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SOLAR TRACKER
One of the most promising renewable energy sources characterized by a huge potential of conversion into electrical power is the solar energy. The conversion of solar radiation into electrical energy by Photo-Voltaic (PV) effect is a very promising technology, being clean, silent and reliable, with very small maintenance costs and small ecological impact. The interest in the Photo Voltaic conversion systems is visibly reflected by the exponential increase of sales in this market segment with a strong growth projection for the next decades. According to recent market research reports carried out by European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), the total installed power of PV conversion equipment increased from about 1 GW in 2001up to nearly 23 GW in 2009. The continuous evolution of the technology determined a sustained increase of the conversion efficiency of PV panels, but nonetheless the most part of the commercial panels have efficiencies no more than 20%. A constant research preoccupation of the technical community involved in the solar energy harnessing technology refers to various solutions to increase the PV panels conversion efficiency. Among PV efficiency improving solutions we can mention: solar tracking, optimization of solar cells geometry, enhancement of light trapping capability, use of new materials, etc. The output power produced by the PV panels depends strongly on the incident light radiation. The continuous modification of the sun-earth relative position determines a continuously changing of incident radiation on a fixed PV panel. The point of maximum received energy is reached when the direction of solar radiation is perpendicular on the panel surface. Thus an increase of the output energy of a given PV panel can be obtained by mounting the panel on a solar tracking device that follows the sun trajectory. Unlike the classical fixed PV panels, the mobile ones driven by solar trackers are kept under optimum insolation for all positions of the Sun, boosting thus the PV conversion efficiency of the system. The output energy of PV panels equipped with solar trackers may increase with tens of percents, especially during the summer when the energy harnessed from the sun is more important. Photo-Voltaic or PV cells, known commonly as solar cells, convert the energy from sunlight into DC electricity. PVs offer added advantages over other renewable energy sources in that they give off no noise and require practically no maintenance. A tracking system must be able to follow the sun with
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a certain degree of accuracy, return the collector to its original position at the end of the day and also track during periods of cloud over. The major components of this system are as follows. Light dependent resistor Microcontroller. Output mechanical transducer (stepper motor)
Fig 1: Block Diagram Almost all circuits encountered on electronic equipment (computers, TV, radio, industrial control equipment, etc.) are mounted on printed circuit boards. Close inspection of a PCB reveals that it contains a series of copper tracks printed on one or both sides of a fiber glass board. The copper tracks form the wiring patternrequired to link the circuit devices according to a given circuit diagram. Hence, to construct a circuit the necessity of connecting insulated wires between components is eliminated, resulting in a cleaner arrangement and providing mechanical support for components. Moreover, the copper tracks are highly conductive and the whole PCB can be easily reproduced for mass production with increased reliability.
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The basic purpose of feasibility study or survey is to determine whether the whole process of systems analysis leading to computerization would be worth the effort for the organization. The feasibility study results in the preparation of a report called the feasibility study/Survey report which is prepared for consideration. It contains the following details: A proposed solution to the problems including alternate solutions considered. Rough estimates on the cost/benefits analysis if the solution is implemented. Approximate time, effort and cost estimates for completion of the project. Feasibility study refers to the study carried out to determine whether computerization would be worth the effort or not.
SOLAR TRACKER
SOLAR TRACKER
This chapter aims to provide a brief knowledge of Solar Panel, Solar Tracker and the components which made up Solar Tracker.
the solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards the sun. A solar tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks the motion of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes the panels throughout the day. When compare to the price of the PV solar panels, the cost of a solar tracker is relatively low. Most photovoltaic solar panels are fitted in a fixed location- for example on the sloping roof of a house, or on framework fixed to the ground. Since the sun moves across the sky though the day, this is far from an ideal solution. Solar panels are usually set up to be in full direct sunshine at the middle of the day facing South in the Northern Hemisphere, or North in the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore morning and evening sunlight hits the panels at an acute angle reducing the total amount of electricity which can be generated each day.
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The system services and goals are established by consultation with system user. They are then defined in details and serve as a system specification. System requirement are those on which the system runs.
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Fig no: 2(SDLC) The SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers, such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are explained in the section below. It includes evaluation of present system, information gathering, and feasibility study and request approval. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC) models have been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model: a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following:
propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits and submit a preliminary plan with recommendations. Propose alternative solutions: In digging into the organization's objectives and specific problems, you may have already covered some solutions. Alternate proposals may come from interviewing employees, clients, suppliers, and/or consultants. You can also study what competitors are doing. With this data, you will have three choices: leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system cost. 13 SOLAR TRACKER
Systems analysis, requirements definition: Defines project goals into defined functions and operation of the intended application. Analyzes end-user information needs.
Systems design: Describes desired features and operations in detail, including screen
layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudo code and other documentation.
Development: The real code is written here. Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces together into a special testing
Maintenance: During the maintenance stage of the SDLC, the system is assessed to
ensure it does not become obsolete. This is also where changes are made to initial software. It involves continuous evaluation of the system in terms of its performance.
Evaluation: Some companies do not view this as an official stage of the SDLC, but is
it an important part of the life cycle. Evaluation step is an extension of the Maintenance stage, and may be referred to in some circles as Post-implementation Review. This is where the system that was developed, as well as the entire process, is evaluated.
Disposal Phase: In this phase, plans are developed for discarding system
information, hardware and software in making the transition to a new system. The purpose here is to properly move, archive, discard or destroy information, hardware and software that is being replaced, in a matter that prevents any possibility of unauthorized disclosure of sensitive data. The disposal activities ensure proper migration to a new system. Particular emphasis is given to proper preservation and archival of data processed by the previous system. All of this should be done in accordance with the organization's security requirements.
INTRODUCTION System analysis is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems and using the information to recommend improvements on the system. System analysis is a 14 SOLAR TRACKER
problem solving activity that requires intensive communication between the system users and system developers. The conclusion is an understanding of how the system functions. This system is called the existing system. Now, the existing system is subjected to close study and the problem areas are identified. The designer now functions as a problem solver and tries to sort out the difficulties that the enterprise faces. The solutions are given as a proposal. The proposal is then weighed with the existing system analytically and the best one is selected. The proposal is presented to the user for an endorsement by the user. The proposal is reviewed on user request and suitable changes are made. This loop ends as soon as the user is satisfied with the proposal.
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Phase 1: Classic In the classic model, note how all layers are held within the application itself. This architecture would be very awkward to maintain in a large-scale environment unless extreme care was taken to fully encapsulate or modularize the code. Because Phase 1 of the Duwamish Books sample focuses on a small retail operation, this type of design is perfectly acceptable. It's easy to develop and, in the limited environment of a single retail outlet, easy to maintain. In Phase 1, we deliver the basic functionality and documentation of the code and design issues. Phase 2: Two-tier Phase 2 moves to a two-tier design, as we break out the data access code into its own layer. By breaking out this layer, we make multiple-user access to the data much easier to work with. The developer does not have to worry about record locking, or shared data, because all data access is encapsulated and controlled within the new tier. Phase 3 and Phase 3.5: Logical three-tier and physical three-tier The business rules layer contains not only rules that determine what to do with data, but also how and when to do it. For an application to become scalable, it is often necessary to split the business rules layer into two separate layers: the client-side business logic, which we call workflow, and the server-side business logic. Although we describe these layers as client and serverside, the actual physical implementations can vary. Generally, workflow rules govern user input and other processes on the client, while business logic controls the manipulation and flow of data on the server. Phase 4: A Windows-based application Phase 4 of the Duwamish Books sample is the culmination of the migration from a desktop model to a distributed n-tier model implemented as a Web application. In Phase 4, we offer three client types aimed at different browser types. We also break out the workflow logic from the client application. client-side processing (depending on the client type), and a COM component.
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astronomical telescopes, and so there is plenty of software available to automatically predict and track the motion of the sun across the sky.By tracking the sun, the efficiency of the solar panels can be increased by 30-40%.The dual axis tracking system is also used for concentrating a solar reflector toward the concentrator on heliostat systems.
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6.4 Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. 1. Light Dependent Resistor Light Dependent Resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor. If light falling on the device is of the high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron conducts electricity, thereby lowering resistance. Hence, Light Dependent Resistors is very useful in light sensor circuits. LDR is very highresistance, sometimes as high as 10M, when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically.
2. Photodiode
Photodiode is a light sensor which has a high speed and high sensitive silicon PIN photodiode in a miniature flat plastic package. A photodiode is designed to be responsive to optical input. Due to its waterclear epoxy the device is sensitive to visible and infrared 19 SOLAR TRACKER
radiation. The large active area combined with a flat case gives a high sensitivity at a wide viewing angle. Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse bias. In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a voltage to develop across the device, leading to a current in the forward bias direction. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells - in fact a solar cell is just a large number of big, cheap photodiodes. Diodes usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased. This resistance is reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on the junction. Hence, a reverse biased diode can be used as a detector by monitoring the current running through it. Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect.
6.5 Motor
Motor is use to drive the Solar Tracker to the best angle of exposure of light. For this section, we are using stepper motor. Stepper Motor Features Linear speed control of stepper motor Control of acceleration, deceleration, max speed and number of steps to move Driven by one timer interrupt Full - or half-stepping driving mode Supports all AVR devices with 16bit timer
Introduction This application note describes how to implement an exact linear speed controller for stepper motors. The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Many advantages are achieved usingthis kind of motors, such as higher simplicity, since no brushes or contacts arepresent, low cost, high reliability, high torque at low speeds, and high accuracy ofmotion. Many systems with stepper motors need to control the acceleration/deceleration when changing the speed. This application note presents a driver witha demo application, capable of controlling acceleration as well as position andspeed. 20 SOLAR TRACKER
Theory Stepper motor This application note covers the theory about linear speed ramp stepper motor controlas well as the realization of the controller itself. It is assumed that the reader isfamiliar with basic stepper motor operation, but a summary of the most relevant topicswill be given. Bipolar vs. Unipolar stepper motors The two common types of stepper motors are the bipolar motor and the Unipolar motor. The bipolar and unipolar motors are similar, except that the Unipolar has acentre tap on each winding as shown in Figure 4.4
Fig 4: Bipolar and Unipolar stepper Motor Unipolar stepper motor Stepper motors are very accurate motors that are commonly used in computer diskdrives, printers and clocks. Unlike dc motors, which spin round freely when power isapplied, stepper motors require that their power supply be continuously pulsed inspecific patterns. For each pulse the stepper motor moves around one step often 15 degrees giving 24 steps in a full revolution.There are two main types of stepper motors - Unipolar and Bipolar. Unipolar motorsusually have four coils which are switched on and off in a particular sequence. Bipolarmotors have two coils in which the current flow is reversed in a similar sequence. Each 21 SOLAR TRACKER
of the four coils in a Unipolar stepper motor must be switched on and off in acertain order to make the motor turn. Many microprocessor systems use four outputlines to control the stepper motor, each output line controlling the power to one of thecoils. As the stepper motor operates at 5V, the standard transistor circuit is required toswitch each coil. As the coils create a back emf when switched off, a suppression diodeon each coil is also required. The table below show the four different steps required tomake the motor turn. Table 1: Unipolar stepper motor operation Step 1 2 3 4 1 Coil 1 1 1 0 0 1 Coil 2 0 0 1 1 0 Coil 3 1 0 0 1 1 Coil 4 0 1 1 0 0
Look carefully at the table 6.1 and notice that a pattern is visible. Coil 2 is always the opposite or logical NOT of coil 1. The same applies for coils 3 and 4. It is thereforepossible to cut down the number of microcontroller pins required to just two by theuse of two additional NOT gates.Fortunately the Darlington driver IC ULN2003 can be used to provide both the NOT and Darlington driver circuits. It also contains the back emf suppression diodes so no external diodes are required. Bipolar Stepper motor The bipolar stepper motor has two coils that must be controlled so that the currentflows in different directions through the coils in a certain order. The changing magneticfields that these coils create cause the rotor of the motor to move around in steps. The bipolar motor needs current to be driven in both directions through the windings, and a full bridge driver is needed as shown in Figure 6.5 (a). The centre tap on the Unipolar motor allows a simpler driving circuit shown in Figure 6.5 (b), limiting the current flow to one direction. The main drawback with the Unipolar motor is the limited capability to energize all windings at any time, resulting in a lower torque compared to the bipolar motor. The Unipolar stepper motor can be used as a bipolar motor by disconnecting the centre tap. 22 SOLAR TRACKER
(a) Implementation
(b)
Fig 5: Bipolar and Unipolar drivers with MOS transistors A working implementation written in C is included with this application note. Fulldocumentation of the source code and compilation information is found by opening the readme.html file included with the source code. The demo application demonstrates linear speed control of a stepper motor. The user can control the stepper motor speed profile by issuing different commands using the serial port, and the AVR will drive the connected stepper motor accordingly. The demo application is divided in three major blocks, as shown in the block diagram in Figure 4.6. There is one file for each block and also a file for UART routines used by the main routine.
Fig 6: Block diagram of demo application Main c has a menu and a command interface, giving the user control of the stepper motor by a terminal connected to the serial line. Speed controller c calculates the needed data and
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generates step pulses to make the stepper motor follow the desired speed profile.Smdriver.c counts the steps and outputs the correct signals to control the steppermotor. Timer interrupt The timer interrupt generates the step pulses calls the function Step Counter ( ) and is only running when the stepper motor is moving. The timer interrupt will operate in four different states according to the speed profile shown in Figure 6.7 and this behaviour is realized with a state machine in the timer interrupt shown in Figure 6.8.
Fig 8: State machine for timer interrupt When the application starts or when the stepper motor is stopped the state-machineremains in the state STOP. When setup calculations are done, a new state is set and the timer interrupt is enabled. When moving more than one step the state-machinegoes to ACCEL. If moving only 1 step, the state is changed to DECEL.When the state is changed to ACCEL, the application accelerates the stepper motoruntil eitherthe desired speed is reached and the state is changed 24 SOLAR TRACKER
to RUN, ordeceleration must start, changing the state to DECEL.When the state is set to RUN, the stepper motor is kept at constant speed untildeceleration must start, then the state is changed to DECEL.Itwill stay in DECEL and decelerate until the speed reaches zero desired number of steps. The state is then changed to STOP.
6.6 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor, non-volatile memory for the program, volatile memory for input and output, a clock and an I/O control unit also called a computer on a chip, billions of microcontroller units are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more microcontrollers. The following picture describes a general block diagram of microcontroller.
Features
High-performance, Low-power AVR 8-bit Microcontroller Advanced RISC Architecture 131 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments 16K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory 512 Bytes EEPROM 1K Byte Internal SRAM Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program True Read-While-Write Operation Programming Lock for Software Security 25 SOLAR TRACKER
JTAG Interface Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard Extensive On-chip Debug Support Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescalers, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Four PWM Channels 8-channel, 10-bit ADC 8 Single-ended Channels 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby and Extended Standby I/O and Packages 32 Programmable I/O Lines
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Operating Voltages 2.7 - 5.5V for ATmega16L 4.5 - 5.5V for ATmega16
Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25C for ATmega16L Active: 1.1 mA Idle Mode: 0.35 mA Power-down Mode: < 1 A
ATmega16:
The ATmega16is a low-power, high-performance advance RISC8-bit microcontroller with 32K bytes of in-system programmable Flashmemory. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammedin-system or by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. Bycombining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on amonolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega16is a powerful microcontroller, whichprovides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many, embeddedcontrol applications. The ATmega16provides the following standard features:32K bytes of Flash, 1024 byte of EEPROM & 2KB INTERNAL S RAM ,32 I/O lines,Watchdog timer, two data pointers, two 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vectortwo-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, onchip oscillator,8-channel 10 bit ADC and clock circuitry. In addition, the ATmega16is designedwith static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports twosoftware selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU whileallowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system tocontinue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents butfreezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt.
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Fig 9: Pin Diagram OverviewThe ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVRenhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega16 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designed to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. Pin Descriptions VCC Digital supply voltage GND Ground Port A (PA7 - PA0) Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter.Port A also
serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pinscan provide internal pull-up resistors. The Port A output buffers have symmetricaldrive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7are used as 28 SOLAR TRACKER
inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-upresistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,even if the clock is not running. Port B (PB7 - PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Port C (PC7 - PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface isenabled, the pull-up resistors on pins PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs. Port D (PD7 - PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that areexternally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. XTAL1Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. AVCC AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. 29 SOLAR TRACKER
AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter. Alternate Functions of Port A Port A has an alternate function as analog input for the ADC as shown in Table 6.2. If some PortApins are configured as outputs, it is essential that these do not switch when a conversion is inprogress. This might corrupt the result of the conversion. Table 2: Port A Pins Alternate Functions Port Pin PA7 PA6 PA5 PA4 PA3 PA2 PA1 PA0 Alternate Function ADC7 (ADC input channel 7) ADC6 (ADC input channel 6) ADC5 (ADC input channel 5) ADC4 (ADC input channel 4) ADC3 (ADC input channel 3) ADC2 (ADC input channel 2) ADC1 (ADC input channel 1) ADC0 (ADC input channel 0)
The alternate pin configuration of Port B is as follows: SCK Port B, Bit 7 SCK: Master Clock output, Slave Clock input pin for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as aSlave, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB7. When the SPI isenabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB7. When the pin is forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB7 bit. MISO Port B, Bit 6 MISO: Master Data input, Slave Data output pin for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as aMaster, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB6. When the SPI isenabled as a Slave, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB6. When the pin is forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB6 bit.
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MOSI Port B, Bit 5 MOSI: SPI Master Data output, Slave Data input for SPI channel. When the SPI is enabled as aSlave, this pin is configured as an input regardless of the setting of DDB5. When the SPI isenabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB5. When the pin is forcedby the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB5 bit.
SS Port B, Bit 4 SS: Slave Select input. When the SPI is enabled as a Slave, this pin is configured as an inputregardless of the setting of DDB4. As a Slave, the SPI is activated when this pin is driven low.When the SPI is enabled as a Master, the data direction of this pin is controlled by DDB4. Whenthe pin is forced by the SPI to be an input, the pull-up can still be controlled by the PORTB4 bit.
AIN1/OC0 Port B, Bit 3 AIN1, Analog Comparator Negative Input Configure the port pin as input with the internal pull-upswitched off to avoid the digital port function from interfering with the function of the analogcomparator.OC0, Output Compare Match output: The PB3 pin can serve as an external output for theTimer/Counter0 Compare Match. The PB3 pin has to be configured as an output to serve this function. The OC0 pin is also the output pin for the PWM mode timerfunction.
AIN0/INT2 Port B, Bit 2 AIN0, Analog Comparator Positive input Configure the port pin as input with the internal pull-upswitched off to avoid the digital port function from interfering with the function of the AnalogComparator.INT2, External Interrupt Source 2: The PB2 pin can serve as an external interrupt source to theMCU. T1 Port B, Bit 1 T1, Timer/Counter1 Counter Source. 31 SOLAR TRACKER
T0/XCK Port B, Bit 0 T0 Timer/Counter0 Counter Source XCK USART External Clock. The Data Direction Register DDB0 controls whether the clock is output DDB0 set or input DDB0 cleared. The XCK pin is active only when the USART operatesin Synchronous mode. The alternate pin configuration of Port C is as follows: TOSC2 Port C, Bit 7 TOSC2, Timer Oscillator pin 2: When the AS2 bit in ASSR is set one to enable asynchronousclocking of Timer/Counter2, pin PC7 is disconnected from the port, and becomes the invertingoutput of the Oscillator amplifier. In this mode, a Crystal Oscillator is connected to this pin, and the pin cannot be used as an I/O pin. TOSC1 Port C, Bit 6 TOSC1, Timer Oscillator pin 1: When the AS2 bit in ASSR is set one to enable asynchronousclocking of Timer/Counter2, pin PC6 is disconnected from the port, and becomes the input of theinverting Oscillator amplifier. In this mode, a Crystal Oscillator is connected to this pin, and thepin cannot be used as an I/O pin. TDI Port C, Bit 5 TDI, JTAG Test Data In: Serial input data to be shifted in to the Instruction Register or Data Register. When the JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin. TDO Port C, Bit 4 TDO, JTAG Test Data Out: Serial output data from Instruction Register or Data Register. Whenthe JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.The TD0 pin is tristated unless TAP states that shifts out data are entered. TMS Port C, Bit 3 TMS, JTAG Test Mode Select: This pin is used for navigating through the TAP-controller statemachine. When the JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin.
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TCK Port C, Bit 2 TCK, JTAG Test Clock: JTAG operation is synchronous to TCK. When the JTAG interface is enabled, this pin cannot be used as an I/O pin. SDA Port C, Bit 1 SDA, Two-wire Serial Interface Data: When the TWEN bit in TWCR is set one to enable theTwo-wire Serial Interface, pin PC1 is disconnected from the port and becomes the Serial DataI/O pin for the Two-wire Serial Interface. In this mode, there is a spike filter on the pin to suppressspikes shorter than 50 ns on the input signal, and the pin is driven by an open drain driverwith slew-rate limitation. When this pin is used by the Two-wire Serial Interface, the pull-up canstill be controlled by the PORTC1 bit. SCL Port C, Bit 0 SCL, Two-wire Serial Interface Clock: When the TWEN bit in TWCR is set one to enable theTwo-wire Serial Interface, pin PC0 is disconnected from the port and becomes the Serial ClockI/O pin for the Two-wire Serial Interface. In this mode, there is a spike filter on the pin to suppressspikes shorter than 50 ns on the input signal, and the pin is driven by an open drain driverwith slew-rate limitation. When this pin is used by the Two-wire Serial Interface, the pull-up canstill be controlled by the PORTC0 bit.
6.8 TRANSFORMER:
A transformeris a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit toanother through inductively coupled conductors - the transformer's coils or windings. Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonlywound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but magneticallycoupledcores. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates avarying magnetic field in the core of the transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in thesecondary winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primarycircuit to the load connected in the secondary circuit.The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from theprimary VPby a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in theirrespective windings:
By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows analternating voltage to be stepped up - by making NS more than NPorstepped down, by making it.
BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER In its most basic form a transformer consists of: A primary coil or winding. A secondary coil or winding. A core that supports the coils or windings.
THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER Two coils of wire are wound on some type of core material. Insome cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangularcardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the 34 SOLAR TRACKER
transformer is calledan air-core transformer. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 50hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material,usually iron. This type of transformer is called an iron-core transformer.Most power transformers are of the ironcore type. The principle parts of atransformer and their functions are: The core, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.The Primary winding, this receives energy from the ac source.The secondary winding, this receives energy from the primary windingand delivers it to the load. The enclosure, this protects the above components from dirt, moisture,and mechanical damage.
Output smoothing For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wavebridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of acapacitor may be desired because the
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bridge alone supplies an output of fixedpolarity but continuously varying or pulsating magnitude.
Fig 10: Bridge rectifier in parallel capacitor at the output The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor is to lessen the variation in the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of smoothing is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridgetends to be cancelled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out asadditional current through the load. Thus the change of load current andvoltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor.Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thusmoderating the change in output voltage / current.The simplified circuit shown has a welldeserved reputation for beingdangerous, because, in some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethalcharge after the AC power source is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage,a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely discharge thecapacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function,perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleederresistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistorshould consume a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in areasonable time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power waste.Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit,defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to maximum load, isimproved. However in many cases the improvement is of
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insignificantmagnitude.capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where Cand R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the timeof one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smoothed DCvoltage across the load. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. Thesmoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits thattend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise. The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps.
6.10 REGULATOR IC
It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DCcurrent into regulated DC current. First pin is used for input, second for ground and third pin gives the rectified and filtered output. It has an inbuilt filtering circuit which removes the ripples present in the rectified DC obtained from full bridge rectifier circuit.
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at theoutput of the filtered DC see in above diagram. It can also be used in circuitsto get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V. There are two types of voltage regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators 78xx, 79xx 2. Variable voltage regulators in fixed voltageregulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2.vevoltage regulators positive voltage regulatorsthis include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 givesfixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in 7.5V, 20V. 7805is a voltage regulatorintegrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connectedatinput and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.
output is much easier to filter than that of a half-wave rectifier. Remember the smaller the XCof the filter capacitor with respect to the load resistance the better the filtering action. Xc =
Since the largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering.Remember, also, that the load resistance is an important consideration. If loadresistance is made small, the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage Eavg decreases. The RC discharge time constant is a directfunction of the value of the load resistance therefore the rate of capacitorvoltage discharge is a direct function of the current through the load. The greater load current the more rapid the discharge of the capacitor andthe lower the average value of output voltage. For this reason, the simplecapacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that must supply arelatively large load current. Using the simple capacitive filter in conjunction with a full-wave or bridge rectifier provides improved filtering because the increased ripple frequency decreases the capacitive reactance of the filtercapacitor.
6.13 Resistor
A resistor is a component of a circuit that resists the flow of electrical current. It has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and it is designed to drop the voltage of the current as it flows from one terminal to the other. Resistors are primarily used to create and maintain known safe currents within electrical components. Resistance is measured in ohms, after Ohm's law. This law states that electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resistor divided by the current being applied. A high ohm rating indicates a high resistance to current. This rating can be written in a number of different ways - for
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example, 81R represents 81 ohms, while 81K represents 81,000 ohms. Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of opposing the flow of electric charge. This opposition is due to the collisions between electrons that make up the materials. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. Resistance is expressed in ohms which is symbolized by the capital Greek letter omega. The resistance of any material is dictated by four factors: Material property-each material will oppose the flow of current differently. Length-the longer the length, the more is the probability of collisions and, hence, the larger the resistance. Cross-sectional area-the larger the area A, the easier it becomes for electrons to flow and, hence, the lower the resistance. Temperature-typically, for metals, as temperature increases, the resistance increases.
TYPES OF RESISTER Different types of resistors have been created to meet different requirements.Some resistors are shown in Figure 4.23. The primary functions of resistors are to limit current, divide voltage and dissipate heat. A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are of the fixed type that is their resistance remains constant. The two common typesof fixed resistors wirewound and composition are shown in Figure 4.24.Wirewound resistors are used when there is a need to dissipate a large amount of heat while the composition resistors are used when largeresistance is needed. RESISTOR COLOUR CODE Some resistors are physically large enough to have their values printedon them. Other resistors are too small to have their values printed on them. For such small resistors color coding provides a way of determining the value of resistance. As shown in Figure 4.25 the color coding consists of three, four, or five bands of color around the resistor.
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Testing is a process of devising a set of inputs to a given piece of software that will cause the software to exercise some portion of its code. The developer of the software can then check if the results produced by the software are in accordance with his or her expectations. It includes number of activities such as correcting syntactically and semantically erroneous system components, detecting as many errors as possible in the software system, and assuring that the system implementation fulfills system specification. It ensures the quality, efficiency and reliability of the software, which is measured by the testing methodology and techniques used for unit, integrated, system testing etc. The testing should not be too generic containing only definitions. You should give all the test case designs, reports and results of test cases for unit, integrated, system testing etc. How debugged your code is and what actions you have taken too improve the code, must, be explained. Good testing can be measured by criteria such as correctness, reliability, user friendliness, maintainability, efficiency and portability of software.
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Errors
Testing
Test Configuration
Reliability
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UNIT TESTING:
The module interface is tested to ensure that information properly flows into and out of the program unit under test. Local data structures are examined to ensure that data stored temporarily maintains its integrity during all steps in an algorithms execution. All independent paths through the control structure are exercised to ensure that all statements in a module have been executed at least once. Boundary conditions are tested to ensure that the module operates properly at boundaries established to limit or restrict processing. This type of testing can be conducted in parallel for multiple components.
INTEGRATION TESTING:
Integration testing is systematic technique for constructing the software architecture while at the same time conducting tests to uncover errors associated with interfacing. The objective is to take unit tested components and build a program structure that has been dictated by design.
Methods of Testing:
There are different Methods of testing. On the basis of testing methods, there are two types of testing (a) Black-Box Testing & (b) White-Box Testing
WHITE-BOX TESTING:
White-box testing is a test case design method that uses the control structure of the procedural design to derive the test case. Always we are thinking that it is not necessary to execute or checks the loops and conditions, which results in large number of errors uncovered. With using white-box testing methods, we have checked that, all independent paths within a function have been executed at least once. All the logical decisions checked on their true and false side. All loops working correctly at their boundary values and within their specified conditions. In our coding we test that all the loops works truly. The one technique of white-box testing is basis path testing.
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BLACK-BOX TESTING:
Black-box testing focuses on the functional requirements of the software. That is black- box testing enables the software engineer to drive sets of input conditions that will fully exercise all functional Requirements for the program. Black-box testing is not an alternative to white-box testing techniques. Rather, it is a complementary approach that is likely to uncover a different class of errors than whitebox methods.
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CHAPTER 8 SNAPSHOTS
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CONCLUSION
SUMMARY
From the design of experimental set up with Micro Controller Based Solar Tracking System Using Stepper Motor If we compare Tracking by the use of LDR with Fixed Solar Panel System we found that the efficiency of Micro Controller Based Solar Tracking System is improved by 30-45% and it was found that all the parts of the experimental setup are giving good results. The required Power is used to run the motor by using Step-Down T/F by using 220V AC. Moreover, this tracking system does track the sun in a continuous manner. And this system is more efficient and cost effective in long run. From the results it is found that, by automatic tracking system, there is 30 % gain in increase of efficiency when compared with non-tracking system. The solar tracker can be still enhanced additional features like rain protection and wind protection which can be done as future work. Each and every project is never complete as new things are learned further modifications can be done.
Future Scope
There are always remains an infinite scope of improvement to a system design. Its only the time and financial constraints that impose a limit on the development. Following are the few enhancements that may add further value to the system.
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REFERENCES
[1] Rizk J. and Chaiko Y. Solar Tracking System: More Efficient Use of Solar Panels, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 41 2008. [2] Filfil Ahmed Nasir, Mohussen Deia Halboot, Dr. Zidan Khamis A. MicrocontrollerBased Sun Path Tracking System, Eng. & Tech. Journal, Vol. 29, No.7, 2011. [3] Alimazidi Mohammad, Gillispie J, Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay, The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems, An imprint of Pearson Education. [4] Mehta V K, Mehta Rohit, Principles of Electronics, S. Chand & Company Ltd. [5] Balagurusamy E, Programming in ANSI C, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. [6] Damm, J. Issue #17, June/July 1990. An active solar tracking system, Home Brew Magazine. [7] Koyuncu B and Balasubramanian K, A microprocessor controlled automatic sun tracker, IEEE Trans. Consumer Electron., vol. 37, no. 4,pp. 913-917, 1991. [8] Konar A and Mandal A K, Microprocessor based automatic sun tracker, IEE Proc. Sci., Meas. Technol., vol. 138, no. 4, pp. 237-241,1991.
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