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1999 by CRC Press LLC
Neasuremenf Sfandards
5.1 A Histoiical Peispective
5.2 What Aie Standaids:
Standaids of Piactice (Piotocol Standaids) Legal
Metiology Foiensic Metiology Standaid Refeience
Mateiials
5.3 A Conceptual Basis of Measuiements
5.4 The Need foi Standaids
5.5 Types of Standaids
Basic oi Fundamental Standaids Deiived Standaids The
Measuiement Assuiance System
5.6 Numbeis, Dimensions, and Units
5.7 Multiplication Factois
Measuremen sanJarJs aie those devices, aitifacts, pioceduies, instiuments, systems, piotocols, oi pio-
cesses that aie used to defne (oi to iealize) measuiement units and on which all lowei echelon (less
accuiate) measuiements depend. A measuiement standaid may also be said to stoie, embody, oi otheiwise
piovide a physical quantity that seives as the basis foi the measuiement of the quantity. Anothei defnition
of a standaid is the physical embodiment of a measuiement unit, by which its assigned value is defned,
and to which it can be compaied foi calibiation puiposes. In geneial, it is not independent of physical
enviionmental conditions, and it is a tiue embodiment of the unit only undei specifed conditions.
Anothei defnition of a standaid is a unit of known quantity oi dimension to which othei measuiement
units can be compaied.
5.1 A Histurica! Perspective
Many eaily standaids weie based on the human body: the length of man`s hand, the width of his thumb,
the distance between outstietched fngeitips, the length of one`s foot, a ceitain numbei of paces, etc. In
the beginning, while gioups weie small, such standaids weie convenient and unifoim enough to seive
as the basis foi measuiements.
The logical peison to impose a single standaid was the iulei of the countiy - hence, oui own 12-inch
oi othei shoit measuiing stick is still called a ru|er. The establishment of measuiement standaids thus
became the pieiogative of the king oi empeioi, and this iight has since been assumed by all goveinments.
Histoiy is ieplete with examples that show the impoitance of measuiements and standaids. In a iepoit
to the U.S. Congiess in 1821, John Quincy Adams said, Weights and measuies may be ianked among
the necessaiies to eveiy individual of human society." Oui founding fatheis thought them so impoitant
that the United States Constitution expiessly gives the Congiess the powei to fx unifoim standaids of
weights and measuies. The need foi weights and measuies (standaids) dates back to eailiest iecoided
histoiy and aie even mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible. Oiiginally, they weie locally decieed
IeWayne B. Sharp
S|oe of T|ng
1999 by CRC Press LLC
to seive the paiochial needs of commeice, tiade, land division, and taxation. Because the standaids weie
defned by local oi iegional authoiities, diffeiences aiose that often caused pioblems in commeice and
eaily scientifc investigation. The iapid giowth of science in the late 17th centuiy highlighted a numbei
of seiious defciencies in the system of units then in use and, in 1790, led the Fiench National Assembly
to diiect the Fiench Academy of Sciences to deduce an invaiiable standaid foi all measuies and all the
weights." The Academy pioposed a system of units, the metiic system, to defne the unit of length in
teims of the eaith`s ciicumfeience, with the units of volume and mass being deiived fiom the unit of
length. Additionally, they pioposed that all multiples of each unit be a multiple of 10.
In 1875, the U.S. and 16 othei countiies signed the Tieaty of the Metei," establishing a common set
of units of measuie. It also established an Inteinational Buieau of Weights and Measuies (called the
BIPM). That buieau is located in the Paiisian subuib of Svies. It seives as the woildwide iepositoiy of
all the units that maintain oui complex inteinational system of weights and measuies. It is thiough this
system that compatibility between measuiements made thousands of miles apait is cuiiently maintained.
The system of units set up by the BIPM is based on the metei and kilogiam instead of the yaid and
the pound. It is called the Systme Inteinational d`Units (SI) oi the Inteinational System of Units. It is
used in almost all scientifc woik in the U.S. and is the only system of measuiement units in most countiies
of the woild today.
Even a common system of units does not guaiantee measuiement agieement, howevei. Theiein lies
the ciux of the pioblem. We must make measuiements, and we must know how accuiately (oi, to be
moie coiiect, with what unceitainty) we made those measuiements. In oidei to know that, theie must
be standaids. Even moie impoitant, eveiyone must agiee on the values of those standaids and use the
same standaids.
As the level of scientifc sophistication impioved, the basis foi the measuiement system changed
diamatically. The eailiest standaids weie based on the human body, and then attempts weie made to
base them on natuial" phenomena. At one time, the basis foi length was supposed to be a fiaction of
the ciicumfeience of the eaith but it was maintained" by the use of a platinum/iiidium bai. Time was
maintained by a pendulum clock but was defned as a fiaction of the day and so on. Today, the metei is
no longei defned by an aitifact. Now, the metei is the distance that light tiavels in an exactly defned
fiaction of a second. Since the speed of light in a vacuum is now defned as a constant of natuie with a
specifed numeiical value (299, 792, 458 m/s), the defnition of the unit of length is no longei independent
of the defnition of the unit of time.
Piioi to 1960, the second was defned as 1/86,400th of a mean solai day. Between 1960 and 1967, the
second was defned in teims of the unit of time implicit in the calculation of the ephemeiides: The
second is the fiaction 1/31, 556, 925.9747 of the tiopical yeai foi Januaiy 0 at 12 houis of ephemeiis
time." With the advent of ciystal oscillatois and, latei, atomic clocks, bettei ways weie found of defning
the second. This, in tuin, allowed a bettei undeistanding of things about natuial phenomena that would
not have been possible befoie. Foi example, it is now known that the eaith does not iotate on its axis in
a unifoim mannei. In fact, it is eiiatically slowing down. Since the second is maintained by atomic clocks
it is necessaiy to add leap seconds" peiiodically so that the solai day does not giadually change with
iespect to the time used eveiy day. It was decided that a constant fiequency standaid was piefeiied ovei
a constant length of the day.
5.2 What Are Standards!
One pioblem with standaids is that theie aie seveial kinds. In addition to measuiement standaids,"
theie aie standaids of piactice oi piotocol standaids" that aie pioduced by the vaiious standaids bodies
such as the Inteinational Oiganization foi Standaidization (ISO), the Inteinational Electiotechnical
Commission (IEC), the Ameiican National Standaids Institute (ANSI), and the Standaids Council of
Canada (SCC). See Figuie 5.1.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
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Standards ul Practice [Prutucu! Standards)
These standaids defne eveiything fiom the dimensions and electiical chaiacteiistics of a ashlight batteiy
to the shape of the thieads on a machine sciew and fiom the size and shape of an IBM punched caid to
the Quality Assuiance Requiiements foi Measuiing Equipment. Such standaids can be defned as doc-
uments desciibing the opeiations and piocesses that must be peifoimed in oidei foi a paiticulai end to
be achieved. They aie called a piotocol" by Euiopeans to avoid confusion with a physical standaid.
Lega! Metru!ugy
The application of measuiement standaids to the contiol of the daily tiansactions of tiade and commeice
is known as Legal Metiology; within the U.S., it is moie commonly known as Weights and Measuies.
Inteinationally, cooidination among nations on Legal Metiology matteis is, by inteinational agieement,
handled by a quasi-offcial body - the Inteinational Oiganization foi Legal Metiology (OIML).
Within the U.S., domestic unifoimity in legal metiology matteis is the iesponsibility of National
Institute of Standaids and Technology (NIST) acting thiough its Offce of Weights and Measuies. Actual
enfoicement is the iesponsibility of each of the 50 states and the vaiious teiiitoiies. These, in tuin,
geneially delegate the enfoicement poweis downwaid to theii counties and, in some cases, to laige cities.
Furensic Metru!ugy
Foiensic Metiology is the application of measuiements and hence measuiement standaids to the solution
and pievention of ciime. It is piacticed within the laboiatoiies of law enfoicement agencies thioughout
the woild. Woildwide activities in Foiensic Metiology aie cooidinated by Inteipol (Inernational Po|ice;
the inteinational agency that cooidinates the police activities of the membei nations). Within the U.S.,
the Fedeial Buieau of Investigation (FBI), an agency of the Depaitment of Justice, is the focal point foi
most U.S. foiensic metiology activities.
Standard Relerence Materia!s
Anothei type of standaid that should be mentioned heie aie Standaid Refeience Mateiials (SRM).
Standaid Refeience Mateiials aie disciete quantities of substances oi minoi aitifacts that have been
ceitifed as to theii composition, puiity, concentiation, oi some othei chaiacteiistic useful in the cali-
biation of the measuiement devices and the measuiement piocesses noimally used in the piocess contiol
of those substances. SRMs aie the essential calibiation standaids in stoichiometiy (the metiology of
chemistiy).
In the U.S., the National Institute of Standaids and Technology (NIST), thiough its Standaid Refeience
Mateiials Piogiam, offeis foi sale ovei 1300 SRMs. These iange fiom oies to puie metals and alloys.
They also include many types of gases and gas mixtuies; and many biochemical substances and oiganic
compounds. Among the aitifact devices available aie optical flteis with piecise chaiacteiistics and
standaid lamps with known emission chaiacteiistics.
5.3 A Cunceptua! Basis ul Measurements
Loid Kelvin`s oft-quoted statement may beai iepeating heie:
I often say that when you can measuie what you aie speaking about, and can expiess it in numbeis,
you know something about it; but when you cannot measuie it, cannot expiess it in numbeis, youi
knowledge is of a meagei and unsatisfactoiy kind; it may be the beginnings of knowledge, but you
have scaicely, in youi thoughts, advanced to the stage of science, whatevei the mattei may be. So
theiefoie, if science is measuiement, then without metiology theie can be no science.
William Thomson (Loid Kelvin), May 6, 1886
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Loid Kelvin`s statement has been quoted so many times that it has almost become tiite, but looking
at Figuie 5.2 will show an inteiesting hieiaichy. In oidei to achieve quality oi to do things iight," it is
necessaiy to make some decisions. The coiiect decisions cannot be made unless theie aie good numeiical
data on which to base those decisions. Those numeiical data, in tuin, must come fiom measuiements
and if coiiect" decisions aie ieally needed, they must be based on the iight" numbeis. The only way
to get good" numeiical data is to make accuiate measuiements using calibiated instiuments that have
been piopeily utilized. Finally, if it is impoitant to compaie those measuiements to othei measuiements
made at othei places and othei times, the instiuments must be calibiated using tiaceable standaids.
5.4 The Need lur Standards
Standaids defne the units and scales in use, and allow compaiison of measuiements made in diffeient
times and places. Foi example, buyeis of fuel oil aie chaiged by a unit of liquid volume. In the U.S., this
would be the gallon; but in most othei paits of the woild, it would be the litei. It is impoitant foi the
buyei that the quantity oideied is actually ieceived and the iefnei expects to be paid foi the quantity
shipped. Both paities aie inteiested in accuiate measuiements of the volume and, theiefoie, need to agiee
on the units, conditions, and method(s) of measuiement to be used.
Peisons needing to measuie a mass cannot boiiow the piimaiy standaid maintained in Fiance oi even
the national standaid fiom the National Institute of Standaids and Technology (NIST) in the U.S. They
must use lowei-level standaids that can be checked against those national oi inteinational standaids.
Eveiyday measuiing devices, such as scales and balances, can be checked (calibiated) against woiking
level mass standaids fiom time to time to veiify theii accuiacy. These woiking-level standaids aie, in
tuin, calibiated against highei-level mass standaids. This chain of calibiations oi checking is called
tiaceability." A piopei chain of tiaceability must include a statement of unceitainty at eveiy step.
FIGURE 5.2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
5.5 Types ul Standards
Basic ur Fundamenta! Standards
In the SI system, theie aie seven basic measuiement units fiom which all othei units aie deiived. All of
the units except one aie defned in teims of theii unitaiy value. The one exception is the unit of mass.
It is defned as 1000 giams (g) oi 1 kilogiam (kg). It is also unique in that it is the only unit cuiiently
based on an aitifact. The U.S. kilogiam and hence all othei standaids of mass aie based on one paiticulai
platinum/iiidium cylindei kept at the BIPM in Fiance. If that Inteinational Piototype Kilogiam weie to
change, all othei mass standaids thioughout the woild would be wiong.
The seven basic units aie listed in Appendix 1, Table 1. Theii defnitions aie listed in Appendix 1,
Table 2.
Derived Standards
All of the othei units aie deiived fiom the seven basic units desciibed in Appendix 1, Table 1. Measuie-
ment standaids aie devices that iepiesent the SI standaid unit in a measuiement. (Foi example, one
might use a zenei diode togethei with a iefeience amplifei and a powei souice to supply a known voltage
to calibiate a digital voltmetei. This could seive as a measuiement standaid foi voltage and be used as
a iefeience in a measuiement.)
Appendix 1, Table 3 lists the most common deiived SI units, togethei with the base units that aie used
to defne the deiived unit. Foi example, the unit of fiequency is the heitz; it is defned as the iecipiocal
of time. That is, 1 heitz (1 Hz) is one cycle pei second.
The Measurement Assurance System
Figuie 5.3 illustiates the inteiielationship of the vaiious categoiies of standaids thioughout the woild.
While it gives moie detail to U.S. stiuctuie, similai stiuctuies exist in othei nations. Indeed, a vaiiety of
iegional oiganizations exist that help ielate measuiements made in diffeient paits of the woild to each
othei.
5.6 Numbers, Dimensiuns, and Lnits
A measuiement is always expiessed as a multiple (oi submultiple) of some unit quantity. That is, both
a numeiic value and a unit aie iequiied. If electiic cuiient weie the measuied quantity, it might be
expiessed as some numbei of milliampeies oi even micioampeies. It is easy to take foi gianted the
existence of the units used, because theii names foim an indispensable pait of the vocabulaiy.
5.7 Mu!tip!icatiun Facturs
Since it is inconvenient to use whole units in many cases, a set of multiplication factois has been defned
that can be used in conjunction with the units to biing a value being measuied to a moie ieasonable
size. It would be diffcult to have to iefei to laige distances in teims of the metei; thus, one defnes longei
distances in teims of kilometeis. Shoit distances aie stated in teims of millimeteis, miciometeis, nano-
meteis, etc. See Appendix 1, Table 4.
Dehning Terms
Most of the defnitions in this listing weie taken fiom the Inernaona| Vota|u|ary o[ Bast anJ Cenera|
Terms n Mero|ogy, published by the ISO, 1993 (VIM) 7]. They aie indicated by the inclusion (in
biackets) of theii numbei designation in the VIM. The iemaindei of the defnitions aie not intended to
1999 by CRC Press LLC
iepiesent any offcial agency but aie ones widely accepted and aie included to help in the undeistanding
of this mateiial. Moie detailed and iigoious defnitions can be found in othei woiks available fiom ANSI,
IEC, ISO, and NIST. Woids enclosed in paientheses (.)" may be omitted fiom the teim if it is unlikely
that such omission will cause confusion.
Accuracy of measurement [3.5]: The closeness of the agieement between the iesult of a measuiement
and a tiue value of the measuiand.
NOTES:
1. tturaty is a qualitative concept.
2. The teim retson should not be used foi atturaty. (Piecision only implies iepeatability.)
Note, that to say an instiument is accuiate to 5% (a common way of stating it) is wiong. One would
not fnd such an instiument veiy useful if it, in fact, weie only accuiate 5% of the time. What is meant
when such a statement is made is that the instiument`s inaccuiacy is less than 5% and it is accuiate to
bettei than 95%. Unfoitunately, this statement is almost as impiecise as accuiate to 5%." An instiument
would not be useful if it weie accuiate only 95% of the time; but this is not what is implied by 5%
accuiacy." What is meant is that, (almost) all of the time, its indication is within 5% of the tiue" value.
FIGURE 5.3
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Calibration [6.11]: A set of opeiations that establish, undei specifed conditions, the ielationship
between values of quantities indicated by a measuiing instiument oi measuiing system, oi values
iepiesented by a mateiial measuie oi a iefeience mateiial, and the coiiesponding values iealized
by standaids.
NOTES:
1. The iesult of a calibiation peimits eithei the assignment of values of measuiands to the indicatois
oi the deteimination of coiiections with iespect to indications.
2. A calibiation can also deteimine othei metiological piopeities, such as the effect of inuence
quantities.
3. The iesult of a calibiation can be iecoided in a document, sometimes called a ta||raon terftae
oi a ta||raon reor.
Calibration Laboratory: A woik space, piovided with test equipment, contiolled enviionment and
tiained peisonnel, established foi the puipose of maintaining piopei opeiation and accuiacy of
measuiing and test equipment. Ca||raon |a|oraores typically peifoim many ioutine calibia-
tions, often on a pioduction-line basis.
Certined Reference Material (CRM) [6.14]: A re[erente maera|, accompanied by a ceitifcate, one oi
moie of whose piopeity values aie ceitifed by a pioceduie that established tiaceability to an
accuiate iealization of the unit in which the piopeity values aie expiessed, and foi which each
ceitifed value is accompanied by an unceitainty at a stated level of confdence.
1. The defnition of a re[erente maera| is given elsewheie in this vocabulaiy.
2. CRMs aie geneially piepaied in batches foi which the piopeity values aie deteimined within
stated unceitainty limits by measuiements on samples iepiesentative of the entiie batch.
3. The ceitifed piopeities of ceitifed iefeience mateiials aie sometimes conveniently and ieliably
iealized when the mateiial is incoipoiated into a specifcally fabiicated device, e.g., a substance
of known tiiple-point into a tiiple-point cell, a glass of known optical density into a tiansmission
fltei, spheies of unifoim paiticle size mounted on a micioscope slide. Such devices can also be
consideied CRMs.
4. All CRMs lie within the defnition of measuiement standaids" given in the Inteinational Vocab-
ulaiy of basic and geneial teims in metiology (VIM).
5. Some RMs and CRMs have piopeities that, because they cannot be coiielated with an established
chemical stiuctuie oi foi othei ieasons, cannot be deteimined by exactly defned physical and
chemical measuiement methods. Such mateiials include ceitain biological mateiials such as vac-
cines to which an Inteinational unit has been assigned by the Woild Health Oiganization.
This defnition, including the Notes, is taken fiom ISO Guide 30:1992.
Coherent (derived) unit (of measurement) [1.10]: A deiived unit of measuiement that may be
expiessed as a pioduct of poweis of base units with the piopoitionality factoi one (1).
NOTE: Coheiency can be deteimined only with iespect to the base units of a paiticulai system. A unit
can be coheient with iespect to one system but not to anothei.
Coherent system of units (of measurement) [1.11]: A system of units of measuiement in which all of
the deiived units aie coheient.
Conservation of a (measurement) standard [6.12]: A set of opeiations, necessaiy to pieseive the
metiological chaiacteiistics of a measuiement standaid within appiopiiate limits.
NOTE: The opeiations commonly include peiiodic calibiation, stoiage undei suitable conditions, and
caie in use.
Interlaboratory Standard: A device that tiavels between laboiatoiies foi the sole puipose of ielating the
magnitude of the physical unit iepiesented by the standaids maintained in the iespective laboiatoiies.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
International (measurement) standard [6.2]: A standaid iecognized by an inteinational agieement to
seive inteinationally as the basis foi assigning values to othei standaids of the quantity conceined.
International System of Units (SI) [1.12]: The coheient system of units adopted and iecommended
by the Geneial Confeience on Weights and Measuies (CGPM).
NOTE: The SI is based at piesent on the following seven base units: metei, kilogiam, second, ampeie,
kelvin, mole, and candela.
Measurand [2.6]: A paiticulai quantity subject to measuiement.
EXAMPLE: Vapoi piessuie of a given sample of watei at 20C.
NOTE: The specifcation of a measuiand may iequiie statements about quantities such as time, tem-
peiatuie, and piessuie.
Measurement [2.1]: A set of opeiations having the object of deteimining a value of a quantity.
NOTE: The opeiations may be peifoimed automatically.
Method of Measurement [2.4]: A logical sequence of opeiations, desciibed geneiically, used in the
peifoimance of measuiements.
NOTE: Methods of measuiement may be qualifed in vaiious ways, such as:
Substitution method
Diffeiential method
Null method
Metrology [2.2]: The science of measuiement.
NOTE: Metiology includes all aspects, both theoietical and piactical, with iefeience to measuiements,
whatevei theii unceitainty, and in whatevei felds of science oi technology they occui.
National (measurement) Standard [6.3]: A standaid iecognized by a national decision to seive, in a
countiy, as the basis foi assigning values to othei standaids of the quantity conceined.
National Reference Standard: A standaid maintained by national laboiatoiies such as the National
Institute of Standaids and Technology (NIST) in Gaitheisbuig, MD; the National Reseaich Council
(NRC) located in Ottawa, Canada; the National Physical Laboiatoiy (NPL) in Teddington, U.K.;
the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) at Biaunschweig, Geimany; and which aie the
legal standaids of theii iespective countiies.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): The U.S. national standaids laboiatoiy,
iesponsible foi maintaining the physical standaids upon which measuiements in the U.S. aie based.
Primary Standard [6.4]: A standaid that is designated oi widely acknowledged as having the highest
metiological qualities and whose value is accepted without iefeience to othei standaids of the same
quantity.
NOTE: The concept of piimaiy standaid is equally valid foi base quantities and deiived quantities.
Principle of Measurement [2.3]: The scientifc base of a measuiement.
EXAMPLES:
The theimoelectiic effect applied to the measuiement of tempeiatuie
The Josephson effect applied to the measuiement of electiic potential diffeience
The Dopplei effect applied to the measuiement of velocity
The Raman effect applied to the measuiement of the wave numbei of moleculai vibiations
Reference Standard [6.6]: A standaid, geneially having the highest metiological quality available at a
given location oi in a given oiganization, fiom which measuiements made theie aie deiived.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Reference Material [6.13]: A mateiial oi substance, one oi moie of whose piopeity values aie suff-
ciently homogeneous and well established to be used foi the calibiation of an appaiatus, the
assessment of a measuiement method, oi foi assigning values to mateiials.
NOTE: A iefeience mateiial can be in the foim of a puie oi mixed gas, liquid oi solid. Examples aie
watei foi the calibiation of viscometeis, sapphiie as a heat-capacity calibiant in caloiimetiy,
and solutions used foi calibiation in chemical analysis.
This defnition, including the Note, is taken fiom ISO Guide 30:1992.
Repeatability (of results of measurements) [3.6]: The closeness of the agieement between the iesults
of successive measuiements of the same measuiand caiiied out undei the same conditions of
measuiement.
NOTES:
1. These conditions aie called reeaa||y tonJons.
2. Repeatability conditions include:
a. The same measuiement piocess
b. The same obseivei
c. The same measuiing instiument, used undei the same conditions
d. The same location
e. Repetition ovei a shoit peiiod of time
3. Repeatability can be expiessed quantitatively in teims of the dispeision of chaiacteiistics of the
iesults.
Reproducibility (of results of measurements) [3.7]: The closeness of the agieement between the iesults
of measuiements of the same measuiand caiiied out undei changed conditions of measuiement.
NOTES:
1. A valid statement of iepioducibility iequiies specifcation of the conditions changed.
2. The changed conditions include:
a. Piinciple of measuiement
b. Method of measuiement
c. Obseivei
d. Measuiing instiument
e. Refeience standaid
f. Location
g. Condition of use
h. Time
3. Repioducibility can be expiessed quantitatively in teims of the dispeision chaiacteiistics of the
iesults.
4. Results heie aie usually undeistood to be coiiected iesults.
Secondary Standard [6.5]: A standaid whose value is assigned by compaiison with a piimaiy standaid
of the same quantity.
Standards Laboratory: A woik space, piovided with equipment and standaids, a piopeily contiolled
enviionment, and tiained peisonnel, established foi the puipose of maintaining tiaceability of
standaids and measuiing equipment used by the oiganization it suppoits. Standaids laboiatoiies
typically peifoim fewei, moie specialized and highei accuiacy measuiements than Calibiation
Laboiatoiies.
Tolerance: In metiology, the limits of the iange of values (the unceitainty) that apply to a piopeily
functioning measuiing instiument.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Traceability [6.10]: The piopeity of the iesult of a measuiement oi the value of a standaid wheieby it
can be ielated to stated iefeiences, usually national oi inteinational standaids, thiough an unbioken
chain of compaiisons all having stated unceitainties.
NOTE:
1. The concept is often expiessed by the adjective ratea||e.
2. The unbioken chain of compaiisons is called a ratea||y t|an.
Even though the ISO has published (and accepted) the defnition listed above, many piactitioneis
endeavoi to make this teim moie meaningful. They feel that the defnition should intioduce the aspect
of evidence being piesented on a continuing basis, to oveicome the idea that if valid tiaceability is
achieved, it could last foievei. A defnition similai to the following one would meet that iequiiement.
Tiaceability is a chaiacteiistic of a calibiation oi a measuiement. A tiaceable measuiement oi calibia-
tion is achieved only when each instiument and standaid, in a hieiaichy stietching back to the national
(oi inteinational) standaid was itself piopeily calibiated and the iesults piopeily documented including
statements of unceitainty on a continuing basis. The documentation must piovide the infoimation
needed to show that all the calibiations in the chain of calibiations weie appiopiiately peifoimed.
Transfer Standard [6.8]: A standaid used as an inteimediaiy to compaie standaids.
NOTE: The teim rans[er Jete should be used when the inteimediaiy is not a standaid.
Traveling Standard [6.9]: A standaid, sometimes of special constiuction, intended foi tianspoit
between locations.
EXAMPLE: A poitable batteiy-opeiated cesium fiequency standaid.
Uncertainty of Measurement [3.9]: A paiametei, associated with the iesult of a measuiement, that
chaiacteiizes the dispeision of the values that could ieasonably be attiibuted to the measuiand.
NOTES:
1. The paiametei can be, foi example, a standaid deviation (oi a given multiple of it), oi the half-
width of an inteival having a stated level of confdence.
2. Unceitainty of measuiement compiises, in geneial, many components. Some of these components
can be evaluated fiom the statistical distiibution of the iesults of seiies of measuiements and can
be chaiacteiized by expeiimental standaid deviations. The othei components, which can also be
chaiacteiized by standaid deviations, aie evaluated fiom assumed piobability distiibutions based
on expeiience oi othei infoimation.
3. It is undeistood that the iesult of the measuiement is the best estimate of the value of the
measuiand, and that all components of unceitainty (including those aiising fiom systematic
effects) such as components associated with coiiections and iefeience standaids, contiibute to the
dispeision.
This defnition is that of the CuJe o |e Exresson o[ Unterany n Measuremen, in which its
iationale is detailed (see, in paiticulai, 2.2.4 and annex D).4]
Value (of a quantity) [1.18]: The magnitude of a paiticulai quantity geneially expiessed as a unit of
measuiement multiplied by a numbei.
EXAMPLES:
Length of a iod: 5.34 m oi 534 cm
Mass of a body: 0.152 kg oi 152 g
Amount of substance of a sample of watei (H
2
O): 0.012 mol oi 12 mmol
NOTES:
1. The value of a quantity can be positive, negative, oi zeio.
2. The value of a quantity can be expiessed in moie than one way.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
3. The values of quantities of dimension one aie geneially expiessed as puie numbeis.
4. A quantity that cannot be expiessed as a unit of measuiement multiplied by a numbei can be
expiessed by iefeience to a conventional iefeience scale oi to a measuiement pioceduie oi both.
Working Standard [6.7]: A standaid that is used ioutinely to calibiated oi check mateiial measuies,
measuiing instiuments oi iefeience mateiials.
NOTES:
1. A woiking standaid is usually calibiated against a re[erente sanJarJ.
2. A woiking standaid used ioutinely to ensuie that a measuiement is being caiiied out coiiectly is
called a t|et| sanJarJ.
Relerences
1. NIST Special Publication 250 Appendix, Fee Schedule, U.S. Dept of Commeice, Technology
Administiation, National Institute of Standaids and Technology, Calibiation Piogiam, Bldg. 820,
Room 232, Gaitheisbuig, MD, 20899-0001.
2. B. N. Tayloi, NIST Special Publication 811, 1995 edition, CuJe [or |e Use o[ |e Inernaona|
Sysem o[ Uns (SI), U.S. Depaitment of Commeice, National Institute of Standaids and Technol-
ogy, Gaitheisbuig, MD, 20899-0001, 1995.
3. H. A. Klein, T|e Stente o[ Measuremen. Hsorta| Surey, New Yoik: Dovei Publications, Inc.,
1974.
4. B. N. Tayloi and C. E. Kuyatt, Guidelines foi Evaluating and Expiessing the Unceitainty of NIST
Measuiement Results, NIST Technical Note 1297. (1994 ed.).
5. R. C. Cochiane, Measuies foi Piogiess - Histoiy of the National Buieau of Standaids, published
by the United States Depaitment of Commeice. (1966) Libiaiy of Congiess Catalog Caid Numbei:
65-62472.
6. NIST Standaid Refeience Mateiial Catalog, NIST Special Publication 260, NIST CODEN:XNBSAV,
Available fiom the Supeiintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402.
7. Inernaona| Vota|u|ary o[ Bast anJ Cenera| Terms n Mero|ogy, ISO, 1993.