THERMODYNAMICS

Dr. Parvez Khalid Butt

Submitted to;
Dr. Parveez Khalid Butt
Submitted By;
Name Reg. #
Hafiz Ali Haider Sehole FA11-BEC-058
Shahid Nawaz FA11-BEC-128
Zartab Cheema FA11-BEC-126
Hassan Tariq FA11-BEC-106
Labin Ijaz FA11-BEC-064
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By Hafiz Ali Haider Sehole
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By Hafiz Ali Haider Sehole
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity
through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. Fuel cells are great
substitutes for other energy conversion techniques such as internal combustion engines (ICEs),
turbines, accumulators and batteries. Unlike diesel generators and other ICEs, fuel cells do not
use combustion. Because they convert their energy directly into electricity, they can be more
than twice as efficient as ICEs. A fuel cell operates much like a battery, but it does not store its
energy internally. A fuel cell does not get depleted. It keeps operating, as long as fuel is supplied.
With hydrogen and oxygen as fuels, and no combustion, fuel cells generate zero-
emission energy. Their main by-product is ultrapure water.
One fuel cell provides a tiny amount of direct current (DC) voltage. Fuel cells are
normally combined in stacks to generate a larger voltage. The energy created by fuel cells can be
used to power almost every energy end-usage, from small (1W) to large (multi MW)
Principle of Fuel Cell
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. The basic principle of
the fuel cell is illustrated in the figure below. The core of each fuel cell consists of an electrolyte
and two electrodes. At the negative anode, a fuel such as hydrogen is being oxidized, while at the
positive cathode, oxygen is reduced. Ions are transported through the electrolyte from one side to
the other. The type of electrolyte determines the temperature window of operation. This window
of operation in its turn determines the catalysts that can be used, and the purity of the fuel to be
used. The theoretical open circuit voltage of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is 1.23 V at 298 K, in
practice it is around 1 V at open circuit. Under load conditions, the cell voltage is between 0.5
and 0.8 V.
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By Hafiz Ali Haider Sehole
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By Hafiz Ali Haider Sehole
Fuel Cell Types
Six types of fuel cells have evolved in the past decades. They are called after their
electrolyte, the substance that transports the ions. The electrolyte dictates the operating
temperature of a fuel cell type. Depending on the operating temperature, a specific catalyst is
chosen to oxidize the fuel. Fuel cell types therefore all have different catalysts. A brief summary
of these six fuel cell types is given below.
Fuel Cell Comparison
Various fuel cell types and their operating characteristics.
Each type of fuel cell has different characteristics making it suitable for specific
applications. PEM Fuel Cells have a wide range of applications.
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Below is an overview showing various fuel cell types and their typical operating characteristics.
Comparison of low and high Temperature Fuel cells
Different types of fuel cells operate at different temperatures. While PEMFC and AFC
are generally called low temperature fuel cells and MCFC and SOFC being called high
temperature fuel cells, the PAFC falls in between and can be called an intermediate temperature
fuel cell. The same holds for PEMFCs using phosphoric acid doped electrolytes. Low
temperature fuel cells do not require the cooling and thermal shielding necessary for high
temperature fuel cells. For mobile applications, the PEMFC is the obvious choice. AFC, once
thought to be the optimal solution for road transportation, is losing ground. Even NASA is
considering changing over from AFC to PEMFC.
For stationary applications, both low and high temperature fuel cells seem to qualify.
In practice, specific conditions lead to a preference for the one or the other.
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Low temperature fuel cells, especially PEM fuel cells, can be characterized by their
rapid start-up, freeze capability, high robustness towards temperature cycles, pressure variations,
and redox cycles. Thanks to many automotive oriented R&D programs focusing on aggressive
cost reductions, cost levels of PEMFC systems have become competitive in many stationary
applications, such as backup and remote power, and power generation using hydrogen that is
available on-site from existing processes.
High temperature fuel cells, such as SOFCs and MCFCs, are able to operate on fuels
containing large fractions of carbon monoxide, and can thus be operated either with an external
or internal reformer without extensive gas cleaning. In applications where load following
dynamics and start-up times are not critical, and where other fuels than hydrogen are preferred,
these high temperature fuel cells are often selected. The critical point for high temperature fuel
cells will be whether they can meet the cost and lifetime criteria simultaneously.
Fuel Cell Setup
Single Cell
Besides conducting ions from one electrode to the other, the electrolyte serves as gas
separator and electronic insulator. The electrodes are the sites at which the electrochemical
reactions take place. Besides containing the suitable catalysts, the electrode architecture should
be such that transport of reactants to and products from the catalyst/electrolyte interface is taking
place at the maximum possible rate.
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A single fuel cell, as displayed in the Figure above, produces the power, which
results from the area times the current density of the cell times the cell voltage. The typical cell
voltage under load conditions amounts to 0.6 - 0.7 V, which is too low for practical applications.
Stacks
It is therefore common practice to put a number of cells in series, resulting in a so-
called fuel cell stack. Flow plates connect two adjacent cells. These flow plates, also called
separator plates or bipolar plates when a single plate is used for the anode side of one cell and for
the cathode side of the other cell, should have a high electronic conductance, and should act as
gas separator between the two adjacent cells. The flow plates contain flow patterns on the cell
side to generate an even distribution of reactants across the cell area. On the backside, cooling
liquid flow patterns transport the heat to a heat exchanger in the system. The stack power and
voltage is obtained by the number of cells times the individual cell power and voltage. A three-
cell stack is schematically drawn in the Figure below. Besides the repeating units displayed in
the Figure above, a stack contains two endplates and two current collector plates from which the
current is collected.
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System
The fuel cell is the core of each fuel cell system, but it does need a number of
additional components to make it operate and to let it play its function in its application. The
Figure below gives a schematic, simplified display of a typical fuel cell system. The components
other than the fuel cell stack and the fuel processor are often called Balance of Plant
Components. These Balance of Plant Components are important drivers of system cost, and of
system efficiency and durability.
In low temperature fuel cells, except the DMFC, hydrogen is oxidized at the anode to
protons. The hydrogen can either be fed from a hydrogen storage container, or produced from
another fuel in a so-called fuel processor. Generally, hydrocarbons or alcohols are used as fuels
to feed fuel processors. The complexity of the fuel processing depends strongly on the fuel cell
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type and the primary fuel. In high temperature fuel cells, such as the MCFC and SOFC, fuel
processing can be done in the fuel cell itself. This process is referred to as internal reforming.
The air pressure needs to be elevated from ambient pressure up to a level which
depends on the operation pressure and the pressure drop in the complete system. This can range
from a gauge pressure of 100 mbar to several bars. The power of the fuel cell stack generally
increases with increasing pressure; the parasitic loss due to compression however increases as
well.
The voltage of the fuel cell stack is the product of the number of cells times the
individual cell voltage, which is typically 0.6 - 0.7 V DC. For mobile applications, the voltage
should be increased to several hundred Volts and conditioned to the needs of the electric motor.
For stationary applications, generally AC voltage is needed, which requires the need for a
DC/AC inverter.
System Efficiency
The efficiency of the fuel cell stack (Eff
FC
), the utilization of the hydrogen (Util
H2
) and power
consumed by the balance of plant components (PowerBOC) determine the total system
efficiency:
Eff
el, sys
= Eff
FC
* Util
H2
* (1-(Power
BOC
/ Power
Fuel cell system
))
Efficiency gains can be obtained by:
Operating at a high cell voltage; MEAs that offer high power densities at high cell
voltages are clearly to be preferred: The fuel cell efficiency for hydrogen/oxygen fuel
cells, can be obtained by dividing the cell voltage at operation by 1.23 V.
Hydrogen/oxygen fuel cells operated at 0.7 V thus have an electrical efficiency of 0.57.
This energy efficiency number is based on the lower heating value of hydrogen.
Maximizing the utilization of hydroge; Open systems with low hydrogen
stoichiometries, or closed systems with low purging frequencies, lead to less waste of
hydrogen and thus to an increased efficiency.
Minimizing the flow of air; As the flow of air is generally a factor of 4 higher than the
flow of hydrogen, the energy needed for supplying this air can pose a significant parasitic
loss.
Minimizing the pressure drop at anode and cathode; The pressure drop of the flow
field and manifolds requires an increase of the reactant pressure at the inlet that directly
leads to an increase in parasitic energy consumption.
Benefits of Fuel Cell
Benefits of fuel cells are manifold. Characteristics of fuel cells include the following:
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Efficient. Fuel cells can be more than twice as fuel efficient as internal combustion
engines. Nedstacks fuel cells offer high efficiency over a wide power range and are not
dependent on an optimal production point in order to reach expected economics.
There is neither fuel loss nor aging in standby mode.
Powerful. Fuel cells create a powerful current relative to their size. Their current is
highly constant.
Versatile. Fuel cells can generate energy on-demand or continuously. They come
modular and scalable to meet changing needs. They operate on a wide range of fuels.
Robust. Fuel cells have no moving parts, so their maintenance requirements and costs are
low. They have virtually no downtime. Fuel cells operate reliably in a wide range of
climates. They can be stationed both indoors and outdoors.
Sustainable. Fuel cells are low emission, PEM Fuel cells even zero emission.
Governments stimulate fuel cell technology because of its potential to address issues of
climate change, urban pollution and dependency on fossil fuels. And you can add noise
pollution reduction to the list: as fuel cells have no moving parts, they do their work
quietly.
Environmentally friendly. Even at the end of their life span, fuel cells remain
environmentally friendly: most of their components are recyclable or reusable.
Attractive total cost of ownership. Their total cost of ownership, due to their superior
fuel efficiency and low maintenance profile, are below those of alternatives in a growing
number of applications.