1

1. INTRODUCTION
Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive, there is an
ongoing interest in improving power factor. The low power factor of inductive loads robs
systems capacity and can adversely affect voltage level.
As such, power factor correction through the application of capacitors is widely
practiced at all system voltages. As utilities increase penalties they charge customers for
low power factor, system performance will not be the only consideration. The installation
of power factor correction capacitors improves system performance and saves money.
A number of manufacturers have catalogs and design manuals to assist in the
application of their products. These publications provide guidance in the selection and
placement of capacitors and discuss general provisions that will affect the overall
performance of the installation.
Although the methodology for applying capacitors is relatively straight forward,
there are a number of influencing factors that must be considered. To ensure that the
capacitor installation does not create more problems than it solves, consideration must be
given to non-linear loads, utility interaction and system configuration.
1.1. What is Electric Power?
Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric
circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.
In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and
capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of
power flow that, averaged over a complete cycle of the A waveform, results in net
transfer of energy in one direction is !nown as real power "also referred to as active
power#. That portion of power flow due to stored energy, which returns to the source in
each cycle, is !nown as reactive power.
$
Power triangle The components of C power
The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be
e%pressed by representing the &uantities as vectors. 'eal power is represented as a
hori(ontal vector and reactive power is represented as a vertical vector. The apparent
power vector is the hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and
reactive power vectors. This representation is often called the power triangle. )sing the
*ythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real, reactive and apparent power is+
"apparent power#
$
, "real power#
$
- "reactive power#
$

'eal and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the apparent power,
when the current and voltage are both sinusoids with a !nown phase angle between them+
"real power# , "apparent power# . cos"/#
"reactive power# , "apparent power# . sin"/#
1.!. "ignificance of reacti#e power
1.!.1. Engineering tal$
'eactive power is a &uantity that is normally only defined for alternating current
"A# electrical systems. 0ur Indian interconnected grid is almost entirely an A system
where the voltages and currents alternate up and down 12 times per second "not
necessarily at the same time#. In that sense, these are pulsating &uantities. 3ecause of this,
the power being transmitted down a single line also 4pulsates5 - although it goes up and
down 122 times per second rather than 12. This power goes up and down around some
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4average5 value - this average value is called the 4real5 power and over time you pay for
this in !ilowatt-hours of energy. If this average value is (ero, then all of the power being
transmitted is called 4reactive5 power. 7ou would not normally be charged for using
reactive power because you are consuming some energy half the time, and giving it all
bac! the other half of the time - for a net use of (ero. To distinguish reactive power from
real power, we use the reactive power unit called 48A'5 - which stands for 8olt-Ampere-
'eactive. 8oltage in an electrical system is analogous to pressure in a water system.
urrent in an electrical system is analogous to the flow of water in a water system.
9ets go bac! to this notion that voltage and current may not go up and down at the
same time. :hen the voltage and current do go up and down at the same time, only real
power is transmitted. :hen the voltage and current go up and down at different times,
reactive power is being transmitted. ;ow much reactive power and which direction it is
flowing on a transmission line depend on how different these two times are.
Two e%treme e%amples of the time relationship between voltage and current are
found in inductors and capacitors. An inductor is a coil of wire that is used to ma!e
motors. A capacitor is made of parallel conductive plates separated by an insulating
material. The electrical properties of these two devices are such that if they are both
connected to the same A voltage source, the inductor absorbs energy during the same
4half cycle5 that the capacitor is giving energy. And similarly, the inductor produces
energy during the same 4half cycle5 that the capacitor absorbs energy. <either of them
absorbs any real power over one complete cycle. Thus, when a motor needs reactive
power, it is not necessary to go all the way bac! to electric power generators on the
transmission grid to get it. 7ou can simply put a capacitor at the location of the motor and
it will provide the 8A's needed by the motor. This relieves the generator and all the lines
between the generator and the motor of having to transmit those 8A's. They are provided
4locally5 by the capacitor. This means that with the capacitors installed, the current in the
lines will be smaller than when the capacitors are not installed. This is a good thing
because current in the lines causes heat and every line can only handle a limited amount of
current. Since the line current is smaller when the capacitors are installed, the voltage drop
along all the lines is also less, ma!ing it more li!ely that the motor will have a voltage
closer to the desired value. :hen there are not enough 8A's flowing locally to the loads,
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the generators must supply them remotely, causing unnecessarily large currents and a
resulting drop in voltage everywhere along the path.
1.%. ph&sical analog& for reacti#e power
:hile there are numerous physical analogies for this &uantity called reactive
power, one that is reasonably accurate is the process of filling a water tower tan! with
water - one buc!et at a time. Suppose you want to fill a water tower tan! with water, and
the only way that you can do that is by climbing up a ladder carrying a buc!et of water and
then dumping the water into the tan!. 7ou then have to go bac! down the ladder to get
more water. Strictly spea!ing, if you simply go up a ladder "not carrying anything# and
come bac! down "not carrying anything#, you have not done any wor! in the process. 3ut,
since it did ta!e wor! to go up the ladder, you must have gotten all that energy bac! when
you came down. :hile you may not feel that coming down the ladder completely restores
you to the condition you were in before you went up, ideally, from an energy conversion
viewpoint, you should> If you dont agree, get out your physics boo! and chec! out the
official definition of doing wor!.
0?, if you still dont agree that wal!ing up a ladder and coming bac! down does
not re&uire any net wor!, then thin! of it this way. :ould you pay anyone to wal! up a
ladder and bac! down without doing anything at the top@ *robably not. 3ut, if they
dumped a buc!et of water in the tan! while they were at the top, then that would be
something worth paying for.
:hen you carry a buc!et of water up the ladder you do a certain amount of wor!. If you
dump the water at the top and carry an empty buc!et down, then you have not gotten all
your energy bac! "because your total weight coming down is less than going up#, and you
have done wor! during that process. The energy that it ta!es to go up and down a ladder
carrying nothing either way re&uires reactive power, but no real power. The energy that it
ta!es to go up a ladder carrying something and come down without carrying anything
re&uires both real power and reactive power.
A reminder here is that power is the time rate of energy consumption, so
consuming 122 :atts of real power for 62 minutes uses $12 :att-hours of energy. The
analogy is that voltage in an A electrical system is li!e the person going up and down the
1
ladder. The movements of the water up the ladder and then down into the tan! is li!e the
current in an A electrical system.
<ow, this pulsating power is not good in an electrical system because it causes
pulsations on the shafts of motors and generators which can fatigue them. So, the answer
to this pulsation problem is to have three ladders going up to the water tower and have
three people climb up in se&uence "the first person on the first ladder, then the second
person on the second ladder, then the third person on the third ladder# such that there is
always a steady stream of water going into the tan!. :hile the power re&uired from each
person is pulsating, the total result of all three wor!ing together in perfect balanced,
symmetrical se&uence results in a constant flow of water into the tan! A this is why we use
46-phase5 electrical systems where voltages go up and down in 4se&uence5 A "first A
phase, then 3 phase, and finally phase#.
In A electrical systems, this se&uential upBdown pulsation of power in each line is
the heart of the transmission of electrical energy. As in the water tower analogy, having
plenty of water at ground level will not help you if you cannot get it up into the tower.
:hile you may certainly be strong enough to carry the buc!et, you cannot get it there
without the ladder. In contrast, there may be a ladder, but you may not be strong enough to
carry the water. ;owever, the people do ta!e up room around the water tower and limit
how much water can go up and down over a period of time - Cust as reactive power flow in
an electrical system re&uires a larger current which limits how much real power can be
transmitted.
To ma!e the system more reliable, we might put two sets of three ladders leading
up to the tan! on the tower. Then, if one set fails "maybe the water plus the person get too
heavy and the ladder brea!s#, the other set pic!s up the slac! "that is, has to carry more
water#. 3ut, this could eventually overload the second set so that it too fails. This is a
cascading outage due to the overloading of ladders.
1.'. (ow is reacti#e power relate) to the pro*lem of #oltage collapse?
In terms of this water-carrying analogy, the fre&uency of going up and down the
ladder should be nearly constant "that, is li!e our 12 cycles per second electrical
D
fre&uency#. So, when more water is needed, the amount that each person carries up the
ladder must get bigger "since they are not allowed to go faster or slower#. :ell, if this
water gets too heavy, either the ladder might brea!, or the person might get too tired to
carry it. :e could argue that if the ladder brea!s, that is li!e the outage of a transmission
line that either sags or brea!s under the stress of too much current. There are devices
called relays in an electrical system that are supposed to sense when the load is too much
and send a signal to a 4circuit brea!er5 to remove the line from service "li!e removing the
set of three ladders#. If the person gets too tired, we could again stretch this analogy to say
that this is li!e not having enough reactive power "resulting in low voltage#. In the e%treme
case, the person might 4collapse5 under the weight of the water that the person is being
as!ed to carry. If it happens to one person, it will probably happen to many of them. In the
electrical system this could be considered a 4voltage collapse5. :hile there are 4under
voltage relays,5 there are no relays in the system to directly sense the problem that the
voltage is about to collapse.
Another analogy that says that reactive power is the 4foam on the beer5 is fairly
good here because the space in the glass is ta!en up by the useless foam - leaving less
room for the 4real5 beer.
'emember, the people going up and down the ladders do not absorb or produce
energy over a complete cycle and are therefore analogous to reactive power. It is the water
going up the ladder to fill the tan! that absorbs real power that must be paid for. 3ut, the
real power cannot be delivered without the reactive power. And, if there is not enough
reactive power "li!e with people going up and down the ladders#, the real power delivery
will eventually fail.
In summary, a voltage collapse occurs when the system is trying to serve more load than
the voltage can support. A simulation has been prepared to illustrate voltage collapse by
simply using a system with an Eastern generator and customer load, a :estern generator
and customer load, and East to :est transmission lines. In the simulation, the Eastern
generator has a constrained supply of reactive power and progressive line outages for
unspecified reasons lead to a voltage collapse even when reactive power supply is ample
at the :estern generator.
In contrast to all of this, you could route a hose up the side of the water tower and
simply turn on the water and let the water flow in the hose to fill up the tan!. The water
F
pressure is li!e voltage, and the water flow is li!e current. This type of system would be a
direct current "G# system and would not involve reactive power at all. ;owever, the
concept of voltage collapse is not uni&ue to A systems. A simple G system consisting
of a battery serving light bulbs can be used to illustrate how too much load on a system
can lead to a condition where voltages drop to a critical point where 4adding more load5
results in less power transmission - a form of voltage collapse.
H
!. W(T I" POWER +CTOR ?
The power factor of an A electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load to the apparent power, and is a number between 2 and 1.
A measure of the effectiveness with which an electrical device converts volt-
amperes to wattsI devices with power factors J2.K2 are Lhigh power factorL
devices.
'eal power is the capacity of the circuit for performing wor! in a particular time.
Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Gue to energy
stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the
wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be greater than
the real power. In an electric power system, a load with low power factor draws more
current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred.

3ecause of the costs of larger e&uipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will
usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low
power factor. 9inear loads with low power factor "such as induction motors# can be
corrected with a passive networ! of capacitors or inductors. 0n-linear loads, such as
rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active power factor
correction is used to counteract the distortion and raise power factor.

The devices for correction of power factor may be at a central substation, or spread
out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming e&uipment A power flow
has the three components+ real power "*#, measured in watts ":#I apparent power "S#,
measured in volt-amperes "8A#I and reactive power "M#, measured in reactive volt-
amperes "8Ar#.In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, *, M and S can be
e%pressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such that+ If N is the phase angle between
the current and voltage, then the power factor is e&ual to cosine"N#, and+ Since the units
are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 2 and 1.
:hen power factor is e&ual to 2, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored
energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. :hen the power factor is 1, all the
K
energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. *ower factors are usually stated as
LleadingL or LlaggingL to show the sign of the phase angle. If a purely resistive load is
connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power
factor will be unity.
The electrical energy flows in a single direction across the networ! in each cycle.
Inductive loads such as transformers and motors "any type of wound coil# consume
reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. apacitive loads such as
capacitor ban!s or buried cable generate reactive power with current phase leading the
voltage.
3oth types of loads will absorb energy during part of the A cycle, which is stored
in the deviceOs electric field, only to return this energy bac! to the source during the rest of
the cycle. Por e%ample, to get 1 !: of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 !8A of
apparent power needs to be transferred "1 !: Q 1 , 1 !8A#.
At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get
the same real power. To get 1 !: of real power at 2.$ power factor, 1 !8A of apparent
power needs to be transferred "1 !: Q 2.$ , 1 !8A#.This apparent power must be
produced and transmitted to the load in the conventional fashion, and is subCect to the
usual distributed losses in the production and transmission processes.
The apparent power is the vector sum of real and reactive power
Real power "P# - unit+ watt ":#
Reacti#e power "Q# - unit+ volt-amperes reactive "var#
Comple, power "S# - unit+ volt-ampere "8A#
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pparent Power "RSR# , that is, the absolute value of comple% power S - unit+ volt-
ampere "8A#...
To understand power factor, well first start with the definition of some basic terms+
-W is :or!ing *ower "also called Actual *ower or Active *ower or 'eal *ower#.It is
the power that actually powers the e&uipment and performs useful wor!.
-.R is 'eactive *ower. It is the power that magnetic e&uipment "transformer, motor
and relay# needs to produce the magneti(ing flu%.
-. is Apparent *ower. It is the vectorial summation of ?8A' and ?:.
9et s loo! at a simple analogy in order to better understand these
terms .9et s say you are at the ballpar! and it is a really hot day. 7ou order up a mug of
your favorite brews!y. The thirst-&uenching portion of your beer represented by -W
"Pigure 1#. )nfortunately, life is not perfect. Along with your ale comes a little bit of
foam. "And let s face it that foam Cust does not &uench your thirst.# This foam is
represented by -.R. The total contents of your mug, -., is this summation of ?:
"the beer#and ?8A' "the foam#.
So, now that we understand some basic terms, we are ready to learn about power factor+
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Power +actor /P.+.0 is the ratio of :or!ing *ower to Apparent *ower. 9oo!ing at our
beer mug analogy above, power factor would be the ratio of beer "?:# to beer plus foam
"?8A#.
Thus, for a given ?8A+ The more foam you have "the higher the percentage of
?8A'#, the lower your ratio of ?: "beer# to ?8A "beer plus foam#. Thus, the lower your
power factor.
2
The less foam you have "the lower the percentage of ?8A'#, the higher your ratio
of ?: "beer# to ?8A "beer plus foam#. In fact, as your foam "or ?8A'# approaches (ero,
your power factor approaches 1.2.0ur beer mug analogy is a bit simplistic. In reality,
when we calculate ?8A, we must determine the vectorial summation of ?8A' and ?:.
Therefore, we must go one step further and loo! at the angle between these vect
9ets loo! at another analogy
Sac here is dragging a heavy load "Pigure $#. Sac s :or!ing *ower "or Actual
*ower# in the forward direction, where he most wants his load to travel, is -W.
)nfortunately, Sac can t drag his load on a perfect hori(ontal "he would get a tremendous
bac!ache#, so his shoulder height adds a little 'eactive *ower, or -.R.
The Apparent *ower Sac is dragging, -., is this vectorial summation of ?8A' and
?:.
1$
%."TUD1 O+ TRN"2I"ION 3IN" 4 "U56"TTION7"
I. Sost of the a.c. appliances have induction motor as their main drive which wor!s
as lagging power factors, and they mostly contribute for the lagging power factor
of the station
II. The transformers at sub-stations have lagging power factor because they draw
magneti(ing current to lag behind the voltage.
III. The industrial heating furnaces have very low lagging factor.
I8. Arc lamps which operate at low power factor.

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'. E++ECT" O+ 3OW POWER +CTOR
onsider an alternator "single phase#, having full load rated capacity of 1,222 A at
122 8.
'ating of the alternator , "1,222 % 122#B1,222 , 122!8A
If the alternator is operating at unity p.f., load supplied , 122 T 1 ,
122!:.
If the p.f. is 2.D, load supplied , 122% 2.D , 622!:.
Although the alternator is fully loaded i.e., developing its ma%imum current and
voltage, yet when the p.f. is 2.D it is supplying only D2U of its full load capacity.
So in order to supply 122 !: at 2.D p.f the alternator must be overloaded and the
conductors connecting the alternator to load must be made of much larger cross-
section to carry the overload current.
;ence for a given power the lower the power factor the larger must be the si(e of
the alternator and larger must be the si(e of the conductors of transmission I or, in
other words, the greater will be the cost of generation and the transmission. That is
the reason why supply underta!ings always stress upon the consumers to increase
their p.f
1=
8. DI"D.NT9E" WIT( 3OW POWER +CTOR
There are many serious defects of low power factor over the plants which are
summari(ed as follows+
Effect on transmission lines: Por the same power to be transmitted over the
line, it will have to carry more current at low power factors. As the line is to carry
more current, its cross-sectional area will have to be increased which increases the
capital cost of the lines. Also increased current increases the line loss or the
efficiency of the line is lowered, and the line drop is also increased.
Effect on Transformers: Por decreased power factor, the !: capacity of the
transformer is decreased and the voltage in it is increased.
Effect on Switchgear and Bus bars: The cross-sectional area of the bus
bar, and the contact surface of the switchgears must be enlarged for the same
power to be delivered at low power factors.
Effect on Generators: :ith the low power factor the !8A as well as !:
capacities are lowered. The power supplied by the e%citer is increased, as well as
the generator copper losses are increased, so their efficiency decreased.
Effect on Prime Movers: :hen the power factor is decreased the alternator
develops more reactive !8A or the wattles power generated is more, but certain
energy is re&uired to develop it which is supplied by the prime mover. That is the
part of the prime mover capacity is idle and represents dead investment. :or!ing
at low power factors also decreases the efficiency of prime mover.
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:.D.NT9E"O+POWER+CTOR
I2PRO.E2ENT
The !: capacity of the prime movers is better utili(ed.
This increases the !ilowatt capacity of the alternators.
The !: capacity of transmission and the lines are increased.
The efficiency of every plant is increased.
The overall cost per unit decreased.
The regulation of the lines is improved.
;. 2ET(OD" O+ I2PRO.IN9 POWER +CTOR
Pollowing are the methods of improving the power factor+
With the use of capacitors:
They are connected in parallel with the supply mains and ta!e current leading by
K2 degrees from the mains which neutrali(e the reactive lagging. Installing capacitors
decreases the magnitude of reactive power "?8A' or foam#, thus increasing your power
factor 'eactive power "?8A'S#, caused by inductive loads, acts at a K2-degree angle to
wor!ing power "?:#. apacitors store ?8A'S and release energy opposing the reactive
energy caused by the inductor .The presence of both a capacitor and inductor in the same
circuit results in the continuous alternating transfer of energy between the two. Thus, when
the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor
1D
With the help of a synchronous condenser: The synchronous confessor is also
called as synchronous motor. This is the only motor which can also be wor!ed at leading
power factor at the same time this can supply mechanical power.
Phase dvancers: These are special commutator machines which improve the
There are some other methods other than the above mentioned one, they are as follows
Sinimi(ing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
:e already tal!ed about the fact that low power factor is caused by the presence of
induction motors. 3ut, more specifically, low power factor is caused by running
induction motors lightly loaded.
Avoiding operation of e&uipment above its rated voltage.
'eplacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors. Even
with energy-efficient motors, power factor is significantly affected by variations in
load. A motor must be operated near its rated load in order to reali(e the benefits of
a high power factor design.
1F
<.3OCTION O+ POWER +CTOR I2PRO.E2ENT PPRTU"
*ower factor improvement apparatus should always be located near the
e&uipmentBmachinery which is responsible for low power factor. If synchronous
condensers are to be used for improving the power factor of the transmission line, then the
best location for these will be at the receiving end. Synchronous condensers thus installed
will relieve both the transmission line and generators form the e%cessive current.
;owever, if synchronous condensers are installed near the generators then only generators
will be relieved from the e%cessive lagging current component and the transmission line
will have to carry more than normal current.
<EA' T;E S0)'E -- S0'E 90SSES

<EA' T;E 90AG --- 9ESS 90SSES
1H
= . RECTI.E CURRENT RE>UIRED +OR POWEI2PRO.E2ENT
onsider a circuit which is red through an A.. supply. 9et the current supplied to
the circuit be I amperes and let this current be lagging the voltage by an angle phi. The
current supplied to this circuit can be resolved into two components, one along the voltage
vector and other in &uadrature to the voltage vector. The component along the voltage
vector is !nown as in phase or active component and the other component is !nown as
reactive component of current. Active and the other components of currents are shown in
fig.
In order to improve the power factor, angle phi should be increased and for unity power
factor, angle phi is decreased to (ero, I sin x " I
r
# is to be decreased . This is achieved by
introducing leading current I
e
of magnitude e&ual to the reactive component, in the circuit
as shown by 0A in fig.
This leading current I
e
will lead the voltage by K2 degrees and will be in phase
opposition to I
a,
I
r, and
I
e
is

I
a
which is in phase with the voltage thereby giving the unity p.f.
Therefore the leading current re&uired to neutrali(e the lagging reactive component of the
current to obtain unity p.f. is given as+
I
e ,
I
r
, I sin %
, IV "1- cos
$
%#
, IV "1- "p.f#
$
# -------------------------------------- "1#
1K
1?. POWER +CTOR I2PRO.E2ENT 51 T(E U"E O+ "TTIC
CPCITOR"
1?.1. (ow Capacitors Wor$?
1?.1.1 Intro)@ction
In a way, a capacitor is a little li!e a battery. Although they wor! in completely
different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energ&. If you have read
;ow 3atteries :or!, then you !now that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery,
chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons on the other
terminal. A capacitor is much simpler than a battery, as it canOt produce new electrons -- it
only stores them.
In this article, weOll learn e%actly what a capacitor is, what it does and how itOs used in
electronics. :eOll also loo! at the history of the capacitor and how several people helped
shape its progress.
Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a non6
con)@cting s@*stanceA or )ielectric. 7ou can easily ma!e a capacitor from two pieces of
aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It wonOt be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its
storage capacity, but it will wor!.
+lash capacitor from a
point6an)6shoot camera
$2
In theory, the dielectric can be any non-conductive substance. ;owever, for practical
applications, specific materials are used that best suit the capacitorOs function. Sica,
ceramic, cellulose, porcelain, Sylar, Teflon and even air are some of the non-conductive
materials used. The dielectric dictates what !ind of capacitor it is and for what it is best
suited. Gepending on the si(e and type of dielectric, some capacitors are better for high
fre&uency uses, while some are better for high voltage applications. apacitors can be
manufactured to serve any purpose, from the smallest plastic capacitor in your calculator,
to an ultra capacitor that can power a commuter bus. <ASA uses glass capacitors to help
wa!e up the space shuttleOs circuitry and help deploy space probes. ;ere are some of the
various types of capacitors and how they are used.
Air - 0ften used in radio tuning circuits
Sylar - Sost commonly used for timer circuits li!e cloc!s, alarms and counters
Wlass - Wood for high voltage applications
eramic - )sed for high fre&uency purposes li!e antennas, T-ray
and S'I machines
Super capacitor - *owers electric and hybrid cars
1?.1.!. (istor& of the Capacitor
The invention of the capacitor varies somewhat depending on who you as!. There
are records that indicate a Werman scientist named Ewald Weorg von ?leist invented the
capacitor in <ovember 1F=1. Several months later *ieter van Susschenbroe!, a Gutch
professor at the )niversity of 9eyden came up with a very similar device in the form of
the 3e&)en Bar, which is typically credited as the first capacitor. Since ?leist didnOt have
detailed records and notes, or the notoriety of his Gutch counterpart, heOs often overloo!ed
as a contributor to the capacitorOs evolution. ;owever, over the years, both have been
given e&ual credit as it was established that their research was independent of each other
and merely a scientific coincidence Xsource+ :illiamsY.
The 9eyden Car was a very simple device. It consisted of a glass Car, half filled with
water and lined inside and out with metal foil. The glass acted as the dielectric, although it
was thought for a time that water was the !ey ingredient. There was usually a metal wire
or chain driven through a cor! in the top of the Car. The chain was then hoo!ed to
$1
something that would deliver a charge, most li!ely a hand-cran!ed static generator. 0nce
delivered, the Car would hold two e&ual but opposite charges in e&uilibrium until they were
connected with a wire, producing a slight spar! or shoc! Xsource+ :illiamsY.
3enCamin Pran!lin wor!ed with the 9eyden Car in his e%periments with electricity and
soon found that a flat piece of glass wor!ed as well as the Car model, prompting him to
develop the flat capacitor, or Pran!lin S&uare. 7ears later, English chemist Sichael
Paraday would pioneer the first practical applications for the capacitor in trying to
store unused electrons from his e%periments. This led to the first usable capacitor,
made from large oil barrels. ParadayOs progress with capacitors is what eventually
enabled us to deliver electric power over great distances. As a result of ParadayOs
achievements in the field of electricity, the unit of measurement for capacitors, or
capacitance, became !nown as the farad
1?.1.%. Capacitor Circ@it
In an electronic circ@it, a capacitor is shown li!e this+
Z$22F ;owStuff:or!s
:hen you connect a capacitor to a *atter&, hereOs what happens+
$$
The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery
accepts electrons that the battery is producing.
The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses
electrons to the battery.
0nce itOs charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery "1.1 volts on the
battery means 1.1 volts on the capacitor#. Por a small capacitor, the capacity is small. 3ut
large capacitors can hold &uite a bit of charge. 7ou can find capacitors as big as soda cans
that hold enough charge to light a flashlight bulb for a minute or more.
Even nature shows the capacitor at wor! in the form of lightning. 0ne plate is the
cloud, the other plate is the ground and the lightning is the charge releasing between these
two Lplates.L 0bviously, in a capacitor that large, you can hold a huge amount of charge>
3etCs sa& &o@ hoo$ @p a capacitor li$e this+
;ere you have a battery, a light bulb and a capacitor. If the capacitor is pretty big,
what you will notice is that, when you connect the battery, the light bulb will light up as
current flows from the battery to the capacitor to charge it up. The bulb will get
progressively dimmer and finally go out once the capacitor reaches its capacity. If you
then remove the battery and replace it with a wire, current will flow from one plate of the
capacitor to the other. The bulb will light initially and then dim as the capacitor
discharges, until it is completely out.
$6
. 1?.1.'. +ara)
A capacitorOs storage potential, or capacitance, is measured in units called fara)s.
A 1-farad capacitor can store one coulomb "coo-9omb# of charge at 1 volt. A coulomb is
D.$1e1H "D.$1 . 12[1H, or D.$1 billion billion# electrons. 0ne amp represents a rate of
electron flow of 1 coulomb of electrons per second, so a 1-farad capacitor can hold 1 amp-
second of electrons at 1 volt.
A 1-farad capacitor would typically be pretty big. It might be as big as a can of
tuna or a 1-liter soda bottle, depending on the voltage it can handle. Por this reason,
capacitors are typically measured in microfarads "millionths of a farad#.
To get some perspective on how big a farad is, thin! about this+
A standard al!aline AA battery holds about $.H amp-hours.
That means that a AA battery can produce $.H amps for an hour at 1.1 volts "about
=.$ watt-hours -- a AA battery can light a =-watt bulb for a little more than an
hour#.
9etOs call it 1 volt to ma!e the math easier. To store one AA batteryOs energy in a
capacitor, you would need 6,D22 . $.H , 12,2H2 farads to hold it, because an amp-
hour is 6,D22 amp-seconds.
If it ta!es something the si(e of a can of tuna to hold a farad, then 12,2H2 farads is
going to ta!e up a 90T more space than a single AA battery> 0bviously, itOs impractical to
use capacitors to store any significant amount of power unless you do it at a high voltage.
1?.1.8. pplications
$=
The difference between a capacitor and a battery is that a capacitor can dump its
entire charge in a tiny fraction of a second, where a battery would ta!e minutes to
completely discharge. ThatOs why the electronic flash on a camera uses a capacitor -- the
battery charges up the flashOs capacitor over several seconds, and then the capacitor dumps
the full charge into the flash tube almost instantly. This can ma!e a large, charged
capacitor e%tremely dangerous -- flash units and T8s have warnings about opening them
up for this reason. They contain big capacitors that can, potentially, !ill you with the
charge they contain.
Capacitors are @se) in se#eral )ifferent wa&s in electronic circ@its+
Sometimes, capacitors are used to store charge for high-speed use. ThatOs what a
flash does. 3ig lasers use this techni&ue as well to get very bright, instantaneous
flashes.
apacitors can also eliminate ripples. If a line carrying G voltage has ripples or
spi!es in it, a big capacitor can even out the voltage by absorbing the pea!s and
filling in the valleys.
A capacitor can bloc! G voltage. If you hoo! a small capacitor to a battery, then
no current will flow between the poles of the battery once the capacitor charges.
;owever, any alternating current "A# signal flows through a capacitor
unimpeded. ThatOs because the capacitor will charge and discharge as the
alternating current fluctuates, ma!ing it appear that the alternating current is
flowing.
Z *hotographer+ <ewstoc!er R Agency+ Greamstime.com
famil& of capacitors
CPCITOR" ND 3TERNTIN9 CURRENT
The four parts of figure show the variation of the alternating voltage and current in
a capacitive circuit, for each &uarter of one cycle. The solid line represents the voltage
across the capacitor, and the dotted line represents the current. The line running through
$1
the center is the (ero, or reference point, for both the voltage and the current. The bottom
line mar!s off the time of the cycle in terms of electrical degrees. Assume that the ac
voltage has been acting on the capacitor for some time before the time represented by the
starting point of the sine wave in the figure.
*hase relationship of voltage and current in a capacitive circuit.
At the beginning of the first &uarter-cycle "2\ to K2\# the voltage has Cust passed
through (ero and is increasing in the positive direction. Since the (ero point is the steepest
part of the sine wave, the voltage is changing at its greatest rate. The charge on a capacitor
varies directly with the voltage, and therefore the charge on the capacitor is also changing
at its greatest rate at the beginning of the first &uarter-cycle. In other words, the greatest
number of electrons are moving off one plate and onto the other plate. Thus the capacitor
current is at its ma%imum value, as part "A# of the figure shows.
As the voltage proceeds toward ma%imum at K2 degrees, its rate of change
becomes less and less, hence the current must decrease toward (ero. At K2 degrees the
voltage across the capacitor is ma%imum, the capacitor is fully charged, and there is no
further movement of electrons from plate to plate. That is why the current at K2 degrees is
(ero.
$D
At the end of this first &uarter-cycle the alternating voltage stops increasing in the
positive direction and starts to decrease. It is still a positive voltage, but to the capacitor
the decrease in voltage means that the plate which has Cust accumulated an e%cess of
electrons must lose some electrons. The current flow, therefore, must reverse its direction.
*art "3# of the figure shows the current curve to be below the (ero line "negative current
direction# during the second &uarter-cycle "K2\ to 1H2\#.
At 1H2 degrees the voltage has dropped to (ero. This means that for a brief instant
the electrons are e&ually distributed between the two platesI the current is ma%imum
because the rate of change of voltage is ma%imum. ]ust after 1H2 degrees the voltage has
reversed polarity and starts building up its ma%imum negative pea! which is reached at the
end of the third &uarter-cycle "1H2\ to $F2\#. Guring this third &uarter-cycle the rate of
voltage change gradually decreases as the charge builds to a ma%imum at $F2 degrees. At
this point the capacitor is fully charged and it carries the full impressed voltage. 3ecause
the capacitor is fully charged there is no further e%change of electronsI therefore, the
current flow is (ero at this point. The conditions are e%actly the same as at the end of the
first &uarter-cycle "K2\# but the polarity is reversed.
]ust after $F2 degrees the impressed voltage once again starts to decrease, and the
capacitor must lose electrons from the negative plate. It must discharge, starting at a
minimum rate of flow and rising to a ma%imum. This discharging action continues through
the last &uarter-cycle "$F2\ to 6D2\# until the impressed-voltage has reached (ero. At 6D2
degrees you are bac! at the beginning of the entire cycle, and everything starts over again.
If you e%amine the complete voltage and current curves in part G, you will see that
the current always arrives at a certain point in the cycle K2 degrees ahead of the voltage,
because of the charging and discharging action. 7ou !now that this time and place
relationship between the current and voltage is called the phase relationship. The voltage-
current phase relationship in a capacitive circuit is e%actly opposite to that in an inductive
circuit. The current of a capacitor leads the voltage across the capacitor by K2 degrees.
7ou reali(e that the current and voltage are both going through their individual
cycles at the same time during the period the ac voltage is impressed. The current does not
go through part of its cycle "charging or discharging#, stop, and wait for the voltage to
catch up. The amplitude and polarity of the voltage and the amplitude and direction of the
current are continually changing. Their positions with respect to each other and to the (ero
$F
line at any electrical instant-any degree between (ero and 6D2 degrees-can be seen by
reading upwards from the time-degree line. The current swing from the positive pea! at
(ero degrees to the negative pea! at 1H2 degrees is <0T a measure of the number of
electrons, or the charge on the plates. It is a picture of the direction and strength of the
current in relation to the polarity and strength of the voltage appearing across the plates.
At times it is convenient to use the word LIEL to recall to mind the phase
relationship of the current and voltage in capacitive circuits. I is the symbol for current,
and in the word
IE it leads, or comes before, the symbol for voltage, E. , of course, stands for
capacitor. This memory aid is similar to the LE9IL used to remember the current and
voltage relationship in an inductor. The phrase LE9I the IE manL is helpful in
remembering the phase relationship in both the inductor and capacitor.
Since the plates of the capacitor are changing polarity at the same rate as the ac
voltage, the capacitor seems to pass an alternating current. Actually, the electrons do not
pass through the dielectric, but their rushing bac! and forth from plate to plate causes a
current flow in the circuit. It is convenient, however, to say that the alternating current
flows LthroughL the capacitor. 7ou !now this is not true, but the e%pression avoids a lot of
trouble when spea!ing of current flow in a circuit containing a capacitor. 3y the same
short cut, you may say that the capacitor does not pass a direct current "if both plates are
connected to a dc source, current will flow only long enough to charge the capacitor#.
:ith a capacitor type of hoo!up in a circuit containing both ac and dc, only the ac will be
LpassedL on to another circuit.
1?.!. Wh& )oes the c@rrent lea) the #oltage in a capacitor?
The reason that current leads voltage in a capacitor is rooted in the way a capacitor
wor!s. *icture the capacitor. ItOs basically two conductive plates separated by a short
distance and having a dielectric "insulator# between them. <ow, letOs specify that our cap
"capacitor# is completely discharged and weOll hoo! it up to a G voltage source through a
switch. Plip the switch on and current will begin to flow, but it is important to loo! at what
happens in Cust the first instant of time. Electrons will begin to accumulate on the negative
plate and their presence there will drive electrons off the positive plate. The capacitor is
building up a charge. It is developing a voltage across "or between, if you prefer# the
$H
plates. 3ut electrons have to begin to pile onto the plate to actually create the difference of
potential "voltage# between the plates. The moving electrons "and thatOs current# that are
piling on the plate are already beginning to flow before the voltage is developed between
the plates, so current is said to lead voltage in a capacitor.
1?.%. Calc@lation of CPCITNCED
The method of introducing a leading component of current is most usually
employed. It is achieved by connecting a number of condensers in parallel across the
mains at the load end. The value of the total capacitance re&uired for improving the power
factor to unity for given power * in the circuits at fre&uency P and volts 8 is determined
as follows +-
I , 8 , $^f8 ------------------------------------ "$#
3y e&uating "1# _ "$#

$^f8 , IV"1- "p.f#
$
#
, XI B"$^f8# YV"1- "p.f#
$
# ---------------------------------- "6#
:e !now that
I , *B "8 % p.f# -------------------------------------------- "=#
Prom "6# _ "=#
$K
, * % V"1-p.f
$
# B $^f8
$
p.f . Parads.
1?.'. Estimation of $.r ReE@ire) for new electrical
Installations
.
?var for the Supply Transformer-
Por 122 !8A transformer, !8Ar , 62 !8Ar
?var for Induction Sotor-
'ating of motor , $22 ;* % 2.F=D
, 112 !:
?var for motor , 112.Xtan"cos-1"2.K1#- tan"cos-1"2.KK#Y
, 12= ?var
?var Por )*S-
rating of )*S , 12 ?8A. 2.F
, 61 ?w
?var for )*S , 61 Xtan"cos-1"2.F2#- tan"cos-1"2.KK#Y
, $1 ?var
?var for 0thers _ lighting load-
62
?var for )*S , $= Xtan "cos-1"2.F2# - tan "cos-1"2.KK#Y
, 1F ?var
Total !var re&uirement , "62-12=-61-$1-1F#!var ,$11 ?var
Assuming 11U design assumption and contigency , $$1.2.11,61.D1 ?var
Total !var , $=$.D1 !var
?avr recommended, $12 !var
apacitor re&. "c# , McB8$ "$f#
;ence apacitor re&. for )*P,12D.$12B"$62$.122#
, 112.11P.
11. CO"T N31"I"D
A calculation can be run to determine when this payoff will be. As an e%ample,
assume that a portion of your facility can be modeled as in Pigure D below.
7our current power factor is 2.D1.
Pollowing are the parameters for your original system+
1D6 ?w
F62 hours perBmonth
=H2 8olt, 6 phase service
1U system losses
9oad *P , D1U
*SE 'ate Schedule+
Energy 'ate , `=.2H per ?w
Gemand harge , `$.1D per ?:
*P *enalty , `2.11 per ?8A';
61
:ell calculate the total amount the utility charges you every month as follows+
Pirst, well calculate your energ& @sageD
1D6 ?: T F62 ;oursBSonth T `=.2HB?:; , `=,H1=.FKBSonth
<e%t, well calculate your )eman) chargeD
1D6 ?: T `$.1DB?: , `61$.2HBSonth
Pinally, well calculate your Power +actor Penalt&D
1K2 ?8A' T F62 ;oursBSonth T `2.11B?8A'; , `$2HBSonth
<ow, let s say that you decide to install a capacitor ban! "Pigure F#. The
1K2?8A' from the capacitor cancels out the 1K2 ?8A' from the inductive motor.
7our power factor is now 1.2.
6$
.
Pollowing are your parameters for your system with capacitors+
orrected *P , 1.2
7ou can calculate your loss reduction+
9oss 'eduction , 1-"2.D1$ B 1.22$# , 2.1H
Therefore, your system loss reduction will be as follows+
2.1H T 2.21 "losses# , 2.2$K System 9oss 'eduction
7our total ?: load will be reduced as follows+
1D6 ?: T 2.2$K , =.F ?:
<ow we can calculate your savings in energ& @sageD
=.F ?: T F62 ;oursBSonth T `=.2HB?:; , `1=1.22BSonth
<e%t, we ll calculate your savings in )eman) chargeD
66
=.F ?: T `$.1DB?: , `12.11BSonth
Pinally, remember that your Power +actor Penalt& is (ero.
9et s calculate how long it will ta!e for this capacitor ban! to pay for itself.
apacitor ost , `62.22B?8A'
7our savings per month are as follows+
`1=1.22 Energy )sage
` 12.11 Gemand harge
`$2H.22 *P *enalty harge
`61K.11 Total
7our paybac! will be at the following time+
`62.22B?8A' T 1K2 ?8A'B`61KBSonth , 1D Sonths
Installation of your capacitors will pay for themselves in 1D months.
1!. DI"D.NT9E" O+ +IFED CPCITOR 1!. DI"D.NT9E" O+ +IFED CPCITOR
Sanual operation"onBoff#
<ot meet the re&uire !var under varying loads.
an result leading power factor
ause over voltage
Sal-operation of relays, diesel generators
6=
Saturation of transformer
*enalty by electricity authority
1%. NEED +OR UTO2TIC POWER +CTOR
CORRECTION
8arying power demand on the supply system.
*ower factor also varies as a function of the load re&uirements.
Gifficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Pi%ed ompensation i.e.
fi%ed capacitors.
leading power factor under light load conditions"fi%ed compensation#
This result in over voltages, saturation of transformers, mal-operation of diesel
generating sets, penalties by electric supply authorities.
Automatically variation, without manual intervention, the compensation to suit the
load re&uirements.
Automatic *ower Pactor orrection "A*P# system provides this facility.
9eading power factor will be also prevented.
1%.1. 5enefits of P+C
onsistently high power factor under fluctuating loads
*revention of leading power factor
Eliminate power factor penalty
9ower energy consumption by reducing losses.
ontinuously sense and monitor load
Automatically switch onBoff relevant capacitors steps for consistent power factor.
Ensures easy user interface
61
1'. PRO53E2" RE3TED TO POWER +CTOR CORRECTION
U"IN9 CPCITOR
It is ironic to thin! that as steps are being ta!en to improve the operating efficiency
at a facility, those very steps may be adversely affecting the facility in other ways. This is
sometimes the case when power factor correction capacitors are installed at a facility. As
an e%ample, general application of capacitors on motors, when applied without regard to
the connected system, can result in the inadvertent tuning of a system to a dominant
harmonic. "The implications of this are discussed further below#.Although 4harmonic
problems5 are attributed to many power system problems, it is sometimes overly used.
There are other ramifications associated with the use of power factor correction capacitors
such as voltage rise and switching transients. Each of these power &uality concepts will be
discussed in turn.
1'.1. (R2ONIC RE"ONNCE
6D
A common problem that occurs when power factor correction capacitors are
installed on a system is harmonic resonance. :hen this occurs, the power system at a
facility is tuned to a specific fre&uency due to a combination of the system inductance and
the added capacitance. The system 4resonates5 at this fre&uency, if there are loads at or
near the installation that produce that harmonic.
:hen this occurs, the normal flow of harmonic currents, from load to utility
source, is altered. :hen the currents can flow normally, they combine with other load
currents across the system. If the bul! of those loads are linear, there will not be a
significant percentage of distorted current. ;owever, when the flow is altered by the
installation of capacitors, distortion levels may rise, causing problems within a plant, at
nearby utility customers or at system substations or currents may flow where they are not
desired. :hen parallel resonant conditions e%ist, shunt capacitor ban!s appear to the
harmonic source as being in parallel with the system source reactance "or short-circuit
reactance#. :hen harmonic currents, from the harmonic source, flow through this high
impedance circuit, high harmonic voltages develop. The high harmonic voltages can result
in an over voltage condition on the capacitors themselves andBor high voltage distortion.
0ver voltage conditions can e%ceed the voltage rating of the capacitor and result in
capacitor failure. ;igh voltage distortion can result in the misoperation or failure of
e&uipment. :hen series resonant conditions occur, the capacitor appears to be in series
with in impedance, as seen from the harmonic source. This presents a low impedance path
to the flow of harmonic currents. urrents, then, will flow on the system in ways that were
unintended. This can result in interference on communications circuits that may be nearby,
e%cessive voltage distortion at the capacitors or conductor heating.
1'.!. "WITC(IN9 TRN"IENT"
As mentioned earlier, capacitors are used at all voltage levels. )tilities install hem
at various locations on their transmission and distribution systems for voltage and 8A'
support. :hen the utility energi(es a discharged capacitor, the bus voltage will
momentarily collapse. This occurs because the voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously. This is followed by an oscillatory recovery that lasts about a of a cycle.
The overshoot associated with this oscillation can result in a voltage that has a theoretical
6F
pea! value of two times the ma%imum value of theD2;( sine wave "crest voltage#. The
same effect can occur when a capacitor is switched off, if re-stri!e occurs during the
switching operation. Transients of this magnitude and duration are usually not a problem
on the utility system but they can produce problems at a user facility. Severe over-voltage
scan appear on facility capacitors through a phenomenon !nown as voltage magnification.
The voltage at the end-user capacitor can be greater than the voltage at the utility
capacitor. This translates to a pea! voltage with a theoretical upper value of =22U
although this is rarely seen. The highest transient voltages occur at the low voltage
capacitor ban! when the characteristic fre&uency of the switching transient is nearly e&ual
to the resonant fre&uency of the low voltage system and when the switched capacitor is ten
or more times the si(e of the low voltage capacitor. The IEEE Standard for Shunt *ower
apacitors, A<SIBIEEE Std. 1H-1KK$specifies that capacitors 4may reasonably be
e%pected to withstand5 transient over-voltages from $21U - 61=U of rated pea! !8
"depending on the number of times a year the over-voltage occurs#. Wenerally spea!ing,
the voltage magnification will not result in capacitor damage. The problem that usually
occurs is the failure or mis-operation of sensitive loads in the facility where the low
voltage capacitors are installed.
1'.%. .O3T9E RI"E
At many facilities, fi%ed capacitors are used to reduce cost. Pi%ed capacitors are
those that are permanently connected to the load bus and are not switched on and off as the
load changes. :hen the load on the facility is low, the voltage may increase due to the
capacitor being si(ed for the higher load. The limit on steady state voltage is generally
ta!en to be 112U of the rated voltage. If the voltage is allowed to rise above this point,
transformers will saturate and overheat, mis-operation of e&uipment may occur and
e&uipment life will be reduced. If the prevailing bus voltage happens to be high, due to
conditions on the distribution system feeding the facility, the voltage rise would be added
to this already higher voltage. Therefore, system voltage should be chec!ed when
considering voltage rise.
1'.'. 2ITI9TION TEC(NI>UE"
1'.'.1. DETUNIN9
6H
Ge-tuning a system refers to techni&ues that are used to change the resonance point
of a system and move it away from significant harmonics. As mentioned earlier, when
shunt power factor correction capacitors are added to a system, the parallel combination of
these capacitors and the system source impedance can tune the system to resonate at a
particular harmonic fre&uency. This high impedance path is the source of harmonic
voltages when harmonic load current flows through the system. 0ne techni&ue used to de-
tune a system is to add a reactor to the system .;armful resonance conditions are generally
between the shunt capacitors and the source impedance. The reactor is added between the
source and the capacitor ban!. An effective way to do this to add the reactor in series with
the
capacitor ban! to move the system resonance point without tuning the capacitor to
create a filter. Another method that can be used is to change the si(e of the capacitor ban!
being considered. This is often one of the least e%pensive options. If the capacitor can be
si(ed to move the resonance point without impacting other operational aspects "overBunder
correction, voltage rise, etc.# there would be no re&uirements for other mitigation.
Ge-tuning can also be accomplished by moving capacitors to a point in the system with a
different short-circuit impedance. This can also be considered if the installation of a
capacitor causes telephone interference problems. In many cases, the capacitor can not be
moved far enough in a plant to ma!e a difference, however, the techni&ue should not be
dismissed outright .If capacitors are currently installed and problems related to harmonic
current sources have been encountered, it may be cost effective to remove the capacitors.
In this case, a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis must be performed.
1'.'.!. +I3TERIN9
In some situations it may be necessary to install filters to minimi(e the harmonic
currents that are flowing on a system. Wenerally, filters provide a low impedance path to
shunt the harmonic currents rather than them flowing bac! through the distribution system.
Pilters also change the system fre&uency response, most often, but not always for the
better .Adding a filter creates a sharp parallel resonance point at a fre&uency below the
filers tuned fre&uency. Pilters are tuned slightly below the harmonic in case there is a
change to the system or there is a component failure, either of which might move the
resonance point into the filter. Pilters typically cost about three times what a simple
capacitor installation might cost. Pilters are usually applied close to the component in a
6K
system where there is significant generation of harmonic currents. These filters are
typically tuned to the fifth harmonic, for three phase loads, and the third harmonic for
single-phase loads. These fre&uencies represent the lowest harmonic usually encountered
on these systems and the first filter in a system should be tuned to the lowest fre&uency.
Pilter application is not as simple as simple capacitor application. Analysis that may range
in scope from a survey to long term monitoring and computer modeling may be re&uired
Pilter capacitors are usually wired in a delta configuration on =H2-volt systems. As a
result, they are largely ineffective when it becomes necessary to control third-harmonic
currents. If triplen harmonics are determined to be a problem, other configurations can be
used. Pilters should be placed on
a bus where the available fault current is e%pected to remain constant. Although the
notch fre&uency of the filter will not change, the system resonance point might move..
18. UTO2TION
Automation or industrial automation or numerical control is the use of control
systems such as computers to control industrial machinery and processes, reducing the
need for human intervention. In the scope of industriali(ation, automation is a step beyond
mechani(ation. :hereas mechanization provided human operators with machinery to
assist them with the physical re&uirements of wor!, automation greatly reduces the need
for human sensory and mental re&uirements as well. *rocesses and systems can also be
automated.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and in
daily e%perience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and
organi(ational tools to create comple% systems for a rapidly e%panding range of
applications and human activities.
Sany roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of
automation. ;uman-level pattern recognition, language recognition, and language
=2
production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern mechanical and computer
systems. Tas!s re&uiring subCective assessment or synthesis of comple% sensory data, such
as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tas!s such as strategic planning, currently
re&uire human e%pertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-effective than
mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tas!s is possible.
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers
"*9s#, are fre&uently used to synchroni(e the flow of inputs from "physical# sensors and
events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled
actions that permit a tight control of almost any industrial process.
;uman-machine interfaces ";SI# or computer human interfaces ";I#, formerly
!nown as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with *9s and
other computers, such as entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further
automated control or emergency response. Service personnel who monitor and control
these interfaces are often referred to as stationary engineers.
18.1. )#antages an) )isa)#antages of a@tomation
Advantages commonly attributed to automation include higher production rates
and increased productivity, more efficient use of materials, better product &uality,
improved safety, shorter wor!wee!s for labour, and reduced factory lead times. ;igher
output and increased productivity have been two of the biggest reasons in Custifying the
use of automation. Gespite the claims of high &uality from good wor!manship by humans,
automated systems typically perform the manufacturing process with less variability than
human wor!ers, resulting in greater control and consistency of product &uality. Also,
increased process control ma!es more efficient use of materials, resulting in less scrap.
:or!er safety is an important reason for automating an industrial operation.
Automated systems often remove wor!ers from the wor!place, thus safeguarding them
against the ha(ards of the factory environment. In the )nited States the 0ccupational
Safety and ;ealth Act of 1KF2 "0S;A# was enacted with the national obCective of ma!ing
wor! safer and protecting the physical well-being of the wor!er. 0S;A has had the effect
of promoting the use of automation and robotics in the factory.
=1
Another benefit of automation is the reduction in the number of hours wor!ed on
average per wee! by factory wor!ers. About 1K22 the average wor!wee! was
appro%imately F2 hours. This has gradually been reduced to a standard wor!wee! in the
)nited States of about =2 hours. Sechani(ation and automation have played a significant
role in this reduction. Pinally, the time re&uired to process a typical production order
through the factory is generally reduced with automation.
A main disadvantage often associated with automation, wor!er displacement, has
been discussed above. Gespite the social benefits that might result from retraining
displaced wor!ers for other Cobs, in almost all cases the wor!er whose Cob has been ta!en
over by a machine undergoes a period of emotional stress. In addition to displacement
from wor!, the wor!er may be displaced geographically. In order to find other wor!, an
individual may have to relocate, which is another source of stress.
0ther disadvantages of automated e&uipment include the high capital e%penditure
re&uired to invest in automation "an automated system can cost millions of dollars to
design, fabricate, and install#, a higher level of maintenance needed than with a manually
operated
machine, and a generally lower degree of fle%ibility in terms of the possible
products as compared with a manual system "even fle%ible automation is less fle%ible than
humans, the most versatile machines of all#.
Also there are potential ris!s that automation technology will ultimately subCugate
rather than serve human!ind. The ris!s include the possibility that wor!ers will become
slaves to automated machines, that the privacy of humans will be invaded by vast
computer data networ!s, that human error in the management of technology will somehow
endanger civili(ation, and that society will become dependent on automation for its
economic well-being.
These dangers aside, automation technology, if used wisely and effectively, can
yield substantial opportunities for the future. There is an opportunity to relieve humans
from repetitive, ha(ardous, and unpleasant labour in all forms. And there is an opportunity
for future automation technologies to provide a growing social and economic environment
in which humans can enCoy a higher standard of living and a better way of life.
=$
1:. N INTRODUCTION TO E25EDDED "1"TE2"
Intro)@ction
Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose devices. Gue to
the limited duties this systems can be highly optimi(ed to the particular needs.
Traditionally most of these systems are used for control and process measurement, as a
side-effect of higher integration of integrated circuits more comple% applications can be
solved by embedded systems. To be able to solve these problems embedded systems are
commonly e&uipped with various !inds of peripherals. Early applications of embedded
devices include the guidance computer of the Sinuteman I missiles and the Apollo
guidance computer. The Sinuteman I _ II missiles are intercontinental ballistic nuclear
warheads, produced by 3oeing in the 1KD2s. Gue to the large &uantities of Is used in the
=6
guidance system of Sinuteman II missiles, prices for Is fell from 1222` each to 6` each.
This lead to wide adoption of embedded systems in consumer electronics in the 1KH2s.
<owadays embedded systems can be found in devices from digital watches to traffic-
control systems. The broad range of applications with totally different re&uirements leads
to various implementation approaches. The range of hardware used in embedded systems
reaches from P*WAs to full blown des!top *)s which are accompanied by special
purpose Is such as GS*s. 0n the software side, depending on the needs, everything, from
logic fully implemented in hardware, to systems with own operating system and different
applications running on it, can be found.
b Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a
single specific tas!.
b Embedded systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an
e%ternal environment.
b Environment connected to systems through sensors, actuators and other IB0
interfaces.
b Embedded system must meet timing _ other constraints imposed on it by
environment.
An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time
control system, autonomous, or human or networ! interactive, operating on diverse
physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost
conscious mar!et.
C3""I+ICTIOND
'eal Time Systems.
'TS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.
A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer
'TS classification
;ard 'eal Time Systems
Soft 'eal Time System
;A'G 'EA9 TISE S7STESS
L;ardL real-time systems have very narrow response time.
==
E%ample+ <uclear power system, ardiac pacema!er.
S0PT 'EA9 TISE S7STES
LSoftL real-time systems have reduced constrains on LlatenessL but still must
operate very &uic!ly and repeatable.
E%ample+ 'ailway reservation system A ta!es a few e%tra seconds the data remains
valid.
=1
53OC- DI9R2D
UTO2TIC POWER +CTOR CORRECTOR U"IN9
CPCITI.E 3OD 5N-
3CD )ri#er
3CD
2icro
controller
Reg@late) power s@ppl&
Rela& @nit
3ED in)icators
Cr&stal Oscillator
Capacitors *an$
!%?.
Power
s@ppl&
Resisti#e loa) In)@cti#e loa)
"witches
C@rrent
transformer
Potential Transformer
DI++ERENT CO2PONENT" U"ED IN T(E PROGECT
1;.1. 2icrocontroller
1;.!. TRN"+OR2ER
1;.%. 5ri)ge rectifier
1;.'. 3ight Emitting Dio)e
1;.8. .oltage Reg@lator Unit
1;.:. 3CD Displa&
1;.=. Rela&
1;.1?. Cr&stal Oscillator
=D
1;.11. In)@cti#e loa) Cho$e Coil
1;.1%. 5@l*
1;.1. 2icro Controller
1;.1.1. Intro)@ction
A microcontroller is a computer. All computers -- whether we are tal!ing about a
personal des!top computer or a large mainframe computer or a microcontroller -- have
several things in common+
All computers have a *) "central processing unit# that e%ecutes programs. If you
are sitting at a des!top computer right now reading this article, the *) in that machine is
e%ecuting a program that implements the :eb browser that is displaying this page. The
*) loads the program from somewhere. 0n your des!top machine, the browser program
is loaded from the hard dis!. The computer has some 'AS "random-access memory#
where it can store Lvariables5. And the computer has some input and output devices so it
can tal! to people. 0n your des!top machine, the !eyboard and mouse are input devices
and the monitor and printer are output devices. A hard dis! is an IB0 device -- it handles
both input and output. The des!top computer you are using is a Lgeneral purpose
computerL that can run any of thousands of programs. Sicrocontrollers are Lspecial
purpose computers.L Sicrocontrollers do one thing well. There are a number of other
common characteristics that define microcontrollers. If a computer matches a maCority of
these characteristics, then you can call it a LmicrocontrollerL.
Sicrocontrollers are Lem*e))e)L inside some other device "often a consumer
product# so that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a
microcontroller, therefore, is Lembedded controller.L Sicrocontrollers are )e)icate) to
one tas! and run one specific program. The program is stored in '0S "read-only
memory# and generally does not change. Sicrocontrollers are often low6power )e#ices. A
des!top computer is almost always plugged into a wall soc!et and might consume 12
watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller might consume 12 mill watts.
=F
A microcontroller has a )e)icate) inp@t )e#ice and often "but not always# has a
small 3ED or 3CD )ispla& for o@tp@t. A microcontroller also ta!es input from the
device it is controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components
in the device.
Por e%ample, the microcontroller inside a T8 ta!es input from the remote control
and displays output on the T8 screen. The controller controls the channel selector, the
spea!er system and certain adCustments on the picture tube electronics such as tint and
brightness. The engine controller in a car ta!es input from sensors such as the o%ygen and
!noc! sensors and controls things li!e fuel mi% and spar! plug timing. A microwave oven
controller ta!es input from a !eypad, displays output on an 9G display and controls a
relay that turns the microwave generator on and off.
A microcontroller is often small an) low cost. The components are chosen to
minimi(e si(e and to be as ine%pensive as possible. A microcontroller is often, but not
always, r@gge)iHe) in some way.
The microcontroller controlling a carOs engine, for e%ample, has to wor! in
temperature e%tremes that a normal computer generally cannot handle. A carOs
microcontroller in Alas!a has to wor! fine in -62 degree P "-6= # weather, while the same
microcontroller in <evada might be operating at 1$2 degrees P "=K #. :hen you add the
heat naturally generated by the engine, the temperature can go as high as 112 or 1H2
degrees P "D1-H2 # in the engine compartment.
0n the other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a 8' hasnOt been
ruggedi(ed at all.
The actual processor used to implement a microcontroller can vary widely. Por
e%ample, the cell phone shown on Inside a Gigital ell *hone contains a c-H2 processor.
The c-H2 is an H-bit microprocessor developed in the 1KF2s and originally used in home
computers of the time. The Warmin W*S shown in ;ow W*S 'eceivers :or! contains a
low-power version of the Intel H26HD, I am told. The H26HD was originally used in des!top
computers.
=H
In many products, such as microwave ovens, the demand on the *) is fairly low
and price is an important consideration. In these cases, manufacturers turn to )e)icate)
microcontroller chips -- chips that were originally designed to be low-cost, small, low-
power, embedded *)s. The Sotorola DH11 and Intel H211 are both good e%amples of
such chips. There is also a line of popular controllers called L*I microcontrollersL
created by a company called Sicrochip. 3y todayOs standards, these *)s are incredibly
minimalisticI but they are e%tremely ine%pensive when purchased in large &uantities and
can often meet the needs of a deviceOs designer with Cust one chip.
A typical low-end microcontroller chip might have 1,222 bytes of '0S and $2
bytes of 'AS on the chip, along with eight IB2 pins. In large &uantities, the cost of these
chips can sometimes be Cust pennies. 7ou certainly are never going to run Sicrosoft :ord
on such a chip -- Sicrosoft :ord re&uires perhaps 62 megabytes of 'AS and a processor
that can run millions of instructions per second. 3ut then, you donOt need Sicrosoft :ord
to control a microwave oven, either. :ith a microcontroller, you have one specific tas!
you are trying to accomplish, and low-cost, low-power performance is what is important.
1;.1.!. (istor&
Sicrocontrollers have e%isted from the very early years of the microprocessor
revolution. The first single chip microprocessor was the = bit Intel =22= released in 1KF1.
The following year saw the first H-bit microprocessor, the H22H, and the H2H2 in 1KF=.
'eleased in 1KF1, the first microcontroller was the Intel H2=H featuring 'AS and '0S on
the same chip, and this was used in several successful commercial products.
The popularity of microcontrollers increased when EE*'0S memory was
incorporated to replace one time programmable *'0S memory. :ith EE*'0S, the
development cycle of programming, testing and erasing a part could be repeated many
times with the same part until the firmware was debugged and ready for production use.
The Sicrochip 1DH= "*I1D%H=#, introduced in 1KK6 was the first *) with on-
board EE*'0S memory. This electrically-erasable memory made it cost less than *)s
that re&uired &uart( Lerase windowL for erasing E*'0S.
In 1KK6, Atmel introduced the first H-bit Plash microcontroller.
=K
<owadays microcontrollers are low cost and readily available for hobbyists.
1;.1.%. Difference *etween 2icroprocessor an) 2icrocontroller.
A microcontroller is a speciali(ed form of microprocessor that is designed to be
self-sufficient and cost-effective, where a microprocessor is typically designed to be
general purpose "the !ind used in a *#. Sicrocontrollers are fre&uently found in
automobiles, office machines, toys, and appliances. The microcontroller is the integration
of a number of useful functions into a single I pac!age. These functions are+
The ability to e%ecute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined tas!s.
The ability to be able to access e%ternal memory chips to both read and write data
from and to the memory.
3asically, a microcontroller is a device which integrates a number of the
components of a microprocessor system onto a single microchip. So a
microcontroller combines onto the same microchip.
The *) core Semory "both '0S and 'AS# Some parallel digital IB0 Also, a
microcontroller is part of an embedded system, which is essentially the whole
circuit board.
The difference is that microcontroller incorporates features of microprocessor
"*), A9), 'egisters# along with the presence of added features li!e presence of 'AS,
'0S,Id0 ports, counter etc. ;ere microcontroller control the operation of machine using
fi%ed programme stored in 'om that doesnOt change with lifetime.
:e use *I 1DPHFFA Sicrocontroller in our present proCect. <ow let us see something
about it+-
The microcontroller used in this proCect is *I1DPHFFA. The *I families
of microcontrollers are developed by Sicrochip Technology Inc. urrently they are some
12
of the most popular microcontrollers, selling over 1$2 million devices each year. There are
basically four families of *I microcontrollers+
*I1$TTT 1$B1=-bit program word
*I 1D1T 1$-bit program word
*I1DTTT and *I1DPTTT 1=-bit program word
*I1FTTT and *I1HTTT 1D-bit program word
The features, pin description of the microcontroller used are discussed in the following
sections.
%.!.! DescriptionD
Introduction to *I Sicrocontrollers+
*I stands for *eripheral Interface ontroller given by Sicrochip
Technology to identify its single-chip microcontrollers. These devices have been very
successful in H-bit microcontrollers. The main reason is that Sicrochip Technology has
continuously upgraded the device architecture and added needed peripherals to the
microcontroller to suit customersO re&uirements. The development tools such as assembler
and simulator are freely available on the internet at www.microchip.com .
9ow - end *I Architectures+
Sicrochip *I microcontrollers are available in various types. :hen *I
microcontroller S) was first available from Weneral Instruments in early 1KH2Os, the
microcontroller consisted of a simple processor e%ecuting 1$-bit wide instructions with
basic IB0 functions. These devices are !nown as low-end architectures. They have limited
program memory and are meant for applications re&uiring simple interface functions and
small program _ data memories. Some of the low-end device numbers are
1$1TT
1D1T
1D121
Sid range *I Architectures+
Sid range *I architectures are built by upgrading low-end architectures with more
number of peripherals, more number of registers and more dataBprogram memory.
Some of the mid-range devices are
11
1DDT
1DFT
1DPHFT
*rogram memory type is indicated by an alphabet.
, E*'0S, P , Plash, ' , Sas! '0S
*opularity of the *I microcontrollers is due to the following factors.
1. Speed+ ;arvard Architecture, 'IS architecture, 1 instruction cycle , = cloc!
cycles.
$. Instruction set simplicity+ The instruction set consists of Cust 61 instructions "as
opposed to 111 instructions for H211#.
6. *ower-on-reset and brown-out reset. 3rown-out-reset means when the power
supply goes below a specified voltage "say =8#, it causes *I to resetI hence
malfunction is avoided. A watch dog timer "user programmable# resets the
processor if the softwareBprogram ever malfunctions and deviates from its normal
operation.
=. *I microcontroller has four optional cloc! sources.
9ow power crystal
Sid range crystal
;igh range crystal
' oscillator "low cost#.
1. *rogrammable timers and on-chip AG.
D. )p to 1$ independent interrupt sources.
F. *owerful output pin control "$1 mA "ma%.# current sourcing capability per pin.#
H. E*'0SB0T*B'0SBPlash memory option.
K. IB0 port e%pansion capability.
*) Architecture+
The *) uses ;arvard architecture with separate *rogram and 8ariable "data#
memory interface. This facilitates instruction fetch and the operation on dataBaccessing
of variables simultaneously. Architecture of *I microcontroller
1$
+ig.%.%.rchitect@re of PIC microcontroller
3asically, all *I microcontrollers offer the following features+
'IS instruction set with around 61 instructions eK Gigital IB0 ports
0n-chip timer with H-bit prescaler.
*ower-on reset
:atchdog timer
*ower saving S9EE* mode
Girect, indirect, and relative addressing modes
E%ternal cloc! interface
'AS data memory
E*'0S "or 0T*# program memory
Peripheral feat@resD
;igh sin!Bsource current $1mA
Timer2+ H-bit timerBcounter with H-bit prescaler can be incremented during sleep
via e%ternal crystalBcloc!
Timer$+H-bit timerBcounter with H-bit period register prescaler and post scalar.
apture, ompare, *:S "*# module
apture is 1D-bit, ma% resolution is 1$.1ns
ompare is 1D-bit, ma% resolution is $22 ns
*:S ma%, resolution is 12-bit
H-bit 1 channel analog-to-digital converter
Synchronous serial port "SS*# with S*I "SasterBSlave# and "Slave#
Some devices offer the following additional features+
Analogue input channels
Analogue comparators
16
Additional timer circuits
EE*'0S data memory
Plash EE*'0S program memory
E%ternal and timer interrupts
In-circuit programming
Internal oscillator
)SA'T serial interface
%.!.% Pin )iagramD

+ig.%.'.PIN DI9R2 O+ PIC1:+<;;
*ic1DfHFF is a =2 pin microcontroller. It has 1 ports port A, port 3, port , port G, port E.
All the pins of the ports are for interfacing input output devices.
*ort A+ It consists of D pins from A2 to A1
*ort 3+ It consists of H pins from 32 to 3F
1=
*ort + It consists of H pins from 2 to F
*ort G+ It consists of H pins from G2 to GF
*ort E+ It consists of 6 pins from E2 to E$
The rest of the pins are mandatory pins these should not be used to connect inputBoutput
devices.
*in 1 is S9' "master clear pin# pin also referred as reset pin.
*in 16, 1= are used for crystal oscillator to connect to generate a fre&uency of about
$2S;(.
*in 11, 1$ and61, 6$ are used for voltage supply 8dd"-#and 8ss"-#
*I 1DPHFFA Specification+
'AS 6DH bytes
EE*'0S $1D bytes
Plash *rogram Semory H! words
0perating Pre&uency G to $2S;(
IB0 port *ort A,3,,G,E
This is the specification for *I1DPHFFA from Sicrochip. A single
microcontroller which is very brilliant and useful is also very easy to be assembled,
program and also the price is very cheap. It cost less than 12 dollar. The good thing is that
single unit can be purchased at that 12 dollar price. )nli!e some other Integrated ircuit
that must be bought at a minimum order &uantity such as 1222 units or $222 units or else
you wont be able to purchase it.
0ne unit of *I1DPHFFA microcontroller can be programmed and erased so many
times. Some said about 12 222 times. If you are doing programming and downloading
your code into the *I $2 times a day that means you can do that for 122 days which is
more than a year>
The erasing time is almost unnoticeable because once new program are loaded into
the *I, the old program will automatically be erased immediately. Guring my time of
Gegree study, I did not use *I but I use other type of microcontroller. I have to wait for
about 11 to 62 minutes to erase the EE*'0S before I can load a new program and test the
microcontroller. 0ne day I can only modify my code and test it for less than 12 times.
12%11 minutes , 112 minutes.
11
R2D
*I1DPHFFA already made with 6DH bytes of 'andom Access Semory "'AS#
inside it. Any temporary variable storage that we wrote in our program will be stored
inside the 'AS. )sing this microcontroller you dont need to buy any e%ternal 'AS.
EEPRO2D
$1D bytes of EE*'0S are available also inside this microcontroller. This is very
useful to store information such as *I< <umber, Serial <umber and so on. )sing
EE*'0S is very important because data stored inside EE*'0S will be retained when
power supply is turn off. 'AS did not store data permanently. Gata inside 'AS is not
retained when power supply is turn off.
The si(e of program code that can be stored is about H! words inside *I1DPHFFA
'0S. 1 word si(e is 1= bits. 3y using the free version of the S compiler only $!
words of program can be written and compiled. To write H! words of program you have
to purchase the original S compiler and it cost less than F22 dollar.
Cr&stal oscillator+
The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the *I microcontroller range
from G to $2Sh(. )sing the S compiler normally $2Sh( oscillator will be used
and the price is very cheap. The $2 S;( crystal oscillator should be connected with about
$$pP capacitor. *lease refer to my circuit schematic.
There are 1 inputBoutput ports on *I microcontroller namely port A, port 3, port
, port G and port E. Each port has different function. Sost of them can be used as IB0
port.
RectifiersD
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current "A# to
direct current "G#, a process !nown as rectification. 'ectifiers have many uses including
as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. 'ectifiers may be made
of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
1D
A device that it can perform the opposite function "converting G to A# is
!nown as an inverter.
:hen only one diode is used to rectify A "by bloc!ing the negative or
positive portion of the waveform#, the difference between the term diode and the term
rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used
to convert A to G. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific
arrangement for more efficiently converting A to G than is possible with only one
diode. 3efore the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes
and copper "I# o%ide or selenium rectifier stac!s were used.
5ri)ge f@ll wa#e rectifierD
The 3ridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig+6.H, which converts an ac
voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The 3ridge rectifier
circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The
ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load
resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
Por the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes G1 and G6
conduct, whereas diodes G$ and G= remain in the 0PP state. The conducting diodes will
be in series with the load resistance '
9
and hence the load current flows through '
9.

Por the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes G$ and G=
conduct whereas, G1 and G6 remain 0PP. The conducting diodes G$ and G= will be in
series with the load resistance '
9
and hence the current flows through '
9
in the same
direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a
unidirectional wave.
Input 0utput

1F
+ig %.;D 5ri)ge rectifierD a f@ll6wa#e rectifier @sing ' )io)es
D51?;D
<ow -a -days 3ridge rectifier is available in I with a number of G312F.
In our proCect we are using an I in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of G3 12F is
shown below
+eat@resD
Wood for automation insertion
Surge overload rating - 62 amperes pea!
Ideal for printed circuit board
'eliable low cost construction utili(ing molded
Wlass passivated device
*olarity symbols molded on body
Sounting position+ Any
:eight+ 1.2 gram

+ig %.<D D51?;
1H
1;.%. TRN"+OR2ER

Transformers convert A electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers wor! only with A and this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is A.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Sost
power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage
"$628 in )?# to a safer low voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary.
There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are lin!ed by an
alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in
the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is "almost# e&ual to the
power in. <ote that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary
"input# coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of
turns on its secondary "output# coil to give a low output voltage.
turns ratio ,
8
p

,

<
p
and

power out , power in

8s <s 8s f Is , 8p f Ip
8p , primary "input# voltage
<p , number of turns on primary coil
Ip , primary "input# current



8s , secondary "output# voltage
<s , number of turns on secondary
coil
Is , secondary "output# current
The circ@it s&m*ol 4 the Transformer
1K
P@rposeD In this proCect we use two transformers, one is a step down transformer which
provides power supply to relays _ microcontroller and the other is a step up transformer to
sense the load current.
1;.'.3I9(T E2ITTIN9 DIODE /3ED0
A 9ight Emitting Giode "9EG# is an electronic semiconductor component that emits a
single colour "monochromatic# light when a G current flows through it in a forward
direction. Introduced during the early 1KD2s by Te%as Instruments, the first 9EG
components were dim and only available red in colour. Today 9EGs produce a far brighter
light source, are available in a variety of voltages and si(es, and in a range of colours
including red, orange, yellow, green, blue and white.
These robust and electrically efficient components "a typical 9EG re&uires a G
current of about 12 milliamps to begin emitting light# ma!e them ideal for use as indicator
lamps on control panels.
9EGs emitting a non-visible light in the infra-red part of the radiation spectrum are
also available. These 9EGs are invaluable for use in detection applications when used in
conCunction with infra-red detector components.
1;.'.1. +ETURE"
ompared to incandescent lamps, 9EGs offer a number of advantages including+
'obust construction - there is no glass to shatter or filament to brea!.
Sodern 9EGs are e%tremely efficient - they can emit light e&ual to a small
incandescent lamp while consuming about 12 percent of the electrical power.
;igh reliability - modern 9EGs have life spans of 122,222 hours "over 11 years# of
continuous use.
Environmental - 9EGs can withstand large shoc! and vibration far beyond that
tolerated by incandescent lamps.
1;.'.!. 3ED "PECI+ICTION"
D2
In this section an e%planation is provided for each of the 9EGs parameters that are
normally &uoted in manufacturerOs and supplierOs literature.
Dimensions
Giscrete 9EGs are now available in a variety of shapes and si(es. The most
common type used are the LstandardL types available in small round dome
encapsulations. The si(e measurement &uoted for these LstandardL components
refers to the diameter of the body encapsulation.
'efer to the manufacturerOs or supplierOs literature to determine the si(e for the
irregularly shaped 9EGs.
3ight O@tp@t
This parameter specifies the intensity of the light produced by a 9EG, and is normally
&uoted in units of LmcdL for a stated Porward urrent " IP # flowing through the
component.
The unit of light measurement is the LandelaL. 0ne andela "or 1 cd# is defined
as the light intensity of a LstandardL candle viewed from a distance of 1$ inches.
This intensity is appro%imately e&ual to the light produced by a small $ watt
standard incandescent bulb. 0ne andela e&uals 1222 milli andelas "mcd#.
Sodern 9EG components are available with wide ranging light outputs from 1
mcd to 122 mcd "or more#.
+orwar) .oltage /.+0
Indicates the voltage measured across the 9EG when it is drawing the stated Porward
urrent "IP#.
D1
+orwar) C@rrent /I+0
Indicates the current flowing through the 9EG for normal operation
Re#erse .oltage /.R0
Indicates the ma%imum voltage when applied in reverse polarity across the 9EG that
the component can normally withstand
Power Dissipation
Indicates the ma%imum power that the 9EG can dissipate without sustaining damage
*ower Gissipation , Porward 8oltage " 8P # % Porward urrent " IP #
An 9EG is the device shown above. 3esides red, they can also be yellow, green
and blue. The letters 9EG stand for 9ight Emitting Giode. If you are unfamiliar with
diodes, ta!e a moment to review the components in the 3asic omponents Tutorial. The
important thing to remember about diodes "including 9EGs# is that current can only flow
in one direction.
To ma!e an 9EG wor!, you need a voltage supply and a resistor. If you try to use
an 9EG without a resistor, you will probably burn out the 9EG. The 9EG has very little
resistance so large amounts of current will try to flow through it unless you limit the
current with a resistor. If you try to use an 9EG without a power supply, you will be
highly disappointed.
So first of all we will ma!e our 9EG light up by setting up the circuit below.
P@rposeD The purpose of the 9EG in this proCect is to indicating whether the supply is
given to microcontroller or not and also whether the relay are switched on or not.
D$
1;.8. .O3T9E RE9U3TOR UNIT
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level.It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Gepending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more
A or G voltages.
'egulator regulates the output voltage to be
always constant. The output voltage is maintained
irrespective of the fluctuations in the input A voltage.
As and then the A voltage changes, the G voltage also
changes. Thus to avoid this 'egulators are used. Also
when the internal resistance of the power supply is
greater than 62 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus this
can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and
for high voltage. Purther they can also be classified as+
*ositive regulator
1---J input pin
$---J ground pin
6---J output pin
It regulates the positive voltage.
P@rposeD In our proCect we are using two regulators
1. 'egulator FH21
$. 'egulator FH1$
They play a vital role in this proCect. The microcontroller and relay needs fi%ed
voltages of 18 and 1$8 respectively. So we use two regulators, one is FH21 to provide
fi%ed 18 to the microcontroller and the other one is FH1$ to provide fi%ed 1$8 to the
relay driver to operate relays.
1;.8.1. DI9R2 O+ RE9U3TOR
The ?AFHTTB?AFHTTA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available
in the T0-$$2BG-*A? pac!age and with several fi%ed output voltages, ma!ing them
D6
useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, ma!ing it essentially indestructible.
If ade&uate heat sin!ing is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although
designed primarily as fi%ed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with e%ternal
components to obtain adCustable voltages and currents.


1;.:. 3CD DI"P31
9i&uid crystal display "9G# has material which combines the properties of both
li&uid and crystals. They have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost
as mobile as they would be in a li&uid, but are grouped together in an order form similar to
a crystal.
3CD DI"P31D
D=


Sore microcontroller devices are using Osmart 9GO displays to output visual information.
The following discussion covers the connection of a ;itachi 9G display to a *I
microcontroller. 9G displays designed around ;itachiOs 9G ;G==FH2 module, are
ine%pensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the H % H2
pi%els of the display. ;itachi 9G displays have a standard ASII set of characters plus
]apanese, Wree! and mathematical symbols.
P@rposeD In this proCect this is used to display power factor, time delay between voltage
and current of the load.
1;.=. RE31"
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical
current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit.
'elays are li!e remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their
relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. 'elays are used in a wide variety
of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone e%changes, digital computers and
automation systems. ;ighly sophisticated relays are utili(ed to protect electric power
systems against trouble and power blac!outs as well as to regulate and control the
generation and distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing
machines and dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are
D1
generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as
pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice
versa.
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by A or G
current. :hen the applied current or voltage e%ceeds a threshold value, the coil activates
the armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed
contacts. :hen a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates
the switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one
circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuitI the second is called the load
circuit.
OnIOff ControlD E%ample+ Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a 4high
power5 load, such as a compressor 9imit ontrol+
E%ample+ Sotor Speed ontrol, used to disconnect a motor if it runs slower or faster than
the desired speed
3ogic Operation+ E%ample+ Test E&uipment, used to connect the instrument to a
number of testing points on the device under test.
1;.=.1. E3ECTRO2EC(NIC3 RE31"
The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch contacts can
handle. Sost versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and can be
single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other consumer
electronic e&uipment and appliances

DD
The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to
form an electromagnet.
:hen the coil is energi(ed, by passing current through it, the core becomes
temporarily magneti(ed.
The magneti(ed core attracts the iron armature.
The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts.
:hen the coil is de-energi(ed the armature and contacts are released.
The coil can be energi(ed from a low power source such as a transistor while the
contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply.
The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source.
'elays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off.
This can damage other components in the circuit.
To prevent this, a diode is connected across the coil.
The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end of the coil.
The spring sets "contacts# can be a mi%ture of n.o n.c and c.o. 9oo! at the page on
switches to see how they can be used in circuits.
8arious coil operating voltages "ac and dc# are available.
The actual contact points on the spring sets are available for high current and low
current operation.
DF
P@rposeD 'elays are used as switches to connect and disconnect the capacitors in parallel
to the load.
1;.1?. CR1"T3 O"CI33TOR
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of pie(oelectric
material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
fre&uency. This fre&uency is commonly used to !eep trac! of
time "as in &uart( wristwatches#, to provide a stable cloc!
signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabili(e fre&uencies
for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of pie(oelectric resonator
used is the &uart( crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them were called Lcrystal
oscillatorsL.
Electrical mo)el
Schematic symbol and e&uivalent circuit for a &uart( crystal in an oscillator
DH
A &uart( crystal can be modeled as an electrical networ! with a low impedance
"series# and a high impedance "parallel# resonance point spaced closely together.
Sathematically "using the 9aplace transform# the impedance of this networ! can be
written as+
or,
where s is the comple% fre&uency "s , Cg#, gs is the series resonant fre&uency in radians
per second and gp is the parallel resonant fre&uency in radians per second.
Adding additional capacitance across a crystal will cause the parallel resonance to
shift downward. This can be used to adCust the fre&uency at which a crystal oscillator
oscillates. rystal manufacturers normally cut and trim their crystals to have a specified
resonant fre&uency with a !nown OloadO capacitance added to the crystal. Por e%ample, a D
pP 6$ !;( crystal has a parallel resonance fre&uency of 6$,FDH ;( when a D.2 pP
capacitor is placed across the crystal. :ithout this capacitance, the resonance fre&uency is
higher than 6$,FDH ;(.
P@rposeD In this proCect this is used to provide the re&uired fre&uency of pulses to the
Sicro-controller for its operation.
1;.11. C(O-E COI3
DK
A coil is a series of loops. A coiled coil is a structure where the coil itself is in turn
also looping. A coil is made up of materials, usually rigid, which can be fashioned into a
spiral or helical shape. Ple%ible materials li!e wire, roe, hose, cable or paper can also be
coiled into empty loops, or wound around a central drum or spindle.

An electromagnetic coil "or simply a LcoilL# is formed when a conductor "usually a solid
copper wire# is wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. 0ne
loop of wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. Por
use in an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected
to a coil. oils are often coated with varnish andBor wrapped with insulating tape to
provide additional insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with
taps etc. is often called a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that has a
primary winding and a secondary
winding that transfers energy from one
electrical circuit to another by
magnetic coupling without moving
parts. The term tic!ler coil usually
refers to a third coil placed in relation
to a primary coil and secondary coil A
coil tap is a wiring feature found on
some electrical transformers, inductors and coil pic!ups, all of which are sets of wire coils.
The coil tap"s# are points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been e%posed
"usually on a loop of wire that e%tends out of the main coil body#. As self induction is
larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thic! wire tries to flow on the inside. The
ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means that a spiral is a better
alternative. Sultilayer coils have the problem of interlayer capacitance, so when multiple
layers are needed the shape needs to be radically changed to a short coil with many layers
so that the voltage between consecutive layers is smaller "ma!ing them more spiral li!e#.
1;.11.1. N31"I"
F2
The inductance of single-layer air-cored coils can be calculated to a reasonable
degree of accuracy with the simplified formula
h;,"'
$
<
$
#B"K'-129#
where h; "micro henries# are units of inductance, ' is the coil radius "measured in
inches to the center of the conductor#, < is the number of turns, and 9 is the length of the
coil in inches. The online oil Inductance alculator calculates the inductance of any coil
using this formula. ;igher accuracy estimates of coil inductance re&uire calculations of
considerably greater comple%ity. A laypersonOs translation is+
Inductance
microhenries
, "radius
$
.number of turns
$
#B"K.radius-12.length#
<ote that if the coil has a ferrite core, or one made of another metallic material, itOs
inductance cannot be calculated with this formula. In calculating the distances, one
centimeter is e&ual to 2.6K6F22FHF inches and one inch is e&ual to $.1= centimeters. The
inductance formula uses inches. The relationship between the radius and the
circumference of a coil is , with r as the radius, c as the circumference, and ^ "the Wree!
letter pi# as the constant 6.1=1. The circumference of a coil can be calculated by , with d as
the diameter of the coil and ^ as 6.1=1.
P@rposeD In this proCect we are using two cho!es which acts as inductive load "leading to
low power factor. :hen these are switched on and off the inductance of the load varies by
that the p,f varies.
1;.1!. "WITC(

A switch is an electrical component which can brea! an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar
form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of
electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states+ either OclosedO meaning
the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or OopenO, meaning the
contacts are separated and none conducting.
The below switch is toggle switch
F1

The below are pushbutton switches

P@rposeD In this proCect the pushbutton is used to restart the Sicro-controller and the
toggle switch is used for the purpose of connecting and disconnecting the coil to the
circuit.
1;.1%. 5U35"
The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or
incandescent light globe is a source of electric light that wor!s
by incandescence "a general term for heat-driven light emissions
which includes the simple case of blac! body radiation#. An
electric current passes through a thin filament, heating it until it
produces light. The enclosing glass bulb prevents the o%ygen in
air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be
destroyed rapidly by o%idation. Incandescent bulbs are also
sometimes called electric lamps, a term also applied to the
original arc lamps.

P@rposeD In this proCect when bulb is !ept in the holder then the circuit is closed otherwise
the circuit is open. :hen inductor "cho!e coil# is not bypassed by a toggle switch bulb
glows brighter than when it is present.
F$
1<. +3OW C(RT
!?.
CIRCUIT DI9R2
"tart
Calc@late the 3oa) Power
+actor 4 Displa& it
If P.f JK ?.;1
4 L ?.<=
If P.f JK ?.<=
4 L ?.=;
If P.f JK ?.=;
4 L 1
If P.f J ?.;1
"witch on '
Capacitors
"witch on %
Capacitors
"witch on !
Capacitors
"witch on 1
Capacitor
Wait +or "ome Time :? sec
9et the 3oa) C@rrent
Is there
an& change
in 3oa)
c@rrent
9et the 3oa) C@rrent 4
#oltage
1E"
1E"
1E"
1E"
1E" NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
F6
Description
This circuit consists of G power supply unit, (ero voltage crossing detectors,
Sicro-controller, 9G display, 'elays and apacitor ban! and 9oad circuit. 9et us see how
it operates. The re&uired G power supply for Sicro-controller and other peripherals is
supplied by the G power supply.
Por the calculation of the power factor by the Sicro-controller we need digiti(ed
voltage and current signals. The voltage signal from the mains is ta!en and it is converted
into pulsating G by bridge rectifier and is given to a comparator which generates the digital
voltage signal. Similarly the current signal is converted into the voltage signal by ta!ing the
voltage drop of the load current across a resistor of 12 ohms. This A. signal is again
converted into the digital signal as done for the voltage signal. Then these digiti(ed voltage
and current signals are sent to the micro-controller. The micro-controller calculates the time
difference between the (ero crossing points of current and voltage, which is directly
proportional to the power factor and it determines the range in which the power factor is.
Sicro-controller sends information regarding time difference between current and voltage
F=
and power factor to the 9G display to display them, Gepending on the range it sends the
signals to the relays through the relay driver. Then the re&uired number of capacitors are
connected in parallel to the load. 3y this the power factor will be improved.
!1. CONC3U"ION
So, by using the Automatic *ower Pactor Improvement module we can efficiently
improve the power factor for variable inductive loads, improving the life span of
e&uipment and reducing power bills
ReferencesD
1. An Introduction to Embedded Systems Plorian 9echner, Ganiel :alter
csad1=FHiuib!.ac.at, csaeHK1Hiuib!.ac.at <ovember H, $22D .
!. Wi$ipe)iaA the free enc&clope)ia.
6. www.britanica.com
=. www.howstuffwor!s.com
1. :hat is 'eactive *ower@ *eter :. Sauer Gepartment of Electrical and omputer
Engineering )niversity of Illinois at )rbana-hampaign September 1D, $226
D. Electric *ower Systems by S.9.)ppal.
F. )tili(ation of Electric *ower and Electric Traction by ].3.Wupta.