13.

1 The Nature of Gases Kinetic Theory and a Model for Gases Kinetic Energy-the energy objects have because of its motion Kinetic theory-all matter consit of tiny particles that are in constant motion particles in gas usu. molec. or atoms The particles in a gas are considered to be small,hard spheres with and insignificant voolume. particles far apart in gas compare to liq. or sol. empty space btw particles of gas no attractive or repulsive force motion of one particle is independent to the other The motion of the particles in a gas is rapid,constant and random. result:gas fill up things regardles of shape or volume uncontained gas spreads w/o limit particles travel in a straight path until they collide with another particle or object direction is only changed when they rebound from collisions with other particles or an object speed of oxygen 1700 km/h path of uninterrupted travel in a straight line is very short random walk-aimless path the molecules take All collisions btw particles in a gas are perfectly elastic During elastic collision, kinetic energy is transferred w/o loss from one particle to another,and the total kinetic energy remains constant Gas Pressure results from the force exerted by a gas per unit suface area gas pressure is the result of simultaneous collisions of billions of rapidly moving particles ins a gas with an object no particles=no collsions=no pressure vacuum-an empty space with no particles and no pressure atmospheric pressure-the pressure exerted by atoms and molecules in the atmosphere surrounding Earth,resulting from collision of these particles with objects Atmospheric pressure decreases as you get higher in the sky bc the density of Earth decreases as elevation increases barometer-device used to messure atmospheric pressure Atomspher.pres depends on weather and altitude. Pacal-the SI unit of pressure standard atm is the pressure required to support 760 mm of Hg (mercury) in a mercury barometer at 25 C. 1 atm=760 mm HG=101.3 kPa

(know how each of these relate)

Kinetic Energy and Temperature When substance heated, its particles absorb energy,some is stored within the particles stored energy called potential energy does not raise temp of substance absorbed energy speeds up particles which means increasese kinetic enrgy increased kinetic energy comes from an increase in temperature

Average Kinetic Energy Most particles have kinetic energy along middle of range averge kinetic energy is used when talking abpout kinetic energy of a collection of particles substances regardless of physical state,have the same average kinetic energy most molecules have intermediat kinecti energy which are close to the average value. the higher the temperature the wider range of kinetic enrgy relationship[ betw the average kinetic enrgy of the particles in a substance and the substances temperature increase in average kinetic enrgy causes temp to rise as substance cools particles begin to move slower and kinectic energy declines Absolute zero (0 K or -273.15 C) is the temp at which motion of particles theoretically ceases no temp lower than absolute zero Absoulte zero never been produced in labs Average Kinetic Energy and Kelvin Temperature The Kelvin temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles the effects of temp on particles motion in liquids and solid are more complex than in gases 13.2 The Nature of Liquid A Model Of Liquids Kinectic theory says both particles in gases and in liquid have kinectic energy energy allows gas and liquids to flow past each other substance that can flow called liquids ability of gases and liquids to flow allows them to conform to the shape of their container no attraction btw particles in gas but there is an attraction btw the particles in liquids intermolecular attraction helps liquids have definite volume the interplay btw the disruptive motions of particles in a liquid and the attractions among the particles determine the physical properties of liquids intermolecular attractions reduce amount of space btw particles in liquid liquid is more dense than gases increased pressure on a liquid or solid has hardly affect on volume so they are known as condensed states of matter Evaporation vaporization-the conversion of a liqued to a gas or vapor evaporation-when this conversion occurs at the surface of a liquid that is not boiling Most molecules of liquid donot have enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces and escape into the gaseous state during evaporation,only those molecules wiht a certain minimum kinetic energy can escape from the surface of the liquid some particles that escape collide with air molecules and bounce back into the liquid heating liquid increases kinetic energy of particles which is what causes liquid to evaporate faster when heated

 in evaporation particles with highest kinetic energy escape first Vapor Pressure No particles can escape into the outside air from the closed container Vapor pressure is a measure of the force exerted by a gas above a liquid number of particles entering vapor increase and some of particles condense and return to the liquid state eventually number of particles condensing will equal number vaporizing in a system at a constant vapor pressure,a dynamic equilibrium because the rate of evaportation of liquid equals the rate of condensation of vapor (REMEMBER THE

WORD EQUILIBRIUM)
Vapor Pressure and Temperature Change An increase in the temperature of a contained liquid increases the vapor pressure particles warmed in liquid have increased kinetic energy which means they meet the minimum kinetic energy necessary to escape the surface of liquid Vapor Pressure Measurements vapor pressure of a liquid can be determined with a device called a manometer when there is air in the container the pressure is the same on both sides of the tube and the mercury level is the same in each arm of the tube when liquid is added ,the vapor pressure increases due to vapor pressure of the liquid vapor pressure pushes the mercury on the container side of the U tube Vapor pressure can be determine in mm of Hg by measuring the difference btw the two levels of mercury As the vapor increases, so does the difference btw the two levels Boiling Point When a liquid is heated to a temp at which particles throughout the liquid have enough kinetic enrgy to vaporize,the liquid begins to boil boiling point-the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is just equal to the external pressure of the liquid is boiling point Boiling Point and Pressure Changes bc liquids boil when the its vapor pressure is equal to the external pressure,liquids do not always boil at the same temp atmospheric pressure is lower at higher altitudes,boiling points decrease at higher altitudes.at lower external pressure,the boiling point decreases.The particles in the liquid need less kinectic energy to escape from liquid at higher external pressure the boiling point increases.particles in liquid need more kinectic energy to escape from liquid temperature of boiling liquid never rises above its boiling point If heating at a greater rate the liquid only boils faster Vapor produced is the same temp as boiling liquid potential is much higher than kinectic energy whne boiling Burn from steam worst (REMEMBER STEAM HAS THE MOST KINETIC ENERGY) Normal Boiling Point normal boiling point is defined as the boiling point of a liquid at a pressure of 101.3 kPa The Nature of Solids

A Model for Solids The general properties of solids reflect the orderly arrangement of their particles and the fixed location of their particles Because the particles in solids tend to vibrate about fixed points,solids do not flow atoms,ions,or molecules packed tight when solid is heated, its particles vibrate quicker as their kinetic energy increases.organization within solid breaks which causes solid to melt melting point is the temp at which a solid changes into a liquid melting and freezing points of a substance are at the same tmep at that temp needed for it to melt the liquid and solid phases are in equilibrium

(remember equilibrium_
Crystal Structures and Unit Cells crystal-the particless are arranged in an orderly,repeating,three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice the shape of a crystal reflects the arrangement of the particles within the solid type of bonding within particles in crystals determine melting point ionic solids have higher melting points than molecular solids not all solids melt.Wood and cane sugar decompose when heated Crystal systems crystal hax sides or faces. angles at which the faces of a crystal intersect are always the same for a given substance and are characteristic of that substance. crystals are classified into seven crystal systems edges are labeled a,b,and c. angeles are alabeled a,B,and y. shape of a crystal deppends on the arrangement of particles within it unit cell-the smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the geometric shape of the crystal four types of unit cells that can be associated with each crystal system Allotropes Allotropes are two or more different molecular forms of the same element in the same physical state Diamond,graphite,and buckyballs are allotropes of carbon Although allotropes are composed of atoms of the same element,they have different properties because their structures are different Non-Crysalline Solids Amoriphous solid-lacks an ordered internal structure rubber,plastic,asphalt and glass are amorphous solids glass is a transparent fusion product of inorganic substances that have cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing glass sometimes called supercooled liquieds internal structure of glass is intermediate btw crystalline solid and those of free-flowing liquid glass doesnt melt at definite temperature

when crystalline solid is shatter the fragment have same surface angles as the original solid when an amorphous solid shatter the fragments have irregular angles and jagged edges 13.4 Changes of State Sublimation sublimation-the change of a substance from a solid to a vapor w/o passing through the liquid state sublimation occurs in solids with vapor pressures that exceed atmospheric pressure at or near room temperature sublimation is useful in separating substances Phase Diagram phase diagram-relationship among the solid,liquid and vapor states of a substance ina sealed container can be represented in a single graph the conditions of pressure and temperature at which two phases exist in equilibrium are are indicated on a phase diagram with a lline separating the phases triple point-the only set of conditions at which all three phases can exist in equilibrium decrease pressure lowers the boiling point and raises melting point increase in pressure will raise boiling point and lower melting point Below the triple point,vapor and liquid can not exist in equilibrium 14.1 Properties of Gases Compressibility compressibility is a measure of how much the volume of matter decreases under presure Gases are easily compressed because of the space btw the particles in a gas

(REMEMBER)
under pressure,the particles in a gas are forced closer together or compressed Factors Affecting Gas Pressure the amount of gas,volume and temp are factors that Effect gas pressure Amount of Gas gases respond to change of conditions adding gas increases the number of particles which increases the number of collison which makes gas pressure increase because the container is rigid the volume of gas is constant one pressure exceed the strength of contain then it will burst. removing gas from container,pressure inside the container is reduced. Aerosol cans depend on the movement of a gas from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature gas is stored at a high temperature.gas flows through the opening to the lower pressure region outside-diffusion as gas depletes the pressure inside the can decreases until the gas can no longer propel pain from the can. Volume You can raise the pressure exerted by a contained gas by reducing its volume

 more gas compressed=greater pressure exerted in container when volume increased the pressure is cut in half Temperature as a gas is heated the temperature increases and the average kinetic energy of the particles in the gas increase volume of container and amount of gas is constant when kelvin temp of enclosed gas doubles the pressure of the enclosed gas double if temp of enclosed gas decreases the pressure decreases as well 14.2 The Gas Laws Boyles Law:Pressure and Volume if the temperature is constant,as the pressure of a gase increased the volume decreases Boyles law-states that for a given mass of gass at constant temp,the volume of the gas varies inversely boyles discuses pressure and volume Boyles= p1 X v1=p2 X v2

know equation and what boyles law

is

THIS PICTURE IS THE UNIVERSAL GAS LAW.REMEMBER THIS SO YOU WONT HAVE TO MEMORIZE EACH ONE.
Charles Law:Temperature and Volume As the temp of an enclosed gas increases the volume increases,if the presssure is constant Charles law-volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temp if pressure is kept constant Charles=volume and temP V1/T1=V2/T2

know equation and what boyles law is

(the problems are going to orginally be in celius,dont forget to change them to kelvin)
Rember when dealing with temp express in kelvin c+273=K

ALSO DO THE PRACTICE PROBLEMS IN THIS SECTION AND LOOK THE ANSWERS UP ONLINE BECAUSE IT HELPS
Gay-Lussacs Law:Pressure and Temperature

As the temp of an enclosed gas increasses pressure increases,if the volume is constant Gay-Lussacs law- pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temp if the volumeremaines constant Charles law= presure and tem p1/T1= p2/t2 can be applied to reduce time it takes to heat food

UNIVERSAL GAS LAW The Combined Gas Law combined gas law-describes the relationship among pressure,temp,and volume the combined gas law allows you to do calculations for situations in which only the amount of gas is constant Ideal Gas Law combined gas law cannot be used to calculate moles of a gas to calculate the number of moles of a contained gas requires an expression that contains the variable n PV=nRT iDEAL GAS CONSTANT IS R

REMEMBER R IS ALWAYS EQUAL TO 8.31 (L x kPa/K x mol).You will see this no the test
R=8.31 (L x kPa/K x mol) gAS LAW PV = n RT

Ideal Gases and Real Gases Real gases differ most from an ideal gas at low temps and high pressures no gas where the ideal gas assumptions are true ideal gas particles could have no volume,and no attraction between particles ideal gas does not exist particles in a real gas do have volume,and there are attractions btw the particles in a graph ideal gas would be constant real gas would dip down and then go diagonal 14.4 Gases:Mixtures and Movements Daltons Law partial pressure=the contribution each gas in a mixture makes to the totale pressure in a mixture of gases , the total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of the gasses Ptotal=P1+P2+P3 Gotta

know ALL of the law definitions

Daltons law of partial pressures-state that at constant volume and temperature,the total pressure exxerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the component gases If the percent composition of a mixture of gases does not change,the fraction of the pressurre exterted by a gas does not change as the total pressure changes. Grahams Law Diffusion-is the tendency of molecules to move toward areas of lower concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout Effusion-a gas escapes through a tiny hole in its container Gases of lower molar mass diffuse and effuse faster than gases of higher molar mass Thomas Grahams Contribution Grahams law of effusion-states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the gases molar mass.this law can also be applied to diffusion rate (square root over molar mass) KE-1/5mv(Squared) Comparing Effusion Rates grams law writen for two gases

15.1 Water and Its Properties Water in The Liquid State Many unique and important properties of water =including its high surface tension and low vapor pressure-result from hydrogen bonding YOU

WILL HAVE A SHORT ANSWER ON THE PROPERTIES OF WATER SO KNOW THIS

Surface Tension The inward force,or pull, that tends to minimize the surface area of a liquid skinlike property of waters surface explained by waters ability to form hydrogen bonds liquid moleculs form hydrogen bonds that are balanced. this balance is not on the surface water surface tension higher than most liquids possible to decrease surface tension by adding surfactant surfactant-any substance that interferes with hydrogen bonding btw water molecules and thereby reduces surface tension soap and detergent are surfactants Vapor Pressure Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also explains waters unusually low vapor pressure vapor pressure is result of molecules escaping from the surface of the liquid and entering vapor phase tendency of molecules escaping is low and evaporation is slow

Water In The Solid State Ice floats in gas because solid water has a lowere density structure of ice is a regular open framework of water mollecules arranged like a honey comb