PSYCHOLOGY 101

Psychology - scientific study of human behavior and mental processes

Behavior something you see
Mental Processes not necessarily observable
Psychs ABCs
a) Affect
b) Behavior
c) Cognition
Kinds of motives/drives
1. Psychological motives
i) Hunger, Thirst, Fatigue, etc.
2. Psychological and social drives
ii) Parent-child motives, peer group relations
Psychological Views
1) Psychodynamic perspective
Emphasis unconscious thoughts
Sigmund Freud with the psychoanalysis
Increase libido and decrease thanatos
Early life experiences
Sexual and aggressive impulses
Freuds theory is very controversial and difficult to validate
No tangible evidence
2) Behavioral perspective
Study of behavioral responses and their environment
Ivan Pavlov and the Classical Conditioning
Learning reflexes Dog and the bell
John Watson and Little Albert
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
3) Humanistic perspective
You can be what you want to be
Freewill
We have ability to control our own life
We can understand self
4) Cognitive perspective
Emphasis mental processes
The mind is in control of behavior
5) Sociocultural perspective
Social and cultural environment influence human behavior
Knowing a person requires knowing cultural context
Comparison of behaviors across countries
6) Biological approach
Brain and nervous system are central to understanding behavior
Thoughts and emotions have physical basis in the brain
7) Evolutionary perspective
Relatively new
Importance of adaptation and survival of the fittest in explaining behavior
Evolution shapes out physical features AND influences our decisions
Scientific Method
Question -> Hypothesis -> Test -> Conclude -> Present data
Methods
1) Descriptive Method
Naturalistic
Watching animals behave in their normal environment
ADVANTAGES
Realistic picture of behavior
Participant observation
DISADVANTAGES
Behave differently from normal when being observed
Observer bias
Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold
Laboratory observation
Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting
Controlled environment
Use of specialized equipment
DISADVANTAGES
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior
Case Study
Study of 1 individual in great detail
ADVANTAGES
Great amount of detail
DISADVANTAGES
Cant apply to others
Surveys
Series of questions of the topic under of study
Given to a representative sample randomly selected
By population of large scale
2) Correlation
Measure of the relationship between 2 variables
Variable
Anything that can change
Knowing the value one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other value
Coefficient (r) represents 2 things
1. Direction
2. Strength of relationship
Correlation does not prove causation
Positive and negative correlation

3) Experiment
A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result allowing the determination of
cause and effect relationships
Operational Definition
Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured
Independent and Dependent Variables
Experimental and Control group
Random Assignment
Process of assigning subject to the experimental or control groups randomly so that each has an equal chance of
being in either group
Controls for confounding (extraneous , interfering variables)
Placebo Effect
Phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
Single blind study
Subjects do now know if they are in the experimental or the control group
Experimenter effect
Tendency of the experimenters expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study
Double blind study
Neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces
placebo or experimenter effect)
Quasiexperimental designs
Not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental or
control groups
Ethics committees
Group of psychologists who judge ethical value of research and study
Common ethical guidelines
a) Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed against the studys value to science
b) Participants must be allowed to make an exception to make an informed decision about
participation
c) Deception must be justified
d) Participants may withdraw from study at any time
e) Participants may be protected from risks or told explicitly of risks
f) Researchers must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectations of
the results
g) Data must always remain confidential
h) If a study results in undesirable consequences, researcher should be responsible to correct
these consequences
4) Critical Thinking
4 basic criteria
1. There are very few truths that do not need to be subjected to testing
2. All evidence is not equal in quantity
3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority or a lot of expertise does not make everything
that person claims automatically true
4. Requires an open mind

Bio psych
1) Nervous system an extensive network of specialized cells that carry info to and from other parts of
the body
2) Brain organ of consciousness; Seat of the nervous system
3) 3 main parts of the Brain
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Brain Stem
5) Cerebellum responsible for the bodys balance posture and coordination of motion
6) Brain Stem continuous with the spinal cord; nerve connections of the motor and sensory systems from the main
part of the brain to the rest of the body pass thru brain stem
7) Medulla Oblongata autonomic functions, breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
8) Cerebrum Grouped into 4 lobes; Nearly symmetrical L and R hemispheres; corpus callosum connects the 2
hemisphere
*NOTE LOCATION OF THE 4 LOBES IN THE BRAIN
9) Frontal Lobe executive functions like reasoning self-control abstract thought memory and emotions
10) Parietal lobe integrates sensory info like number knowledge and relations
11) Temporal lobe auditory functions like speech and language
12) Occipital lobe visual processing center
13) Features of the brain
Lateralization each hemisphere interacts with half of the body. Left hem controls right and right hem
controls left
Neurotransmitters chemicals that carry info from one neuron to the next
Gyrus (sila yung mga ridges the nakaumbok ones) and sulcus (depression)
Left brain math, symbols, logic and language
Right brain arts, philo, religion and feelings
14) Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine muscles, learning and memory
Gamma amonibutyric acid(GABA) anti-anxiety
i. People take valium to ease anxiety
Norepinephrine excites the heart, intestines
i. People use cocaine, ampephetemines to be hyperactive
Dopamine movement, sleep, mood and learning
i. People with low dopamine get parkinsons disease and schizophrenia
Serotonin sleep and wakefulness
i. Prozac (anti-depression) makes you want sleep
Endorphines shield body from pain; elevate pleasure
i. Morphine
15) Structure of the Neuron
Neurons basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends messages within that
system
16) 3 types of Neurons (The Reflex Arc)
1. Sensory Neuron carries info from the senses to the CNS, also called afferent neuron
2. Motor Neuron carries messages from the CNS to the muscles of the body, also called efferent neuron
3. Interneuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives info from the sensory neuron and
sends commands to the muscles through the motor neurons
17) Neuroplasticity the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cell involved in trauma;
something like stem cell research parang nirerepear yung whatever was damaged
18) Peripheral Nervous System all nerves and neurons that are not containes in the brain and spinal cord; divided into
the: somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous systems


19) Somatic Nervous System consists of nerves that carry info from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the
voluntary muscles of the body
Sensory pathways nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons
Motor pathway nerves coming frpm the CNS to eh voluntary muscle, consisting of motor neurons
20) Automatic Nervous System consists of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs and whatever
Sympathetic division (flight or fight system) responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily
arousal
Parasympathetic division restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for day
to day functioning of the organs and glands
21) Endocrine Glands secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream
22) Pituitary gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-
secreting glands (MASTER GLAND)
23) Pineal Gland secretes melatonin
24) Thyroid Gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism
25) Pancreas controls the levels of sugar in the blood releases insulin
26) Gonads sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction
1. Ovaries for women
2. Testes for men
27) Adrenal Glands located on top of each kidney; secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress; regulate salt
intake and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting sexual changes
28) Cortex outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons responsible for higher thought
processes and interpretation of sensory input
29) Association Areas of Cortex areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and
interpretation
30) Brocas aphasia condition resulting from damage to Brocas area. Causing the affected person to be unable to
speak fluently to mispronounce words and to speak haltingly
31) Wernickes aphasia from damage to Wernickes area causing the affected person to be unable to understand or
produce meaningful language
32) Looking inside the living brain
Computed tomography Scan (CT Scan) uses computer controlled x-rays to see the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio waves and magnetic field of the body to produce detailed
images of the brain
Developmental Psychology
1) Developmental Psychology scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from
conception until death
2) Longitudinal Design one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time
3) Cross-sectional design several different age groups of participants are studied at one point in time
4) Cross-sequential Design participants are first studied by means of a cross sectional design but also
followed and assessed in the next years
5) Nature vs. Nurture
1. Nature the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality , physical and
intellectual growth and social interactions
2. Nurture influence of the environment on personality and everything else
6) Genetics and Development
Conception moment at which a female becomes pregnant
Ovum female sex cell or egg
Fertilization union of the ovum and sperm
Zygote cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells,
eventually forming the baby
7) Conception and Twins
Monozygotic twins identical; one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells each pf
which develops into a separate embryo
Dizygotic twins fraternal; two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm resulting in
two zygotes in the uterus
8) Periods of pregnancy
1) Germinal Period first 2 weeks after fertilization; zygote moves down to the uterus and
begins to implant in the lining
2) Embryonic Period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization and structures of the organism
develop
Embryo name for the developing organism
Critical periods times during which certain environmental influences can have an
impact on the development of the embryo
Teratogen any factor that can cause a birth defect
3) Fetal Period time from about 8 weeks until birth
Fetus name for the organism
Infants are born with reflexes to help them survive
5 infant reflexes ( things we do without actually thinking)
1. Grasping reflex
2. Startle reflex (moro reflex)
3. Rooting reflex
4. Stepping reflex
5. Sucking Reflex
9) Physical Development in infancy and Childhood
The senses except for vision are fairly well developed at birth
Gross and fine motor skills are developed at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood
Gross motor skills involve big muscles and fine are small muscles
10) 6 motor milestones
1. Raising head and chest 2 to 4 months
2. Rolling over 2 to 5 months
3. Sitting up with support 4 to 6 months
4. Sitting up without support 6 to 7 months
5. Crawling 7 to 8 months
6. Walking 8 to 18 months
11) The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its
body, typically from the top of the body downward.
12) Cognitive Development development of thinking problem solving and memory
13) Scheme a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events
14) Jean Piagets Stage Theory
1. Sensorimotor stage - infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the
environment
Object permanence knowledge that and object exists even when it is not in sight
2. Preoperational stage preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the
world
Egocentrism inability to see the world through anyone elses eyes
Centration tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object
while ignoring other relevant features
Conservation ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an
object does not change the objects nature
Irreversibility inability to mentally reverse an action
3. Concrete operations child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet
capable of abstract thinking
4. Formal operations adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking
15) Lev Vygotskys theory
Scaffolding a more skilled learner giver help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount
of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) range of what a child can do alone and what the child
can do with help
16) Stages of Language Development
1. Cooing
2. Babbling
3. One-word speeches (holophrases)
4. Telegraphic speech
Language acquisition device (LAD) governs the learning of language during infancy and
early childhood
17) Socioemotional Development
Temperament behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth
1. Easy regular, adaptable and happy
2. Difficult irregular, nonadaptable and irritable
3. Slow to warm up need to adjust gradually to change
Attachment emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver
Secure willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upper
her return
Avoidant unattached; explore without touching base
Ambivalent insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with
mother upon her return
Disorganized-disoriented insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected;
seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed
Eriksons psychosocial stages
Trust vs. mistrust infants basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of
consistent or inconsistent care
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt toddler strives for physical independence
Initiative vs. guilt preschooler strives for emotional and psychological
independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world
Industry vs. inferiority young adolescent strives for competence and self esteem
Identity vs role confusion adolescent must find a consistent sense of self
Intimacy vs. isolation
Intimacy an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the
ability to trust, share and care while still maintaining a sense of self
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s to 60s)
Generativity providing guidance to ones children or the next generation
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60 onwards)
Ego integrity sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life
and the ability to let go of regrets
18) Gender role development
Gender behavior associated with being male or female
Gender identity perception of ones gender and the behavior that is associated with that
gender
19) Puberty and Adolescence - 13 to early 20s, young person is no longer physically a child bit us not yet
an independent, self-supporting adult
20) Puberty physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak
21) Adolescent Egocentric Thinking
The feeling that other people are noticing and watching them more than actually is the case
Imaginary audience - young people believe that other people are just as concerned about
the adolescents thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are
Personal fable young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from hard
Having a sense of invincibility
22) Development of Morality
Lawrence Kohlbergs 3 levels of morality
Preconventional morality behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior
Conventional morality behavior is governed by conforming to the societys norms of
behavior
Postconventional morality behavior is governed by moral principles which have been
decided on by the individual and which may in in disagreement with accepted social norms