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Coordinated by ALAN JACKSON

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NAUMAN SATTAR, Uppsala University FARHAN A. KHAN, PETRONAS Carigali ASAM FARID, The Petroleum Institute (ADNOC) AMJAD A. KHAN, Saif Energy Limited KASHIF HASNAIN, Quaid-e-Azam University MOHAMMAD SHABIH, Norwegian Energy Company ASA

t is generally believed that various exploration failures in the offshore areas of Pakistan are due to the absence of a mature petroleum system. However, a few recent gas shows and shales with 0.553.24% TOC suggest that a Middle-Upper Miocene lowstand systems tract (LST) exists that possesses organic, paleo-environmental, and sequence stratigraphic characteristics of a potential source rock. The objective of this work was to highlight and delineate the slope and basin facies through seismic sequence stratigraphy and seismic attribute analysis as a new approach to the interpretation of the southwestern Lower Indus Basin of Pakistan. Working within a sequence stratigraphic framework, four sequences have been delineated on the basis of reflection termination patterns. A sea-level curve was constructed from the reflection patterns representing coastal onlap. This sea-level curve was compared to a hypothetical sea-level curve generated by a spectral analysis Fourier transform function on the density logs. Two coarse-grained sand wedges in the lowstand systems tract were distinguished on the basis of seismic reflection geometry. The wedges were the result of fluvial incision following a forced regression. Seismic attributes (total amplitude, maximum absolute amplitude, and average instantaneous frequency) were then studied for these sand bodies to identify their seismic signature as a potential gas-saturation zone. Crossplot analysis was employed to analyze these data as potential gas-charged sands. We concluded that good TOC values in the prospective source rocks in the surrounding wells coupled with good reservoir quality sands at a location where incision took place favors the accumulation of a reasonable amount of hydrocarbons; this was further supported by seismic attributes. The present study has opened new dimensions for identifying the prospective zones for future exploration in the Indus offshore of Pakistan. Background Offshore Pakistan consists of two basins, Indus and Makran. The present study is focused on the Indus Offshore Basin near the southwestern part of Pakistan (Figure 1). Murray Ridge forms the western boundary. The Indus Offshore Basin actually developed as a result of rifting during the Cretaceous, and then continuous northward drift of the Indo-Pak plate. Currently, it represents one of the major deltaic areas where the Indus fan started building up during Miocene. The basin is analogous to other producing basins of the world
524 The Leading Edge May 2010

Figure 1. The location of the Indus Offshore Basin. (Courtesy Directorate General of Petroleum ConcessionsPakistan)

like the Mississippi Delta (USA), Niger Delta (Nigeria), Mahakam Delta (Indonesia), and Mackenzie Delta (Canada), in terms of geological setting. More than ten wells have been drilled in the area, but a discovery is yet to be made. However, previous exploration attempts used conventional methods to map and document the distribution of reservoir (sand), source, and seal (shales). Difficulty in predicting reservoir quality sands and mapping the lateral, updip and downdip sealing shales, in the case of stratigraphic traps, are other causes for the futile drilling. The research described here is based on using the predictive tools of seismic stratigraphy and seismic attribute analysis and their integration in a pioneering way to address the untapped potential of the Indus offshore. Figure 2 shows the locations of the exploration wells drilled in the Pakistan offshore to date. Since our study area is in the proximity of well PakCan-01, we concentrated on the exploration history of this well. PakCan-01 was drilled in 1985 by OGDCL to test a structure associated with the Eocene carbonate shelf margin.

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Figure 4. (left) A chronostratigraphic chart Wheeler diagram showing the different facies distribution. (right) A simple sea-level curve generated by joining the coastal onlaps.

Figure 2. The locations of 16 exploratory wells drilled offshore Pakistan. Gas shows were encountered in three wells with PakCan-01 flowing gas at 3.7 MMscfd. (Courtesy DGPCPakistan)

Figure 3. Interpreted seismic section from NE-SW (SW to the left) showing sequences and major surfaces marked on the basis of reflection termination patterns (onlaps, downlaps, and toplaps). An incised valley and two basin floor fans are also recognized (seismic view approximately 15 km).

The play consists of a Miocene rollover that developed as a result of a growth fault on the shelf margin. TOC values ranging from 0.553.24% were encountered at depths of 2725 3090 m. The well also flowed gas at the rate of 3.7 mmscfd from thin progradational deltaic sands at 27433300 m. It is thought that the failure of this well is due to hydrocarbons trapped in the prograding sands possibly escaping due to faulting. This conclusion is supported by the evidence that hydrocarbons were generated but their recharge in substantial amounts probably took place elsewhere. Methodologies and results Seismic sequence stratigraphy was employed to interpret four sequences. Major surfaces (sequence boundaries and flood526 The Leading Edge May 2010

Figure 5. Hypothetically generated sea-level curve created by employing the frequency and relative power of all density log values. This was in harmony with the originally generated sea-level curve. Frequency is basically the number of times each value is repeated throughout the density log. For each density value, a corresponding relative power is generated which is given in dB. This graph represents a crossplot between the frequencies and relative power for all density log values. Negative values show the deposition of shales, because the density in shale is low. Positive values show the deposition of sands.

ing surfaces) are interpreted by identifying their associated termination patterns: onlap, downlap, and toplap (Figure 3). The major sequences were related to a major sea-level fall during which the shelf was exposed to erosion. Coarse sediments along with a large quantity of organic material have been eroded from previous topsets and deposited in the distal parts as basin floor fans above the sequence boundary. This is supported by the downward shift in onlap and an incised valley clearly visible on the seismic data. Sand deposition was

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Figure 6. To evaluate the impact of the hydrocarbons on seismic attributes, a 2D crossplot of maximum absolute amplitude versus average instantaneous frequency was generated. This shows high values for maximum absolute amplitude in the zone of low values for average instantaneous frequency. This zone has been marked with a circle. Therefore, the absorption of frequencies at high or strong amplitudes allows us to predict the presence of gas in the sand body.

Figure 7. Structural contour map for sand body 1. The horizon was created on the sand top after completion of a detailed seismic stratigraphic interpretation. The lateral extent of the sand body is approximately 4 km. Depth to the top of the sand body is about 4411 m.

subsequently covered by highstand shales, which provide good trapping/seal for hydrocarbons. A chronostratigraphic chart (Wheeler diagram) was constructed to show the facies distribution. Finally, a sea-level curve was generated by joining the coastal onlaps (Figure 4). Fourier spectral analysis is a new spectral analysis methodology that involves generation of sea-level curves from well logs primarily using density. The density curves are transformed into a frequency-spectral density curve as shown in Figure 5. This curve shows the sea-level rise and drop as a function of spectral densities. In Figure 5, negative values on the vertical axis show the deposition of shales, because the density in shale is low; positive values show the deposition of sands due to the highdensity in the sand. Therefore, peaks in lowest density values suggest areas of sea-level rise. On the other hand, the highest density peaks represent sea-level drop. Thus, in this way, sea-level rise and fall can be portrayed as maximum flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries on the curve. These cyclic variations match the pattern in the original sea-level curve created from seismic stratigraphic studies, providing verification for the process. Seismic attributes were calculated to assist in locating hydrocarbon saturation in sand bodies. A number of attributes were used, including maximum absolute amplitude, total amplitude, and average instantaneous frequency. For the detailed examination of the seismic data, maximum absolute amplitude and average instantaneous frequency were found to be directly related to the seismic data and showed a strong correlation between the attribute and the seismic data at the top of the sand body. In order to evaluate the impact of the hydrocarbons on the seismic attributes, 2D crossplots were created of the average instantaneous frequency and the maximum absolute amplitude (Figure 6). Analysis showed a relationship between low instantaneous frequency and high absolute amplitude at

Figure 8. Isochron map for sand body 1. Maximum thickness at the crest is 489 m.

the top of the sand body. The frequency absorption at strong amplitudes reveals the presence of gas in the sand body. Figure 7 shows a structural contour map prepared for one of the sand bodies. The horizon was interpreted on the top of sand after completion of a detailed sequence stratigraphic interpretation on all available seismic data. The map shows closure for three contours. The lateral extent of the sand body appears to be around 4 km. Seismic stacking velocities were used to calculate the total depth to the top of the sand body; 2890 ms TWT was calculated to be 4411 M. An isochron map (Figure 8) was created and the thickness of sand body 1 was measured to be around 60 ms TWT or 489 m. Seismic stacking velocities are considered a poor estimate of velocity information. In order to test the quality of these velocity data, we compared the VSP data at PakCan-01 with the results from the stacking velocities at various known markers (Table 1).

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of the ocean, surrounded and overlain by shales. These sand bodies can be differentiated as potential stratigraphic traps. After determination that the deepwater fan deposits contain high-quality sands, their hydrocarbon presence was validated through seismic attribute analysis. Analysis of the attributes led us to conclude that the absorption of frequency in the high-amplitude zone is caused by gas saturation. The increasing trend of maximum absolute amplitude has also indicated the possibility of an oil/gas contact.
References
Barnes, A. E., 1993, When the concepts of spectral frequency and instantaneous frequency converge: The Leading Edge, 12, 1020 1023. Michalchuk, B. R., 2006, Synthetic seismograms and physical properties generated from sediments in Maxwell Bay, Antarctica, a study of climate history: Middlebury College.

Marker

TWT ms

Depth (m) using VSP velocities 1213 1446 2349 3166

Depth (m) using stacking velocities 1168 1453 2378 3315

Lower Paleocene Late Miocene Middle Miocene Early Miocene

1027 1188 1712 2176

Table 1. Comparison of depth using both the VSP and seismic stacking velocities. The observed variation was minimal in the shallow section. However, the difference in the calculations increased with depth.

Conclusions On the basis of a detailed study in the South West Indus Offshore Basin, and considering the favorable TOC values in the PakCan-01 well, it is clear that a promising petroleum play does exist in the Miocene sediments and past exploration disappointments are not due to their absence. Well PakCan-01 contained gas but not in commercial quantities. It is believed that the gas in the prograding deltaic sands might have escaped along the fault plane during erosion. High-quality TOC values in PakCan-01 and incised features in the vicinity of the well led us to suggest that organic matter as well as reservoir quality sands were transported down the slope as fans. The predictive capability of seismic sequence stratigraphy helped to delineate the accommodation space for these coarsegrained sediments which were deposited in the deeper part

Acknowledgments: The sequence stratigraphy work presented here is based on the principal authors Masters research (20042006) under the guidance of Nadeem Ahmad at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. We, therefore, acknowledge his subsequent suggestions for this paper. The Directorate General Petroleum Concessions is acknowledged for release of the seismic and well data used in this paper. We thank the management of LMKR for using their hightech resources, especially in undertaking the attribute analysis. The reviewers are thanked for constructive suggestions that substantially improved the final version of this paper. Corresponding author: syed.mohammad.shabih@noreco.com

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