PSY 101U:

Introduction to Psychology
Psy Lecturer: Dr. Afroditi Papaioannou-Spiroulia
E-mail: a.papaioannou@cityu.gr
Lecture 2
Source of basic material:
Dr. A. Papaioannou-Spiroulia

General introduction
BASIC POINTS:
Research in Psychology
Research Methods
Goals of Psy Research
Ethics
Contemporary Psychology:
Psychologys current perspectives
Example: views of anger [a]
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Neuroscience
How the body and brain
creates/enables emotions,
memories and sensory
experiences.
How are messages
transmitted in the body?
How is blood chemistry linked
with moods and motives?
Evolutionary
How nature selects traits
that promote the
perpetuation of ones
genes.
How does evolution influence
behavior tendencies?
Behavior
Genetics
How much our genes and
our environment influence
our individual differences.
To what extent are
psychological traits such as
intelligence, personality,
sexual orientation, and
vulnerability to depression
attributable to our genes
and/or to our environment?
Example: views of anger [b]
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Psychodynamic
How behavior
springs from
unconscious drives
and conflicts.
How can someones
personality traits and
disorders be explained in
terms of sexual and
aggressive drives or as
disguised effects of unfulfilled
wishes and childhood
traumas?
Behavioral
How we learn
observable
responses.
How do we learn to fear
particular objects or
situations? What is the most
effective way to alter our
behavior, say to calm, lose
weight or quit smoking?
Example: views of anger [c]
Perspective Focus Sample Questions
Cognitive
How we encode,
process, store, and
retrieve information.
How do we use information
in remembering, reasoning
problem solving?
Social-cultural/
Biopsychosocial
How behavior and
thinking vary across
situations and
cultures.
How are we as Greeks,
Africans, Asians, Australians
or North Americans, etc.
alike as members of human
family? As products of
different environmental
contexts, how do we differ?
Contemporary Psychology:
Psychologys subfields
Q: What are Psychologys specialized subfields?
Psychologys subfields encompass:
- Basic research
- Applied research
- Clinical applications.
[This term well focus on the first two subfields.]
Basic research
Basic research:
pure science that aims to increase the scientific
knowledge base
Psychologists What they do
Biological
Explore the links between the brain and the
mind.
Developmental
Study changing abilities during lifespan.
Cognitive
Study how we perceive, think, and solve
problems.
Personality
Investigate our persistent traits.
Social
Explore how we view and affect one another.
Applied research
Applied research:
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Psychologists What they do
Clinical
Study, assess, and treat people with
psychological disorders.
Counseling
Help people cope with academic, vocational,
and marital challenges.
Educational
Study and help individuals in school and
educational settings.
Industrial/
Organizational
Study and advise on behavior in the
workplace.
Scientific approach and critical thinking
Scientific approach: can help us sift reality from illusion
importance of critical thinking.
Critical Thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept
arguments and conclusions, but it:
- examines assumptions
- discerns hidden values
- evaluates evidence
- assesses conclusions.
Characteristics of a critical thinker
A critical thinker:
- is open-minded
- has the ability to identify inherent biases and assumptions
- has an attitude of skepticism
- distinguishes facts from opinions
- doesnt oversimplify
- uses the processes of logical inference
- reviews all the available evidence before reaching a
conclusion
Science without religion is lame, religion
without science is blind. (Albert Einstein, 1941)
How do psychologists ask and answer questions?
The scientific method
Q: How do psychologists use the scientific method to
construct theories?
Psychologists make observations, form theories based on
hypotheses and conclusions, and then refine their theories in the
light of new observations.
Empirical research: knowledge based on direct observation.
Theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that
organizes and predicts observations Goal: support or disprove -
We can never PROVE!
Research Strategies in Psychology:
The scientific method
Hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
states the relationship between two things (variables).
Operational definitions: precise psychological report
statements of the procedures (operations) used to define
research variables.
Replication (repeatable): repeating usually with different
participants and materials the essence of a research study
to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other
participants and circumstances.
- If we get similar results, the confidence in our findings
reliability grows.
The scientific method
Generate
or
Refine
Research
and
Observations
lead to
Hypotheses
Theories
Why psychologists
rely on empirical methods? [a]
All scientists use empirical methods to study the topics that interest
them. Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and
organizing data and drawing conclusions about those data. The
empirical methods used by scientists have developed over many
years and provide a basis for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data within a common framework in which information can be
shared. We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions,
rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical
research.
Although scientific research is an important method of studying
human behavior, not all questions can be answered using scientific
approaches. Statements that cannot be objectively measured or
objectively determined to be true or false are not within the domain
of scientific inquiry. Scientists therefore draw a distinction between
values and facts. Values are personal statements such as Abortion
should not be permitted in this country. Facts are objective
statements determined to be accurate through empirical study such
as There were more than 21.000 homicides in the USA in 2009.
Why psychologists
rely on empirical methods? [b]
Because values cannot be considered to be either true or false,
science cannot prove or disprove them. Nevertheless, research can
sometimes provide facts that can help people develop their values.
For instance, science may be able to objectively measure the impact
of unwanted children on a society or the psychological trauma
suffered by women who have abortions. The effect of capital
punishment on the crime rate in the United States may also be
determinable. This factual information can and should be made
available to help people formulate their values about abortion and
capital punishment, as well as to enable governments to articulate
appropriate policies.
Scientific research has provided information that has improved the
lives of many people.[Source: Stangor, 2011]
Description Descriptive research methods
Q: How do psychologists observe and describe
behavior and mental processes?
Case study: an observation technique in which one person is
studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
- For example, Freud constructed his theory for personality from
very revealing case studies.
Survey (a): a technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a
representative, random sample of them Asks people to report
their behavior or opinion about everything (from sexual
practices to political opinions).
- For example, 72% of Americans think theres too much TV
violence.
Research Strategies in Psychology:
Description
Survey (b):
- wording effects: wording can change the results of a survey.
For example:
Q1: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
allowed on TV? ( no)
Q2: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
forbidden on TV? ( yes)
- sampling: representative samples are a better guide than vivid
examples If each member of a population (all the cases in a
group) has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is
called a random sample (unbiased).
! If a survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
Description
Naturalistic observation: observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and
control the situation.
All the above descriptive research methods (1. case study, 2.
survey, 2. naturalistic observation) describe behavior and dont
explain it, but they can be revealing.
Research Strategies in Psychology:
Correlation
Describing behavior a first step toward predicting it.
When describing research methods reveal that one trait or
behavior accompanies another, we say that these two variables
correlate
Correlation coefficient (a): a statistical measurement that
indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus
how well either factor predicts the other
- positive correlation (0-+1.00): direct relationship of two things,
which increase or decrease together. For
example:
more hours of work more cigarettes smoked.
Correlation
Correlation coefficient (b):
- negative correlation (0--1.00): inverse relationship of two
things as one thing increases, the other decreases. For
example:
people who score low on self-esteemtend to
score high on depression .
Correlational research:
+ efficient a lot of data
- cannot determine causation.
Correlation
Q: Why do correlations permit prediction but not
explanation? Can you give an example?
Correlation and causation: Correlation indicates the possibility of a
cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation.
- Example: Length of marriage correlates with hair loss in men.
Does this mean that marriage causes men to lose
their hair?... balding men are better husbands and
hairy men arent?...
! A 3
rd
factor can explain the correlation: length of marriage (f1)
and baldness (f2) both accompany WHAT?
Correlation
Example: 3 possible cause-effect relations about the negative
correlation between self-esteem and depression:
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
could cause
or
or
and
Correlation
Q: How accurately does the naked eye detect
correlations?
Notice random coincidences + Forget that they are random =
We see them as correlated = We deceive ourselves by seeing
what is not there
- For example: sugar makes children hyper-active, meat
makes us violent
Illusory correlation (a): the perception of a relationship
between two things that doesnt exist.
Correlation
Illusory correlation (b): the perception of a relationship
between to things that doesnt exist.
- When we believe there is a relationship between two things,
we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our
belief
(Trolier & Hamilton, 1986)
- Illusory correlations arise from our natural eagerness to make
sense of the world. And given even random data, we look for
order, for meaningful patterns.
- For example: On the 2002 anniversary of 9/11,
New York States three-pick lottery numbers
came up 9-1-1 SO WHAT?
Correlation
- Do you believe that previously infertile couples become more
likely to conceive a child after adopting a baby?
- Many people answer yes. Their belief arises from their attention
being drawn to such cases, while many couples who adopt
without conceiving or conceive without adopting grab less
attention.
- How can we determine
whether theres actually
a correlation between
adoption and
conception?
Conceive Do not conceive
Adopt
Do not
adopt
disconfirming
evidence
confirming
evidence
disconfirming
evidence
confirming
evidence
Research Strategies in Psychology:
Experimentation
Q: How do experiments clarify or reveal cause-
effect relationships?
Experiment (a): a research method in which an investigator
manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe
their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent
variable).
- True experiments:
a) have random assignment,
b) manipulate the factor(s) of interest,
c) hold constant (control) other factors,
d) lead to an effect
clarify cause-effect relationships.
Experimentation
Experiment (b):
- Distinction between random sampling in surveys and random
assignment in experiments:
- random sampling helps us generalize to a
larger population
- random assignment controls extraneous
influences, which helps us
infer cause and effect.
- Variable(s) (a): is anything that can vary intelligence,
infant nutrition, hair color etc.
Experimentation
- Variable(s) (b):
Independent Variable (IV):
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent Variable (DV):
the experimental factor that is being measured
in Psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
it may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Experimentation
- Example of an experiment (a):
We want to research the possible effect of caffeine to
memory ability.
IV: caffeine DV: memory
Participants: 1
rst
team: caffeine 2
nd
team: placebo
- placebo: an inert substance or condition that may be
administered instead of a presumed active agent (drug) to see if it
triggers the effects belie-ved to characterize the active agent
- placebo effect: any effect on behavior caused by a placebo.
Experimentation
- Example of an experiment (b):
- double-blind procedure: when both
participants and staff ignore the receipt
of placebo;
- experimental condition: the condition of an experiment that
exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of
the independent variable;
- control condition: the condition of an experiment that contrasts
with the experimental treatment it serves as a comparison for
evaluating the effect of the treatment;
Material: memory test [] Conclusion
Research Methods
Research Method Basic Purpose How conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing
record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing
occurring relationships - association, sometimes
To assess how well among survey
one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent
and effect more factors and using variable(s)
random assignment
to eliminate preexisting
differences among
subjects
Basic characteristics OF AN ETHICAL RESEARCH PROJECT
USING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
Trust and positive rapport are created between the researcher and the
participant.
The rights of both the experimenter and participant are considered, and
the relationship between them is mutually beneficial.
The experimenter treats the participant with concern and respect and
attempts to make the research experience a pleasant and informative one.
Before the research begins, the participant is given all information relevant
to his or her decision to participate, including any possibilities of physical
danger or psychological stress.
The participant is given a chance to have questions about the procedure
answered, thus guaranteeing his or her free choice about participating.
After the experiment is over, any deception that has been used is made
public, and the necessity for it is explained.
The experimenter carefully debriefs the participant, explaining the
underlying research hypothesis and the purpose of the experimental
procedure in detail and answering any questions [] [Stangor, 2011]
Goals of Psychological Research
Description of social behavior: Are people who grow up in
warm climates different from those in cold climates?
Establish a relationship between cause and effect: Does heat
cause higher amounts of aggression?
Develop theories about why people behave the way that they
do: We dislike foreigners to feel better about ourselves.
Application: Creating effective therapeutic treatments, more
successful negotiation tactics, and greater understanding
amongst groups of people.
Example of Research
[Stangor, 2011]
Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own
Name
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay,
Pelham, & Carvallo, 2005) demonstrates the extent to which people can be unaware
of the causes of their own behavior. The research demonstrated that, at least under
certain conditions (and although they do not know it), people frequently prefer brand
names that contain the letters of their own name to brand names that do not contain
the letters of their own name.
The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research
was a taste test of different types of tea. For each pair of participants, the
experimenter created two teas and named them by adding the word stem oki to
the first three letters of each participants first name. For example, for Jonathan and
Elisabeth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki and Elioki.
The participants were then shown 20 packets of tea that were supposedly being
tested. Eighteen packets were labeled with made-up Japanese names (e.g.
Mataku or Somuta), and two were labeled with the brand names constructed
from the participants names. The experimenter explained that each participant
would taste only two teas and would be allowed to choose one packet of these two
to take home. One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select
the two brands that would be tasted at this session.
However, the drawing was rigged so that the two brands containing the
participants name stems were always chosen for tasting. []
ANY QUESTIONS?
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PLANNIND LECTURE 3
TOPICS OF INTEREST:
Based on Lecture 2: Focus on the Research in Psychology.
Next, well focus on the biological perspective on
Psychology.
FOR ANY FURTHER QUESTIONS
DONT HESITATE TO ASK ME IN CLASS
OR CONTACT ME VIA E-MAIL
(a.papaioannou@cityu.gr)
-Always Cc Student Support, as well (student.support@cityu.gr).
ANY QUESTIONS, THOUGHTS, IDEAS?