6.

2 Aircraft Materials - Non Ferrous

Introduction
Much of the metal used on todays aircraft contains no iron. The term that describes metals which have elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous. Figure 1: Usage of Non Ferrous Metals

Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnesium are some of the more common nonferrous metals used in aircraft construction and repair. For more information see Sub Module 6.1 in Title "Aircraft Materials - Introduction" on page 2.

Non Ferrous Metal Standards

There are different standards, used for civil aviation non ferrous clasification. The most applied ones are listed below: AAA (American Aluminium Association) AMS (Aerospace Material Specification) This standard does not give information about material components. Because it includes many different material it is often used as a material ordering system BS (British Standard) AFNOR-Air ("Association Francaise de Normalisation") BMS (Boeing Material Specification)

AAA Standard
Figure 2: AAA Notation 1. Main alloy element: 1 = aluminium (Al) 99% 2 = copper (Cu) 3 = mangan (Mn) 4 = silicon (Si) 5 = magnesium (Mg) 6 = Mg + Si 7 = zinc (Zn) 8 = special alloy 2. Indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates the original alloy; digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, indicate alloy modifications. The last two digits have no special significance, they are ordering numbers. For casting alloys, the fourth digit is separated from the first three digits by a decimal point, and indicates the form, that is to say casting or ingot. Temper designation (see Title Aluminum Alloy Temper Designations on page 14)

2024 - T3
1 2 3 4

3.

4.

Aluminium
The Raw Material
Aluminium is the earth's most abundant metallic element, making up approximately eight per cent of the planets crust. While aluminium never occurs in its pure form in nature, it is commonly found in the form of oxides. The most commercially viable source of aluminium is bauxite, which is predominantly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Bauxite can be found as a fine powder, granules or rocks and can be pink, cream, red, brown, yellow or grey in colour, depending on the composition of the bauxite. While the ore is generally easy to mine, the process to extract the aluminium from the bauxite is quite complex. The process of making metallic aluminium is carried out in two successive stages: a chemical process to extract alumina or anydrous aluminium oxide from the bauxite, and an electrolytic process to reduce the alumina to aluminium. Four to five tonnes of bauxite are required to produce approximately two tonnes of alumina, which returns one tonne of aluminium.

Aluminium Alloys
Pure cast aluminium (99.0%) is unsuitable for aircraft structures because it is to soft. However, because of its light weight (one-third the weight of steel), it is, when alloyed with other metals or elements, an ideal structural material. Alloyed aluminium is produced in cast or wrought form. Cast aluminium has a grain structure that is very coarse; thus the metal is brittle. Cast aluminium is used in the construction of aircraft wheel castings, engine crankcases,accessory gearboxes, etc. When aluminium is wrought, its grain structure is compressed and tightened as it is forced into shapes of plates, rods, extrusions, or skins. Wrought aluminium used extensively in aircraft construction, is either non-heat-treated or heat-treated. Most structural aircraft parts are made of heat-treated aluminium alloys.

Experimental Alloys
Experimental alloys are designated according to the four-digit system, but they are prefixed by the letter X. The prefix is dropped when the alloy becomes standard.

1xxx Pure Aluminium

In this group, minimum aluminium content is 99%, and there is no major alloying element. The second digit indicates modifications in impurity limits. If the second digit is zero, there is no special control on individual impurities. Digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively as needed, indicate special control of one or more individual impurities. The last two digits indicate specific minimum aluminium content. Although the absolute minimum aluminium content in this group is 99%, the minimum for certain grades is higher than 99%, and the last two digits represent the hundredths of a per cent over 99. Thus, 1030 would indicate 99.30% minimum aluminium, without special control on individual impurities. The designations 1130, 1230, 1330, etc., indicate the same purity with special control on one or more impurities. Likewise, 1100 indicates minimum aluminium content of 99.00% with individual impurity control.

Properties of Aluminium
Aluminium is three times lighter than steel, but when alloyed, can attain steel's high strength characteristics. It is also corrosion resistant, making it hygienic and long lasting. Pure aluminium melts at 660C. One kg of aluminium has more than twice the electrical conductivity of an equal weight of copper. Polished aluminium is highly reflective and is utilised for light and heat reflectors. Since the chemical composition of aluminium remains unchanged during re-melting, it is easily and efficiently recycled. Re-melting of aluminium scrap requires only five per cent of the energy needed to produce primary aluminium.

Advantages Compared With Mild Steel

Low density; High strength-to-weight ratio; Good corrosion resistance; Ease of fabrication and diversity of form.

2xxx Copper (Cu)

When copper is mixed with aluminium, the aluminium becomes more malleable and ductile. Pure aluminium is also malleable and ductile, but the addition of copper enhances these physical properties. The copper also acts to prevent stress cracks from forming while the metal is worked and makes some alloys, like 2024-T3, shock resist-

ant. Copper, which melts at 1083C, is one of the most ductile of all the metals. It can, however, be made harder by cold working.

2011 Aluminium
This is the most free-machining of the common aluminium alloys. It also has excellent mechanical properties. Thus, it is widely used for automatic screw machine products in parts requiring extensive machining. It may be machined at high speeds with relatively heavy feeds. It may be resistance welded. Its corrosion resistance is good, and hardness and strength excellent.

3xxx Manganese (Mn)

Manganese is a grey-white, brittle metal witch melts at 1245C. When manganese is mixed with aluminium, it provides a surface highly resistant to wear and corrosion.

4xxx Silicon (Si)

Silicon, which melts at 1392C, is not metallic, it has properties which, in alloy, makes aluminium harder but not brittle.

2017 Aluminium
2017 combines excellent machineability and high strength with the result that is one of the most widely used alloys for automatic screw machine work. Its strength is slightly less than that of 2014. It is a tough, ductile alloy suitable for heavy-duty structural parts. It has good formability, and may be joined by arc or resistance welding. Brazing or gas welding is not recommended. Its corrosion resistance is fair.

5xxx Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium weighs 2/3 as much as aluminium. It is strong enough to use structurally only when it is alloyed with aluminium, zinc, or manganese. Also, because magnesium is very corrosive and burns easily-especially in ribbon or powder form it is seldom used in sheet form. However, the aluminium magnesium 5056 rivet is commonly used to hold the skin onto magnesium control surfaces. Magnesium melts at 650C.

2024 Aluminium
This is one of the best known high strength aluminium alloys. With its high strength and fatigue resistance, it is used on structures and parts where a good strengthto-weight ratio is desired. It is readily machined to a high finish. 2024 in the annealed condition is easily formed and may be subsequently heat-treated. Arc or gas welding is generally not recommended, although this alloy may be spot, seam or flash welded. Since corrosion resistance is relatively low, 2024 is commonly used with an anodised finish or in clad form (Alclad).

7xxx Zinc (Zn)

When zinc is mixed with aluminium, the resulting alloy is stiffer and more brittle than pure aluminium. Zinc (a bluish white, lustrous metal) is brittle at room temperature but malleable when heated. Zinc melts at 418C

Application of Aluminium Alloys

1100 Aluminium
This grade is commercially pure aluminium. It is soft and ductile and has excellent workability. It is ideal for applications involving intricate forming because it work hardens more slowly than other alloys. It is the most weldable of aluminium alloys, by any method. It is non heat treatable. It has excellent resistance to corrosion, and is widely used in the chemical and food processing industries. It responds well to decorative finishes, which makes it suitable for giftware and applications where eye appeal is a factor. It has the highest thermal conductivity of any aluminium alloy, and its electrical conductivity is second only to the EC (electrical conductor) grade.

3003 Aluminium
This is the most widely used of aluminium alloys. It is essentially commercially pure aluminium with the addition of manganese, which increases the strength some 20% over 1100. Thus, it has all the excellent characteristics of 1100 with higher strength. It has excellent corrosion resistance and workability, and it may be deep drawn or spun, welded, or brazed. This alloy is non-heat treatable.

5052 Aluminium
This is the highest strength alloy of the more common non heat treatable grades. Fatigue strength is higher than most aluminium alloys. In addition, this grade has particularly good resistance to marine atmosphere and salt water corrosion.

It has excellent workability. It may be drawn or formed into intricate shapes, and its slightly greater strength in the annealed condition minimises tearing that occurs in 1100 or 3003. The resistance welding characteristics are equal to those of 1100 and 3003. It has excellent finishing characteristics, and anodic coatings are bright and clear.

Table 1: Usage of Listed Aluminium Alloys AA Designation 1100 2017 2024 3003 5052 6061 6063 7075 Usage Low pressure pipes and rivets of secondary structure Most used rivet alloy Ribs, stringers, frames, skin (ALC version) Secondary structure (access panels, fairings, etc) Honeycomb, secondary structure corrosion exposed welded parts Interior trim parts, galleys Spars, beams, skin (ALC version)

6061 Aluminium
This is the most versatile of the heat treatable aluminium alloys. It has most of the good qualities of aluminium, and it offers a wide range of mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. It can be fabricated by many of the commonly used techniques. In the annealed condition it has good formability. In the T4 condition fairly severe forming operations may be accomplished. The T6 properties may be obtained by artificial ageing. It is welded by all methods and it can be furnace brazed. It is available in the clad form (Alclad) with a thin surface layer of high purity aluminium to improve both appearance and corrosion resistance.

6063 Aluminium
This grade is commonly referred to as the architectural alloy. It was developed as an extrusion alloy with relatively high tensile properties, excellent finishing characteristics and a high degree of resistance to corrosion. 6063 alloy is most often found in various interior and exterior architectural applications, such as windows, doors, store fronts and assorted trim items. It is the alloy best suited for anodising applications either plain or in a variety of colours.

7075 Aluminium
This is the highest strength aluminium alloy available. Its strength-to-weight ratio is excellent, and it is ideally used for highly stressed parts. It may be formed in the annealed condition and subsequently heat-treated. Spot or flash welding can be used, although arc and gas welding are not recommended. It is available in the clad (Alclad) form to improve the corrosion resistance with the over-all high strength moderately affected.

Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

Several aluminium alloys as for example 2024 and 7075 are very susceptible to corrosion. Sheets of such material are clad with a thin layer of pure aluminium with 1 % zinc on both sides as a mean of corrosion protection. Figure 3: Cladding of Aluminium Alloys

These layers are permanently welded to the base material in a rolling process at high temperature. Other than electroplated stock, clad material can be formed. The thickness of the clad layers is about 3 or 5% of the material thickness. An ink print on US sheet metal that reads Alclad, Clad or Alc indicates that such sheet is clad.

Magnesium
Magnesium alloys are used frequently in structures in cast, forged, and sheet form. The greatest advantage of magnesium is that it is one of the lightest metals for its strength. The disadvantages in the use of magnesium sheet are that it is more subject to corrosion than many metals, it is not easily worked at room temperatures, and if it becomes ignited, it is extremely difficult to extinguish. When magnesium is used in an airplane structure, it can often be recognised by the fact that it has a yellowish surface due to the chromate treatment used to prevent corrosion and furnish a suitable paint base. When technicians encounter magnesium in an aircraft, they must know that it cannot be cut easily but is likely to tear, it cannot be bent or otherwise worked under normal temperatures, it is subject to corrosion and therefore should be treated with the proper coating, and it presents a certain degree of fire hazard. When standard parts are made of magnesium, this fact will usually be stated in the manufactures overhaul and service manuals. Also in the manuals will be directions for proper treatment of such parts. Because of magnesium's tendency to corrode easily, the technician has to be sure that the correct hardware items, such as the correct rivets, bolts and screws, are used with any magnesium parts; for example, rivets used with magnesium should be made of 5056-H aluminium alloy. Any metal part used with magnesium should be of a compatible metal or there should be no metal-to-metal contact.

Titanium
Titanium is a metal that has been developed within the past fifty years into an important aircraft structural material. It is lightweight and corrosion resistant, and has high structural strength which it retains to a high temperature. It is used in turbine engines, and for aircraft skins in areas where the temperature is high. Titanium may be worked by methods similar to those used with stainless steel, but it requires some special techniques, and the tools used must be kept very sharp. It may be welded, but because it reacts with oxygen at high temperatures, it must be protected from the air with a blanket of helium or argon gas. For this reason, inert-gas arc welding is used. The use of Titanium as a structural material has become prevalent only during the past three decades. Before then, the methods for refining and working titanium has not been developed to an extent that would make the use of the metal economically feasible. Titanium and its alloys are used widely in the aerospace industry because of its high strength, light weight, temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance. The weight of titanium is approximately 56% of the weight of steel, but its strength is equal to that of steel. The strength of titanium is maintained to temperatures of more than 427C (800F); hence it is useful in the cooler sections of gas-turbine engines, for cowling and baffling around engines, and for the skin parts of aircraft which may be subjected to elevated temperatures that would be damaging to aluminium alloys. Supersonic transport airplanes utilise titanium extensively for the skin because of the atmospheric heating which occurs at high supersonic speeds. Titanium is also used for the manufacture of supersonic military aircraft. It also has excellent resistance to oxidising acids such as nitric or chromic acids. Strong reducing acids, however, will attack titanium. The resistance of titanium to corrosion by natural environmental substances is unequalled by other structural metals. It is completely inert when exposed to stagnant water, urban atmosphere, marine atmosphere, saltwater spray, and seawater. Titanium has excellent properties in the pure form and also with the addition of various alloying elements. The pure form may have small amounts of carbon and nitrogen with maximums of 0.10 and 0.05 percent, respectively. These maximums are also a requirement for alloyed types. Aluminium in amounts of 3 to 7 percent is commonly used as an alloying element. Other alloying elements include molybdenum, tin, iron, chromium, and vanadium.

Alloying and heat treating have made it possible to develop titanium products with more than 1241N/mm2 (180,000psi) tensile strength. Two of the titanium alloys are Ti -6Al -4V and Ti -8Al -1Mo-1V. The latter of these, also called 811, is employed to a large extent on supersonic aircraft. This alloy was chosen because of its high creep resistance at high temperatures and its stiffness. Because of these qualities, it is more difficult to work than many of the other titanium alloys; however, its strength qualities outweigh the disadvantages of its workability. Extensive research has been carried out to discover the best methods for cutting, forming, and drilling the material, and it is now reasonably economical for the manufacturing of aircraft parts. Titanium has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion; much lower than that of other structural metals such as Monel Metal or stainless steel. The thermal conductivity is approximately the same as that of stainless steel. The low thermal-expansion coefficient simplifies the design of complex structures made with titanium because it is unnecessary to make such large allowances for expansion as those required for the metals with high expansion coefficients. Titanium is used extensively in both military and commercial aircraft and in missiles because of its high strength to weight ratio, its freedom from stress corrosion and cracking, its ability to withstand high operating stress, and its high-temperature resistance. It is used for major aircraft structures, engines, and numerous small parts and components. Two precautions must be observed while working with titanium. Both of these are necessary because of the strong affinity which titanium has for oxygen and other elements at high temperatures. At about 1065C (1.950F), titanium will ignite in the presence of oxygen and burn with an incandescent flame. Its affinity for nitrogen is even more pronounced, because it will ignite at about 815C (1500F) with nitrogen. When titanium is being cut or ground in any appreciable quantity, it is necessary to have fire-extinguishing equipment immediately available The hot sparks from a grinding wheel can ignite an accumulation of titanium dust and chips to produce and extremely hot fire. It is recommended that liquid coolants of the proper type be used during grinding to avoid the possibility of such a fire.

General Characteristics of Titanium Influencing its Machining

Titanium requires low shearing forces, demonstrates a complete absence of builtup edge, and is not notch sensitive. Because of these properties, it can be easily machined to extremely low microinch RMS surface finishes.

Yet, titanium is sometimes classified as difficult to machine. In part, this can be explained by the physical properties of titanium metal: Titanium is a poor conductor of heat. Heat, generated by the cutting action, does not dissipate quickly. Therefore, most of the heat is concentrated on the cutting edge and the tool face. Titanium has a strong alloying tendency or chemical reactivity with materials in the cutting tools at tool operating temperatures. This causes galling, welding and smearing and rapid destruction of the cutting tool. Titanium has a relatively low modulus. Work will have a tendency to move away from the cutting tool, unless heavy cuts are maintained or proper backup is employed.

Special Alloys
The selection of material to be used at high working temperatures is reduced to a small amount of very special alloys. The heat resistant alloys are of presipitation hardening kind (see Title Precipitation Heat Treatment on page 14) . The most used super alloys are: Nickel base alloys (inconel) Cobalt base alloys Nickel alloys have a very strong lattice binding force wich gives a very high resistance to deformation. This resistance grows with increasing temperature, propertie wich makes such super alloys heat recistant. An unwanted property also grows with the resistance increasement, it is brittleness. To compensate this, small amount of bor (B) is aded to the alloy. Figure 4: Heat Resistance of different Metal Alloys Table 2: Super Alloys Alloy Name Stellite 31 (AMS 5382) X-40 (AMS 5772) Inconel 600 (AMS 5540) Inconel 625 (AMS 5599) Inconel718 (AMS 5597) Incoloy 901 (AMS5660) Waspaloy (AMS 5709) Nimonic 90 (AMS 5829) Composition 54%Co, 25.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 5.1%Cb+Ta, 0.9%Ti, 0.6%Al 40%Co, 22%Cr, 22%Ni, 14.5%W, 0.07%La 74%Ni, 15.5%Cr, 8%Fe 62%Ni, 21.5%Cr, 9%Mo, 3.7%Cb+Ta 42.5%Ni, 19%Cr, 9%Mo, 5%Cb+Ta, 0.9%Ti, 18%Fe, 0,5%Al 42.5%Ni, 12.5%Cr, 6%Mo, 2.7%Ti, 34%Fe 58%Ni, 19.5%Cr, 3%Ti, 13.5%Co, 4.3%Mo, 1.4%Al NiCr20Co18Ti Application Turbine Turbine vanes Turbine Engine Exhaust Engine: axle, compressor, case Turbine cases, turbine discs Compressor disks, turbine disks Compressor and Turbine: disks, vanes, disks

Monel Metal
Monel contains min 63% Ni and 27-32% Cu, along with small amounts of iron and manganese. It can be welded and has very good machining characteristics. Certain types of monel, especially those containing small percentages of aluminum, are heat-treatable to tensile strengths equivalent to steel. Monel works well in gears and parts that require high strength and toughness, as well as for parts in exhaust systems that require high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. The value of Monel lies principally in its strength and corrosion resistance. Monel is nonmagnetic in all conditions. It is easily worked in a manner similar to steel and has comparable strength. K-Monel includes a small amount of aluminium (2-4%, max 2% Fe and 0,3-1% Ti) and is heat-treatable to develop maximum strength. It is particularly useful in manufacturing durable parts that are or may be subjected to corrosive conditions.

Non Ferrous Metal Heat Treatment

Heat treatment of aluminium, magnesium, and titanium alloys differs in some ways from heat treatment of ferrous metals.

The quenching must occur rapidly. After quenching the material initially is soft and ductile. Because in the soft condition the material has only little strength, parts may be installed into the aircraft structure only after they have reached sufficient strength. Depending on the type of alloy the age hardening process takes place at room temperature (20C) or at an elevated temperature (120 to 200C). The period of age hardening is called precipitation heat treatment.

Aluminium and Magnesium Alloys

Several of the aluminium and magnesium alloys may be hardened by solution heat treatment. Unlike ferrous metals, these alloys are not hard when they are first removed from the quenching medium, rather they gain their full strength and hardness by natural aging over a period of a few days. To further strengthen these alloys, they may be artificially aged by a process called precipitation heat treatment.

Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys

The strength of certain aluminium alloys can be increased by a process of heat treatment. The increase in strength is possible because certain chemical elements that were added in the alloying process are more soluble within the aluminium grain at higher temperatures than at room temperature. Such alloy elements are copper, zinc and silicon.

Heat Treatment of Aluminium Alloys

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose. By heat treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact. Heat treating can also make a metal softer and more ductile. However, one heat-treating operation cannot produce all these characteristics. In fact, some properties are often improved at the expense of others. In being hardened, for example, a metal may become brittle. All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling of metals. They differ, however, in the temperatures to which the metal is heated and the rate at which it is cooled. There are two types of heat treatments used on aluminum alloys. One is called solution heat treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat treatment. Some alloys, such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution heat treatment followed by about 4 days of cooling, or aging, at room temperature. However, other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat treatments. Note: All heat treatment of aircraft parts has to be done in accordance with the aircraft manufacture material processing specification. The hardening takes place in three steps: 1. 2. 3. Solution heat treatment. Quenching. Age hardening at: room temperature (natural aging) elevated temperature (artificial aging).

Non Heat Hardenable Aluminium Alloys

This kind aluminium alloys are hardened by alloying and strain hardening. The terms Cold Worked, Work Hardened and Strain Hardened refer to hardening processes such as rolling, drawing, bending or pressing. The following kind of alloys are not heat hardenable: AlSi, AlMn, AlMg, AlMgMn.

Aluminum Alloy Temper Designations

The temper, or condition of hardness, of an aluminum alloy is indicated by a letter that follows the alloy designation, as we see bellow. F T The metal is left as fabricated. There has been no control over its temper. The metal is heat treated. T3 Solution heat treatment, followed by strain hardening. A second digit, if used, indicates the amount of strain hardening. T4 Solution heat treatment, followed by natural ageing at room temperature. T6 Solution heat treatment, followed by artificial ageing (precipitation heat treated). T7 Solution heat treatment, followed by stabilization. T8 Solution heat treatment, followed by strain hardening and then artificial aging. T9 Solution heat treatment, followed by artificial ageing and then strain hardening. The metal cannot be heat treated, but can be hardened by cold working. H1 Strain hardened by cold working. H12 Strain hardened to its 1/4 hard condition. H14 Strain hardened to its 1/2 hard condition. H16 Strain hardened to its 3/4 hard condition. H18 Strain hardened to its full hard condition. H19 Strain hardened to its extra hard condition. H2 Strain hardened by cold working and then partially annealed. H3 Strain hardened and stabilized. H36 Strain hardened and stabilized to its 3/4 hard condition. The metal has been annealed.

about plus or minus 6.2C (10F) of this temperature and the base metal is soaked until the alloying element is uniform throughout. Once the metal has sufficiently soaked, it is removed from the furnace and cooled or quenched. It is extremely important that no more than about ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy from the furnace and the quench. The reason for this is that when metal leaves the furnace and starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to precipitate out of the base metal. If this process is not stopped, large grains of alloy become suspended in the aluminum and weaken the alloy. Excessive precipitation also increases the likelihood of intergranular corrosion. To help minimize the amount of alloying element that precipitates out of a base metal, a quenching medium is selected to ensure the proper cooling rate. For example, a water spray or bath provides the appropriate cooling rate for aluminum alloys. However, large forgings are typically quenched in hot water to minimize thermal shock that could cause cracking. Thin sheet metal normally warps and distorts when it is quenched, so it must be straightened immediately after it is removed from the quench. After the quench, all metals must be rinsed thoroughly since the salt residue from the sodium or potassium nitrate bath can lead to corrosion if left on the alloy.

Precipitation Heat Treatment

Heat-treatable aluminum alloys are comparativeIy soft when first removed from a quench. With time, however, the metal becomes hard and gains strength. When an alloy is allowed to cool at room temperature, it is referred to as natural ageing and can take several hours or several weeks. For example, the ageing process can be slowed by string the metal at sub-freezing temperatures immediatly after quench. This strengthening process may be speeded up and increased by returning the metal to the oven and heating it to a temperature much lower than that used for solution heat treatment. It is held at this temperature for up to 24 hours and then removed from the oven and allowed to cool in still air. This precipitation hardening, or artificial ageing, greatly increases the strength and hardness of the metal, but it decreases the ductility; the metal becomes more difficult to bend and form. This procedure has no effect, however, on its corrosion resistance.

One of the most popular alloys used in aircraft construction is 2024-T3. This particular alloy has been solution heat treated and strain hardened by passing it through rollers in the process of its fabrication.

Solution Heat Treatment

The process of heating certain aluminum alloys to allow the alloying element to mix with the base metal is called solution heat treating. In this procedure, metal is heated in either a molten sodium or potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air furnace to a temperature just below its melting point. The temperature is then held to within

Figure 5: Natural and Artificial Ageing

Aluminium alloys containing zinc, magnesium, silicon, or copper are given a precipitation heat treatment after natural heat treatment is completed. For example, the alloy 7075 is given a normal heat treatment at 495 C and quenched in cold water. After it is precipitation heat treated at 120 C for 24 hours, it becomes 7075T6. Alloys are precipitation heat treated by heating them in an oven; time and temperatures vary. Metals which are given precipitation heat treatment usually lose some malleability and ductility, and their mechanical properties are so changed as to reduce their ability to be reshaped cold without cracking. The most commonly used precipitation heat treated alloys are those containing zinc. The alloy 7075-T6 has high impact resistance and therefore is used where great strength is required. The 7079-T6 aluminium alloys are excellent for making forgings for heavy channels that carry landing gears or flaps of large aircraft. The alloy 7178 is used where compression loads are the greatest, for example in the structure of wide-body jets.

Annealing
Annealing is a process that softens a metal and decreases internal stress. In general, annealing is the opposite of hardening. To anneal an aluminum alloy, the metals temperature is raised to an annealing temperature and held there until the metal becomes thoroughly heat soaked. It is then cooleddown slowly to 260C (500F) at a rate of about 10C per hour. Below 260C (500F), the rate of cooling is not important. When annealing clad aluminum metals, they should be heated as quickly and as carefully as possible. The reason for this is that if clad aluminum is exposed to excessive heat, some of the core material tends to mix with the cladding. This reduces the metal s corrosion resistance.

Reheat Treatment
Material which has been previously heat-treated can generally be reheat treated any number of times. As an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely hard and typically receive several reheat treatments to make them soft enough to drive. The number of solution heat-treatments allowed for clad materials is limited due to the increased diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffusion results in decreased corrosion resistance. As a result, clad material is generally limited to no more than three reheat treatments.

Testing of Non Ferrous Materials

The material testing methods are explained in Sub Module 6.01(see Title Testing of Ferrous Materials on page 20) .