Therefore |
.
|

\
|
A
A
A
x
y
0 x
=
dx
dy
=tan u
6
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x,i.e. |
.
|

\
|
dx
dy
is
x
y
x+ x A
y+ y A
P
Q
Q
Q
Q
u
Ay
Ax
R
Figure - 2
equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x, y) or tanu =
dx
dy
(From fig. 1, the average rate of change of y from x to x +Ax is
identical with the slope of secant PQ.)
QUESTION TO CONCLUDE :
Suppose we have functions of one variable f(x). What does derivatives
df(x)
dx
do for us ?
THE FINAL ANSWER :
It tells us how rapidly the function varies when x is changed by tiny amount dx
df =
df(x)
dx
dx here the derivative is the proportionality factor which decides the change of function f
when x is changed by dx. Lets take an example
The area A of a square of length L is A =L
2
.
if we change L to L + AL, the area will change from A to A +AA
A +AA =(L +AL)
2
=L
2
+2L AL +(AL)
2
or, AA =2L(AL) +(AL)
2
or,
A
2L L
L
A
= + A
A
Now if AL is made smaller and smaller, 2L +AL will approach 2L.
Thus,
dA
dL
=
0 L
lim
A
L 2
L
A
=
A
A
ONE PROCESS MANY NOTATION :
There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y =f(x). Besides f(x), the most common notations
are these :
y y prime or y dash Nice and brief but does not name the
independent variable
dx
dy

dy by dx Names the variables and uses d for derivative
dx
df

df by dx E mphasizes the functions name
) x ( f
dx
d

d by dx of f E mphasizes the idea that differentiation is an
operation performed on f.
D
x
f dx of f A common operator notation
y

y dot One of Newtons notations, now common for

time derivatives i.e.
dt
dy
.
f(x) f dash x Most common notation, it names the
independent variable and E mphasize the
functions name
7
RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION :
Rule No. 1 : Derivative of a constant
The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
If c is constant, then
c
dx
d
=0.
Ex. 14
0 ) 8 (
dx
d
=
,
0
2
1
dx
d
= |
.
|

\
|

, ( ) 0 3
dx
d
=
Rule No. 2 : Power rule

If n is a real number, then
1 n n
nx x
dx
d

=
.
To apply the power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original exponent (n) and multiply the result by n.
Ex. 15
f x x
2
x
3
x
4
....
f' 1 2x 3x
2
4x
3
....
Ex. 16 (i)
|
.
|

\
|
x
1
dx
d
=
dx
d
(x
1
) =(1)x
2
=
2
x
1

(ii)
|
.
|

\
|
3
x
4
dx
d
=
dx
d
4
(x
3
) =4(3)x
4
=
4
x
12
.
Ex. 17 (a) ) x (
dx
d
2 / 1
=
2 / 1
x
2
1

=
x 2
1
| |
Function defined for x > 0 derivative defined only for x >0
(b)
) x (
dx
d
5 / 1
=
5 / 4
x
5
1
| |
Function defined for x > 0 derivative not defined at x =0
Rule No. 3 : The constant multiple rule

If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then ) cu (
dx
d
=
dx
du
c
In particular, if n is a positive integer, then ) cx (
dx
d
n
=cn x
n1
8
Ex. 18 The derivative formula
) x 3 (
dx
d
2
=3(2x) =6x
says that if we re-scale the graph of y =x
2
by multiplying each ycoordinate by 3, then we multiply the slope at
each point by 3.
Ex. 19 A useful special case
The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function is the negative of the functions derivative. Rule 3 with c
=1 gives.
) u (
dx
d

=
) u 1 (
dx
d

=1
) u (
dx
d
=
dx
d

(u)
Rule No. 4 : The sum rule

The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the sum of their derivatives.
If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum u +v is differentiable at every point where u and v are
both differentiable functions is their derivatives.
) v u (
dx
d

=
] v ) 1 ( u [
dx
d
+
=
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
dv
) 1 (
dx
du
= +
The Sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there are only finitely many
functions in the sum. If u
1
, u
2
,.........u
n
are differentiable at x, then so is u
1
+u
2
+........+u
n
, and
) u ..... u u (
dx
d
n 2 1
+ + +
=
dx
du
.......
dx
du
dx
du
n 2 1
+ + +
.
Ex. 20 (a) y =x
4
+12x (b) y =x
3
+
3
4
x
2
5x +1
) x 12 (
dx
d
) x (
dx
d
dx
dy
4
+ =

( ) ) 1 (
dx
d
) x 5 (
dx
d
x
3
4
dx
d
x
dx
d
dx
dy
2 3
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
=4x
3
+12 =3x
2
+
3
4
.2x 5 +0 =3x
2
+
3
8
x 5.
Notice that we can differentiate any polynomial term by term, the way we differentiated the polynomials in above
example.
Rule No. 5 : The product rule

If u and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product uv, and
dx
d
(uv) =
dx
du
v
dx
dv
u +
.
The derivative of the product uv is u times the derivative of v plus v times the derivative of u. In prime notation
(uv) =uv +vu.
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the product of two
functions is not the product of their derivatives. For instance,
dx
d
(x.x) =
dx
d
(x
2
) =2x, while
dx
d
(x) .
dx
d
(x) =1.1 =1.
Ex. 21 Find the derivatives of y =(x
2
+1) (x
3
+3).
Sol. From the product Rule with u =x
2
+1 and v =x
3
+3, we find
9
)] 3 x )( 1 x [(
dx
d
3 2
+ +
=(x
2
+1) (3x
2
) +(x
3
+3) (2x)
=3x
4
+3x
2
+2x
4
+6x
=5x
4
+3x
2
+6x.
Example can be done as well (perhaps better) by multiplying out the original expression for y and differentiating
the resulting polynomial. We now check : y =(x
2
+1) (x
3
+3) =x
5
+x
3
+3x
2
+3
dx
dy
=5x
4
+3x
2
+6x.
This is in agreement with our first calculation.
There are times, however, when the product Rule must be used. In the following examples. We have only
numerical values to work with.
Ex. 22 Let y =uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find y(2) if u(2) =3, u(2) =4, v(2) =1, and v(2) =2.
Sol. From the Product Rule, in the form
y =(uv) =uv +vu ,
we have y(2) =u(2) v(2) +v(2) u (2) =(3) (2) +(1) (4) =6 4 =2.
Rule No. 6 : The quotient rule

If u and v are differentiable at x, and v(x) = 0, then the quotient u/v is differentiable at x,
and
|
.
|

\
|
v
u
dx
d
=
2
v
dx
dv
u
dx
du
v
J ust as the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is not the product of their derivatives,
the derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the quotient of their derivatives.
Ex. 23 Find the derivative of y =
1 t
1 t
2
2
+

Sol. We apply the Quotient Rule with u =t

2
1 and v =t
2
+1 :
dt
dy
=
2 2
2 2
) 1 t (
t 2 ). 1 t ( t 2 ). 1 t (
+
+

2
v
) dt / dv ( u ) dt / du ( v
v
u
dt
d
= |
.
|

\
|
=
2 2
3 3
) 1 t (
t 2 t 2 t 2 t 2
+
+ +
=
2 2
) 1 t (
t 4
+
.
Rule No. 7 : derivative of sine function

x cos ) x (sin
dx
d
=
Ex. 24 (a) y =x
2
sin x :
dx
dy
=
) x (sin
dx
d
x 2
Difference Rule
=2x cos x
(b) y =x
2
sin x :
dx
dy
=x
2
dx
d
(sin x) +2x sin x Product Rule
=x
2
cos x +2x sin x
10
(c) y =
x
x sin
:
dx
dy
=
2
x
1 . x sin ) x (sin
dx
d
. x
Quotient Rule
=
2
x
x sin x cos x
.
RULE NO. 8 : DERIVATIVE OF COSINE FUNCTION

x sin ) x (cos
dx
d
=
Ex. 25 (a) y =5x +cos x
dx
dy
=
dx
d
(5x) +
dx
d
(cosx) Sum Rule
=5 sin x
(b) y =sinx cosx
dx
dy
=sinx
dx
d
(cosx) +cosx
dx
d
(sinx) Product Rule
=sinx ( sinx) +cosx (cosx)
=cos
2
x sin
2
x
RULE NO. 9 : DERIVATIVES OF OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Because sin x and cos x are differentiable functions of x , the related functions
tan x =
x cos
x sin
; sec x =
x cos
1
cot x =
x sin
x cos
; cosec x =
x sin
1
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. There derivatives. Calculated from the Quotient
Rule, are given by the following formulas.

dx
d
(tan x) =sec
2
x ;
dx
d
(sec x) =sec x tan x
dx
d
(cot x) = cosec
2
x ;
dx
d
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x
Ex. 26 Find dy / dx if y =tan x .
Sol.
dx
d
(tan x) =
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
x cos
x sin
=
x cos
x) (cos
dx
d
x sin ) x (sin
dx
d
x cos
2
=
x cos
x) (sin x sin x cos x cos
2
=
x cos
x sin x cos
2
2 2
+
=
x cos
1
2
=sec
2
x
11
Ex. 27 (a)
dx
d
(3x +cot x) =3 +
dx
d
(cot x) =3 cosec
2
x
(b)
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
x sin
2
=
dx
d
(2cosec x) =2
dx
d
(cosec x)
=2 (cosec x cot x) = 2 cosec x cot x
RULE NO. 10 : DERIVATIVE OF LOGARITHM AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

( )
x
1
x log
dx
d
e
=

( )
x x
e e
dx
d
=
Ex. 28 y =e
x
. log
e
(x)
( )
x
e
dx
d
dx
dy
=
. log(x) +.
dx
d
[log
e
(x)] e
x

dx
dy
=e
x
. log
e
(x) +
x
e
x
RULE NO. 11 : CHAIN RULE OR OUTSIDE INSIDE RULE

dx
dy
=
du
dy
.
dx
du
It sometimes helps to think about the Chain Rule the following way. If y =f(g(x)),
) x ( ' g )]. x ( g [ ' f
dx
dy
=
.
In words : To find dy/dx , differentiate the outside function f and leave the inside g(x) alone ; then multiply by
the derivative of the inside.
We now know how to differentiate sin x and x
2
4, but how do we differentiate a composite like sin (x
2
4)? The
answer is, with the Chain Rule, which says that the derivative of the composite of two differentiable functions is
the product of their derivatives evaluated at appropriate points. The Chain Rule is probably the most widely used
differentiation rule in mathematics. This section describes the rule and how to use it. We begin with examples.
Ex. 29 The function y =6x 10 =2(3x 5) is the composite of the functions y =2u and u =3x 5. How are the
derivatives of these three functions related ?
Sol. We have
dx
dy
=6 ,
du
dy
=2 ,
dx
du
=3.
Since 6 = 2 . 3 ,
dx
dy
=
du
dy
.
dx
du
Is it an accident that
dx
dy
=
du
dy
.
dx
du
?
If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our intuition allows us to see that this relationship is reasonable.
For y =f(u) and u =g(x) , if y changes twice as fast as u and u changes three times as fast as x, then we expect
y to change six times as fast as x.
Ex. 30 Let us try this again on another function.
y =9x
4
+6x
2
+1 =(3x
2
+1)
2
is the composite of y =u
2
and u =3x
2
+1 .
12
Sol. Calculating derivatives. We see that
du
dy
.
dx
du
=2 u . 6x =2(3x
2
+1) . 6x =36x
3
+12 x
and
dx
dy
=
dx
d
(9x
4
+6x
2
+1) =36x
3
+12 x
Once again,
du
dy
.
dx
du
=
dx
dy
The derivative of the composite function f(g(x)) at x is the derivative of f at g(x) times the derivative of g at x.
Ex. 31 Find the derivative of y =
1 x
2
+
Sol. Here y =f(g(x)) , where f(u) =
u
and u =g (x) =x
2
+1. Since the derivatives of f and g are
f (u) =
u 2
1
and g(x) =2x ,
the Chain Rule gives
dx
d
dx
dy
=
f(g(x)) = f(g(x)) . g(x) =
) x ( g 2
1
. g(x) =
1 x 2
1
2
+
. (2x) =
1 x
x
2
+
.
Ex. 32
dx
d
sin(x+x) =cos(x +x) . (2x +1)
2 2
outside
derivative of
the outside
Inside
left alone
Inside derivative
of the Inside
Ex. 33 We sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or more times to find a derivative.
Here is an example. Find the derivative of g(t) =tan (5 sin 2t)
Sol. g(t) =
dt
d
(tan(5 sin 2t)
=sec
2
(5 sin 2t) .
dt
d
(5 sin 2t)
Derivative of
tan u with
u =5 sin 2t
Derivative of
5 sin u
with u =2t
=sec
2
(5 sin 2t) . (0 (cos 2t) .
dt
d
(2t)
=sec
2
(5 sin 2t) . ( cos 2t) . 2
=2(cos 2t) sec
2
( 5 sin 2t)
Ex. 34 (a)
Function defined
on [1 , 1]
dx
d
(1 x) = (1x) (2x)
2 1/4 2 3/4
4
1
u =1 x
2
and n =1/4
=
derivative defined
only on (1 ,1)
4 / 3 2
) x 1 ( 2
x
(b)
1/5
x) (cos
dx
d
=
5 / 6
) x (cos
5
1

dx
d
(cos x)
=
5 / 6
) x (cos
5
1

( sin x) =
5
1
sin x (cos x)
6/5
13
(c) |
.
|

\
| x sin
e
dx
d
=
x sin
dx
d
e
x sin
=
x
dx
d
x cos e
x sin
=
x 2
1
x cos e
x sin
= x cos e
x 2
1
x sin
(d)
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
+ 5 x sin
2
=cos
5 x
2
+

dx
d
5 x
2
+
=

cos
5 x
2
+

5 x 2
1
2
+

dx
d
(x
2
+5)
=cos
5 x
2
+

x 2
5 x 2
1
2
+
=
5 x
x
2
+
cos
5 x
2
+
(e)
dx
d
sin 2x =cos 2x
dx
d
(2x) =cos 2x . 2 =2 cos 2x
(f)
dt
d
(A sin (et +|)
=A cos (et +|)
dt
d
(et +|) =A cos (et +|). e.
=A e cos (et +|)
RULE NO. 12 : POWER CHAIN RULE

If u(x) is a differentiable function and where n is a Real number , then u
n
is differentiable and
n
u
dx
d
=
dx
du
nu
1 n
,

n e R
Ex. 35 (a)
x sin
dx
d
5
=5 sin
4
x
dx
d
(sin x)
=5 sin
4
x cos x
(b)
dx
d
(2x +1)
3
= 3(2x +1)
4

dx
d
(2x +1)
= 3(2x +1)
4
(2) = 6 (2x +1)
4
(c)
dx
d
(5x
3
x
4
)
7
=7(5x
3
x
4
)
6

dx
d
(5x
3
x
4
)
=7(5x
3
x
4
)
6
(5 . 3x
2
4x
3
)
=7(5x
3
x
4
)
6
(15x
2
4x
3
)
(d)
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
2 x 3
1
=
dx
d
(3x 2)
1
= 1(3x 2)
2

dx
d
(3x 2) =1 (3x 2)
2
(3) =
2
) 2 x 3 (
3
In part (d) we could also have found the derivative with the Quotient Rule.
14
Ex. 36
dx
d
(Ax +B)
n
Sol. Here u =Ax +B ,
dx
du
=A A

dx
d
(Ax +B)
n
=n(Ax +B)
n1
. AA
RULE NO. 13 : RADIAN VS. DEGREES

dx
d
sin(x) =
dx
d
sin |
.
|

\
| t
180
x
=
180
t
cos
|
.
|

\
| t
180
x
=
180
t
cos(x) .
DOUBLE DIFFERENTIATION :
If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f is also a function, so f may have a derivative of its own, denoted
by (f ) =f . This new function f is called the second derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative
of f . Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y =f (x) as
2
2
dx
y d
dx
dy
dx
d
= |
.
|

\
|
Another notation is f (x) =D
2
f (x) =D
2
f(x)
INTERPRETATION OF DOUBLE DERIVATIVE
We can interpret f (x) as the slope of the curve y =f (x) at the point (x, f (x)). In other words, it is the rate of
change of the slope of the original curve y =f (x) .
In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of change of a rate of change. The most familiar
example of this is acceleration, which we define as follows.
If s =s(t) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, we known that its first derivative
represents the velocity v(t) of the object as a function of time :
v (t) =s (t) =
dt
ds
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration a(t) of the object.
Thus, the acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function and is therefore the second derivative of
the position function :
a (t) =v (t) =s (t) or in Leibniz notation, a =
dt
dv
=
2
2
dt
s d
Ex. 37 If f (x) =x cos x , find f (x).
Sol. Using the Product Rule, we have
f (x) =x
dx
d
(cos x) +cos x
dx
d
(x)
= x sin x +cos x
To find f (x) we differentiate f (x) :
f (x) =
dx
d
(x sin x +cos x)
= x
dx
d
(sin x) +sin x
dx
d
( x) +
dx
d
(cos x)
= x cos x sin x sin x = x cos x 2 sin x
15
Ex. 38 The position of a particle is given by the equation
s =f (t) =t
3
6t
2
+9t
where t is measured in seconds and s in meters.
Find the acceleration at time t. What is the acceleration after 4 s ?
Sol. The velocity function is the derivative of the position function :
s =f (t) =t
3
6t
2
+9t v(t) =
dt
ds
=3 t
2
12 t +9
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function :
a (t) =
2
2
dt
s d
=
dt
dv
=6t 12 a(4) =6(4) 12 =12 m/s
2
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES :
Di fferenti ati on as a rate of change
dx
dy
is rate of change of y with respect to x :
For examples :
(i) v =
dt
dx
this means velocity v is rate of change of displacement x with respect to time t
(ii) a =
dt
dv
this means acceleration a is rate of change of velocity v with respect to time t .
(iii) F =
dt
dp
this means force F is rate of change of momentum p with respect to time t .
(iv) t =
dt
dL
this means torque t is rate of change of angular momentum L with respect to time t
(v) Power =
dt
dW
this means power P is rate of change of work W with respect to time t
(vi) I =
dt
dq
this means current I is rate of flow of charge q with respect to time t
Ex 39. From the curve given in figure, find
dy
dx
at x =2, 6 and 10.
Sol. The tangent to the curve at x =2 is AC. Its slope is tan u
1
=
AB 5
BC 4
=
Thus,
dy 5
at x 2
dx 4
= =
The tangent to the curve at x =6 is parallel to the X - axis.
16
Thus,
dy
tan 0
dx
= u = at x =6.
The tangent to the curve at x =10 is DF. Its slope is
tanu
2
=
DE 5

EF 4
=
Thus,
dy 5

dx 4
=
at x =10
If we are given the graph of y versus x, we can find
dy
dx
at any point of the curve by drawing the tangent at that
point and finding its slope. Even if the graph is not drawn and the algebraic relation between y and x is given in
the form of an equation, we can find
dy
dx
algebraically. .
Ex. 40 Does the curve y =x
4
2x
2
+2 have any horizontal tangents ? If so, where ?
Sol. The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope dy/dx is zero. To find these points. We
Calculate dy/dx :
dx
dy
=
dx
d
(x
4
2x
2
+2) =4x
3
4x
and then solve the equation :
dx
dy
=0 for x : 4x
3
4x =0
4x(x
2
1) =0
x =0,1, 1
The curve y =x
4
2x
2
+2 has horizontal tangents at
x =0,1, and 1.
The corresponding points on the curve are
(0,2) (1,1) and ( 1,1).
See figure.
Ex. 41 The area A of a circle is related to its diameter by the equation A =
4
t
D
2
.
How fast is the area changing with respect to the diameter when the diameter is 10 m?
Sol. The (instantaneous) rate of change of the area with respect to the diameter is
dD
dA
= D 2
4
t
=
2
D t
When D =10 m, the area is changing at rate (t/2) 10 =5t m
2
/m. This means that a small change AD m in the
diameter would result in a change of about 5t AD m
2
in the area of the circle.
Ex. 42 The volume of a sphere is given by
3
R
3
4
V t =
where R is the radius of the sphere. (a) Find the rate of change of volume with respect to R. (b) Find the change
in volume of the sphere as the radius is increases from 20.0 cm to 20.1 cm. Assume that the rate does not
appreciably change between R =20.0 cm to R =20.1 cm.
Sol. V =
3
4
tR
3
or
dR
dV
=
3
4
t
dr
d
(R)
3
=
3
4
t. 3R
2
=4 tR
2
.
(b) At R =20 cm, the rate of change of volume with the radius is
dR
dV
=4tR
2
=4t (400 cm
2
)
17
=1600 t cm
2
.
The change in volume as the radius changes from 20.0 cmt o 20.1 cm is
AV =
R
dR
dV
A
=(1600 tcm
2
) (0.1 cm)
=160 t cm
3
.
Ex. 43 Changing voltage. The voltage V (volts), current I (amperes) and resistance R (ohms) of an electric circuit like
the one shown here are related by the equation V =IR. Suppose that V is increasing at the rate of 1 volt/sec
while I is decreasing at the rate of 1/3 amp/sec. Let t denote time in seconds.
(a) What is the value of dV/dT ?
(b) What is the value of dI/dt ?
(c) Find the rate at which R is changing when V =12 volts and I =2 amp. Is R increasing, or decreasing ?
Sol. V =IR (This is the function which shows the interdependence of variable V, I and R)
We have to find the relation between their respective rates of change
dV d dR
R
dt dt dt
I
= + I
dV
1volt/s
dt
=
( V is increasing therefore it is positive)
d 1
amp/s
dt 3
I
=
( I is decreasing therefore it is negative)
1 =
1 dR
R 2
3 dt
+
V 12
R R 6
2
| |
= = =
|
I \ .
1 =
1 dR
6 2
3 dt
+
3 =
dR
2
dt

3 dR
2 dt
=
(It is positive R is increasing at the rate of 3/2 ohm/s)
Ex. 44 Experimental and theoretical investigations revealed that the distance
a body released from rest falls in time t is proportional to the square
of the amount of time it has fallen. We express this by saying that
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
s (meters)
t =0
t (seconds)
t =2
t =3
A ball bearing falling from rest
s =
2
1
gt
2
,
where s is distance and g is the acceleration due to Earths
gravity. This equation holds in a vacuum, where there is no air resistance,
but it closely models the fall of dense, heavy objects in air. Figure shows the
free fall of a heavy ball bearing released from rest at time t =0 sec.
(a) How many meters does the ball fall in the first 2 sec?
(b) What is its velocity, speed, and acceleration then?
Sol. (a) The freefall equation is s =4.9 t
2
.
During the first 2 sec. the ball falls
s(2) =4.9(2)
2
=19.6 m,
18
(b) At any time t, velocity is derivative of displacement :
v(t) =s(t) =
dt
d
(4.9t
2
) =9.8 t.
At t =2, the velocity is v(2) =19.6 m/sec
in the downward (increasing s) direction. The speed at t =2 is
speed =|v(2)| =19.6 m/sec. a =
2
2
dt
s d
=9.8 m/s
2
Ex. 45 A body hanging from a spring (fig.) is stretched 5 units beyond its rest position and released at time t =0 to
oscillate up and down. Its position at any later time t is
s =5 cos t
What are its velocity and acceleration at time t ?
5
0
5 Position at
t =0
Rest position
Sol. We have
Position : s =5 cos t
Velocity : v =
dt
ds
=
dt
d
(5 cos t) =
dt
d
5
(cos t) = 5 sin t
Acceleration : a =
dt
dv
=
dt
d
( 5 sin t) =
dt
d
5 (sin t) = 5 cos t
Ex. 46 A hot air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a range finder 500 ft from the lift-off point. At the
moment the range finders elevation angle is t/4, the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14 rad/min. How fast is
the balloon rising at the moment ?
Sol. We answer the question in six steps.
u
Rangefinder
dy
dt
dt
y =?
500 feet
when = u
t
4
du
0.14 rad / min =
when = u
t
4
Ballon
Step 1 : Draw a picture and name the variables and constants (Figure ) . The variables in the picture are
u =the angle the range finder makes with the ground (radians)
y =the height of the balloon (feet).
We let t represent time and assume u and y to be differentiable functions of t.
The one constant in the picture is the distance from the range finder to the lift-off point (500 ft.) There is
no needto give it a special symbol s.
Step 2 : Write down the additional numerical information.
dt
du
=0.14 rad/min when u =t / 4
Step 3 : Write down what we are asked to find. We want dy/dt when u =t/4 .
Step 4 : Write an equation that relates the variables y and u.
500
y
=tan u , or y =500 tan u
19
Step 5 : Differentiate with respect to t using the Chain Rule. The result tells how dy/dt (which we want) is related
to du/dt (which we know).
dt
dy
=500 sec
2
u
dt
du
Step 6 : Evaluate with u =t/4 and du / dt =0.14 to find dy/dt.
dt
dy
=500
( )
2
2
(0.14) =(1000) (0.14) =140 (sec
4
t
=
2
)
At the moment in question, the balloon is rising at the rate of 140 ft./min.
Ex. 47 A police cruiser, approaching a right-angled intersection from the north, is chasing a speeding car that has
turned the corner and is now moving straight east. When the Cruiser is 0.6 mi north of the intersection and the
car is 0.8 mi to the east, the police determine with radar that the distance between them and the car is
increasing at 20 mph. If the cruiser is moving at 60 mph at the instant of measurement, what is the speed of the
car?
Sol. We carry out the steps of the basic strategy.
Situations when
x=0.8, y=0.6
ds
dt
=20
x
dx
dt
=?
dy
dt
=60
0
y
Step 1 : Picture and variables. We picture the car and cruiser in the coordinate plane, using the positive x-axis
as the eastbound highway and the positive y-axis as the northbound highway (Figure) . We let t represent
time and set x =position of car at time t.
y =position of cruiser at time t, s =distance between car and cruiser at time t.
We assume x, y and s to be differentiable functions of t.
x =0.8 mi, y =0.6 mi ,
dt
dy
= 60 mph ,
dt
ds
=20 mph
(dy/dt is negative because y is decreasing.)
Step 2 : To find :
dt
dx
Step 3 : How the variables are related : s
2
=x
2
+y
2
Pythagorean theorem
(The equation s =
2 2
y x + would also work.)
Step 4 : Differentiate with respect to t. 2s
dt
ds
=2x
dt
dx
+2y
dt
dy
Chain Rule
dt
ds
=
s
1
|
.
|

\
|
+
dt
dy
y
dt
dx
x
=
2 2
y x
1
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
dt
dy
y
dt
dx
x
Step 5 : Evaluate, with x =0.8 , y =0.6 , dy/dt = 60 , ds/dt =20 , and solve for dx/dt.
20
20 =
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
) 60 )( 6 . 0 (
dt
dx
8 . 0
) 6 . 0 ( ) 8 . 0 (
1
2 2
1
20 =0.8
dt
dx
36
dt
dx
=
8 . 0
36 20+
= 70
At the moment in question, the cars speed is 70 mph.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA :
Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown
x
1
x
2
x
y
in the figure. It becomes maximum at x
1
and minimum at x
2
. At these points
the tangent to the curve is parallel to the xaxis and hence its slope is tan u =0.
Thus, at a maximum or a minimum,
slope =
dx
dy
=0.
Maxima :
Def. : It is a point on the curve where the value of function is greater or
higher from the near by points.
J ust before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it is
zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus,
dx
dy
decreases
at a maximum and hence the rate of change of
dx
dy
is negative at a
maximum i.e.
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
dx
dy
<0 at
maximum.
The quantity
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
dx
dy
is the rate of change of the slope. It is written as
2
2
dx
y d
.
Mathematical Conditions for maxima are : (a)
dx
dy
=0 (b)
2
2
dx
y d
<0
Maximum value :
It exists either at one of the boundary point or one of the maxima of the function.
maxima
maximum value is at maxima

maximum value is at greatest of all the maxima
maximum value

maximum value
maximum value is at boundary point
21

Greatest of all the maxima : Global Maxima
MINIMA :
Def. : It is a point on the curve where the value of function is less from
the near by points.
Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive.
Hence with the increases of x. the slope is increasing that
means
the rate of change of slope with respect to x is positive
hence
dx
d
|
.
|

\
|
dx
dy
>0.
Mathematical Conditions for minima are: (a)
dx
dy
=0 (b)
2
2
dx
y d
>0
Note: Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the quantity
is a maximum or a minimum. The test on
2
2
dx
y d
may then be omitted.
Minimum value :
It exists either at one of the boundary point or one of the minima of the function.
minima
minimum value is at minima
minimum value
minimum value is at boundary point
Ex. 48 Smallest of all the minima : Global Minima
Prove that the product of two numbers will be maximum, if the sum of two numbers is constant and the numbers
are equal.
Sol. Let the two numbers be x and y
As given :- x +y =C .... (i)
xy = P .... (ii)
x (c x) x =P cx x
2
= P
22
dx
dp
=c 2x o
dx
dp
=
c 2x =0 x =
2
c
2
dx
p d
2
2
= (maxima)
Ex. 49 Particles position as a function of time is given as x =5t
2
9t +3. Find out the maximum value of position
co-ordinate? Also, plot the graph.
Sol. x =5t
2
9t +3
dt
dx
=10t 9 =0
t =9/10=0.9
Check, whether maxima or minima exists.
2
2
dt
x d
=10 >0
there exists a minima at t =0.9
Now, Check for the limiting values.
When t =0 ; x =3
t =

; x =

So, the maximum position co-ordinate does not exist.
Graph
Putting t =0.9 in the equation
x =5(0.9)
2
9(0.9) +3 =1.05
NOTE : If the coefficient of t
2
is positive, the curve will open upside.
Ex. 50 The speed of light depends on the medium through which it travels and tends to be slower in denser medium. In
a vacuum, it travels at the famous speed c =3 10
8
m/sec, but in the
earths atmosphere it travels slightly slower than that, and in glass
slower still (about two - thirds as fast). Fermats principle in optics
states that light always travels from one point to another along the
quickest route. This observation enables us to predict the path light
will take when it travels from a point in one medium
(air, say) to a point in another medium (say, glass or water).
Find the path that a ray of light will follow in going from a point A in a medium where the speed of light is c
1
across
a straight boundary to a point B in a medium where the speed of light is c
2
.
Sol. Since light traveling from A to B will do so by the quickest route, we look for a path that will minimize the travel
time.
We assume that A and B lie in the xy-plane and that the line separating the two media is the x-axis.
In a uniform medium, where the speed of light remains constant, shortest time means shortest path, and
the ray of light will follow a straight line. Hence the path from A to B will consist of a line segment from A to a
boundary point P, followed by another line segment from P to B. From the formula distance equals rate times
time, we have
time =
rate
ce tan dis
23
The time required for light to travel from A to P is therefore
t
1
=
1
2 2
1
c
x a
c
AP +
=
From P to B the time is
t
2
=
2
2 2
2
c
) x d ( b
c
PB +
=
The time from A to B is the sum of these :
t =t
1
+t
2
=
2 2 2 2
1 2
b (d x)
a x
c c
+
+
+
We want find the absolute minimum value of t
2 2
2
2 2
1
) x d ( b c
) x d (

x a c
x
dx
dt
+ +
=
(Sorry ! you will have to do differentiation your self by applying the chain rule)
to get the minimum t we have
dx
dt
=0
2 2 2 2
1 2
(d x) x
0
c a x c b (d x)
=
+ +
In terms of the angles u
1
and u
2
2
2
1
1
c
sin

c
sin
0
u u
=
or
2
2
1
1
c
sin
c
sin u
=
u
This equation is Snells law or the law of refraction. (I know you know it !)