Principles and Applications of

Variable Frequency Drives

Presented by
Randall L. Foulke, P.E., BCEE
NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference
April 6, 2009
New Bern, North Carolina
What is a variable-frequency
drive?
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a
system for controlling the rotational
speed or torque of an alternating current
(AC) electric motor by controlling the
frequency of the electric power supplied
to the motor. By extension, a VFD also
controls horsepower. A VFD is a type of
an adjustable-speed drive (ASD).
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
April 6, 2009
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
April 6, 2009
Types of Adjustable Speed Drives
Mechanical Adjustable Speed Drives
Variable pitch drives
Traction drives
Hydraulic Adjustable Speed Drives
Hydrostatic drives
Hydrodynamic drives
Hydroviscous drives
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
NC AWWA-WEA
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Types of Adjustable Speed Drives
Electric adjustable speed drives
DC motor drives
Eddy current drives
AC motor drives
Slip controlled drives
Multiple speed motors
Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD)
Also known as variable-frequency drives
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
April 6, 2009
Why Use Adjustable Speed Drives
Saving energy
Process control
Smoother operation
Acceleration/deceleration control
Different operating speed for each process mode
Compensate for changing process variables
Allow slow operation for setup purposes
Adjust rate of process parameters
Allow accurate positioning
Control torque or tension
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Why use VFDs
Assumes the need for adjustable speed
Adjustable output
Steady state condition
Reduced capital expenditure
Solid state electronic power conversion
devices
Reduced maintenance
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Alternate Terms for VFD
Adjustable-frequency drive (AFD)
Variable-speed drive (VSD)
Microdrive
Inverter drive
Variable voltage variable frequency
(VVVF)
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Saving Energy with VFDs
Affinity Laws
Law 1. With impeller diameter (D) held constant:
Law 1a. Flow is proportional to shaft speed: Q
1
/Q
2
= (N
1
/N
2
)
Law 1b. Pressure or Head is proportional to the square of shaft
speed: H
1
/H
2
= (N
1
/N
2
)
2
Law 1c. Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed: P
1
/P
2
=
(N
1
/N
2
)
3
where
Q is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM or GPM),
D is the impeller diameter (e.g. in),
N is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm),
H is the pressure or head developed by the fan/pump, and
P is the shaft power.
These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant. In other words, 1 = 2 .
Reducing pump speed by 50% results in a power
consumption drop to 12.5%
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Saving Energy with VFDs
Motor Starting
Start motors Resistance of motor, equipment, and
process
Simple switching at full load
Requires additional energy inrush current
Typical inrush current is at least 300% of rated
current of motor produces less than 50% of rated
torque of motor
VFD can start motor at low frequency and avoid
high inrush current
Constant-speed motor starts significantly increase
energy usage
Each motor start increases energy usage at least
300%
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Operating Principles of AC Motors
Synchronous speed of an AC motor determined by frequency of AC
supply and number of poles in stator winding.
RPM = (120 x f) / p
RPM = revolutions per minute, f = AC power frequency (hertz), p =
number of poles
(120 x 60) / 4 = 1800 RPM
Induction motor at full load = 1750 RPM
Speed controller with input of 50 hertz (Hz)
(120 x 50) / 4 = 1500 RPM
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VFD Types
All VFDs use output devices only as
switches, turning them only on or off
Using linear output devices impractical, since
dissipated power = power delivered to load
Drive types
Constant current
Cycloconverter
Constant voltage Most Common
Pulse width modulation to control frequency and
voltage
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VFD System
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VFD System Description
Motors
3 induction motor
Most economical
Synchronous motors may offer some advantages
VFD controller
Solid state electronic power conversion
Use of rectifiers and inverters to convert AC to DC to quasi-
sinusoidal AC
Will accept 1 power, but must derate system
Embedded microprocessor governs operation
Limited ability for configuration programming and parameter
adjustment
Allowable spacing between motors and controllers can
vary by factor of 2.5:1
Higher carrier switching frequencies (CSF) dictate short
distances
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VFD Diagram
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Types of Switches
Transistors
Thyristors
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
Introduced in 1980s
Most used device in VFDs for inverter circuits
in first decade of 21
st
century
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Drive Output Waveform
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Common Torque
If torque is
maintained, then
applied voltage
must be decreased
in same ratio to
frequency
Usual method for
adjusting motor
voltage is pulse-
width modulation
(PWM)
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Selection of VFDs
PWM type of IGBT is newest and best
performing
6 pulse and 18 pulse available, with 6 pulse most
common no difference in control performance
18 controls harmonics for motor and facility electrical
system
18 pulse only used for 100 hp and above
Small VFDs (<20hp) most manufacturers same,
>20 hp best to select from well known
manfacturers
Allen-Bradley, Danfoss, Robicon (Siemens)
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Selection of VFDs
Fully rated NEMA bypass expensive option
Includes across the line starter in parallel with VFD
Failure of VFD removes circuit from system and
NEMA bypass operates motor at full speed
Use one or more constant speed process units
in parallel with VFD process units in multiple unit
applications
Also reduces capital cost
May cause unbalanced wear unless provided with
selector switches for VFD controlled units
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VFD Operator Interface
Commonly known as human machine
interface (HMI)
Operator controls
Start/stop
Adjust Speed
Switch between manual and automatic
Receive external process control
Displays of indication and meters
Keypad can be remote from controller
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VFD Examples
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How VFDs Are Controlled
Manually
Adjust frequency by set point locally or remotely
Automatically
Adjust frequency based on maintaining process parameter
level, flow, DO, density
Adjust frequency based on relationship to another process
parameter flow, nitrogen
Control input adjusts the frequency output from the VFD
to motor changing the RPM of the motor and process
unit.
Normally from 60 Hz down, but can be operated above 60 Hz,
but will reduce available torque from motor (sometimes call field
weakening). Example operation at 75 Hz reduces torque to
80%.
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How VFDs Operate
Starting
Initial application of low
frequency and voltage (2
Hz or less) avoids high
inrush current
Applied frequency and
voltage increased at
controlled rate without
drawing excessive current
Develop 150% of torque
with only 50% of rated
current
As load accelerates,
available torque drops
somewhat, then rises to
peak at motor full load
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How VFDs Operate
Stopping
Frequency and voltage are ramped down at a
controlled rate, approaching zero, motor shuts off
Small amount of braking torque available to
decelerate load faster than if allowed to coast
Braking circuit can be added to obtain additional
braking torque turning the motor into a generator
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Maintaining VFDs
VFD Basically a computer
and a power supply
Maintenance requirements
Keep it clean
Keep it dry
Keep the connections tight
Keep it cool
Fan injecting dust
Corrosion caused by moisture
Arcing caused by loose contacts
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Available VFD Power Ratings
Low voltage
110 v to 690 v
hp to 1000 hp
Medium voltage
Up to 2400/4160 v @ 60 Hz and 3000 v @ 50
Hz
Up to 5000 hp
Some applications use a transformer between
low voltage drive and medium voltage load
NC AWWA-WEA
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Limitations of VFDs
Reprogramming
May require factory technician
May have limited operating range
Generally with pumps 50% turndown
Location of drive units
Different transmission-line impedance of the cable
and motor result in reflection of pulses, which can put
high stress on cable and eventual insulation failure
long runs of 480 volts and frequent concern for
motors of 600 volts and above.
NC AWWA-WEA
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Disadvantages of VFDs
Additional point of failure Increased risk
Equipment failure
Misinterpret communication signals Process Control
Additional cost of equipment
Microelectronics have mitigated this disadvantage
Complexity of control circuitry
Additional operator and maintenance training,
skill and knowledge
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Disadvantages of VFDs
Harmonics
Potential for development in process unit
destructive stress
Electrical system if VFD >25% of load, must take
steps to mitigate
Requires clean conditioned space or AC cooler
on panel
Sensitive to heat
Frequent/constant running at full speed
decreases efficiency and life of VFD
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Alternative/Innovative Uses of VFDs
Use to control surge during start-up/shut-
down of process units (pumps)
Use to adapt to varying head conditions,
manually or automatically, while
maintaining flow rate
Use braking circuit to return power to
source
Use of single VFD to control more than
one process unit (additional pumps)
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Useful Application Information
Single phase to three phase common trick
when site does not have 3 power to supply 3
pumps
Used for larger lift stations in rural and remote
locations
Issue VFD size usually doubled to accept higher
current on input side of electric supply
Generator sizing VFD motor requires smaller
generator than across the line starting
VFDs limit inrush current by up to 50%
VFD cost can be offset by reduced generator size
NC AWWA-WEA
Spring Conference
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Is a VFD Right for You
Varying process conditions
Better control
Fine tuning of process
Control surges
Frequent start-stops of equipment
Need to control energy costs
Automatic control
Questions
Randall L. Foulke, P.E., BCEE
URS Corporation North Carolina
919-637-3344
Randy_Foulke@urscorp.com