Ashwini

Discrete mathematics Page 1
Set Theory
Introduction:
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the present day mathematics.
Today this concept is being used in almost every branch of mathematics. Sets are used to
define the concepts of relations and functions. The study of geometry, sequences,
probability, etc., requires the knowledge of sets.
The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg
Cantor(1845-1918). He first encountered sets while working on problems on trigonometric
series. In fact this led him to think deeply about the difference between denumerable
infinite sets like the rationals and continuous sets like reals.
Georg Cantor created a completely new and very special mathematics
discipline called the Theory of Sets.
Sets:
The idea of a set is a fundamental concept in branches of mathematics.
A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects of a set may be anything: numbers,
letters, books, persons etc. These objects are called the elements (or) members of the set.
For example:
a) The set of numbers 1, 2,3,4,5
b) The set of the letters of the word OBJECTS.
c) The set of districts in Karnataka state.
It should be noted that a set is a collection of objects well defined. It is well defined
in the sense, given any objects it must be possible to say whether the object belongs to the
set (or) does not belongs to the set.
Sets are usually denoted by A,B,C and their elements are denoted by a,b,c,d.
For instance if A is a set consisting of a,b,c,d then it is written as A={a,b,c,d}.
To say that a is a member of A, it is written as a A.
Similarly bA, cA, dA, eA.


A set may be represented in two methods.
1) Tabulation method (or) Roster method.
2) Rule method (or) set builders notation.

Tabulation method (or) Roster method
In this method the elements of the set are written inside two flower brackets.
Ex: S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
N={1,2,3,4,..}

Rule method (or) Set builders Notation
In this method, the property by which the elements of a set are obtained is stated.
Ex: S= {x/xN & x<7}
N={x/x is a natural number or positive integer}
If A={x/x is an vowel In English Alphabet}
Then in tabulation method the same set A is written as A={a,e,i,o,u}

Finite and Infinite set:
A set contains a finite number of elements then it is called a finite set otherwise it
is called an infinite set.
S={1,2,3,4,5,6} is a finite set as it contains only 6 elements.
A={x/xN & x1000}
B={1,3,5,7..} is an infinite set.


Null set or Empty set or void set
A null set is a set which contains no elements and it is denoted by { } or .
Ex: 1) The set of all positive integers less than 7 and exactly divisible by 7.
2) A={x/xR & x
2
+1=0} is a null set.

Singleton set: A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.
Ex: {2} is singleton, {0} is a singleton.
Non-empty set: A set contains at least one element then the set is called non-empty set.

Subset: A set A is called a subset of a set B if all the elements of A are also the elements of
B and it is written as AB. It can also be written as BA.
Ex: A={3,5,7} & B={1,2,3,5,6,7} then AB.

Proper subset: If AB and AB then A is called a proper subset of B. this implies that the
set B contains at least one element which is not in A.
Ex: A={2,3,5,7} B={2,3,4,5,6,7}
A is a proper subset of B i.e. AB.
Note the following properties of subsets.
1) Every set is a subset of itself i.e. AA.
2) The null set is a proper subset of every set i.e. A.
3) If AB & BC then AC.
Universal set : In any problem on sets, there exists a big set which is such that, all the sets
under discussion are subsets of that big set. Such a big set is called a Universal set.
A Universal set is written as U.
We will choose as universal set U={6,7,8,9,15,16,17,18,20,21}
We have to determine the sets.
M={x/x are the multiple of 3}

N={x/x are the multiple of 5}
To determine m, we will identify the multiple of 3 from U: M={6,9,15,18,21}.
To determine N, we will identify the multiple of 5 from N={15, 20}.

Operation on sets:
1) Union: The union of two sets A & B is the set consisting of all the elements whih
belong to A or both A & B. It is denoted by AUB.

i.e. AUB={x/xA or xB}

2) Intersection: The intersection of two sets A & B is the set consisting of all the
elements which belong to both A & B. It is written as AB.
i.e. AB={x/xA & xB}

3) Difference: The difference of two sets A & B is the set of all elements which are in A
but not in B. It is written as AB.
i.e. AB={ x/xA & xB}
III
ly
B

A={ x/xB & xA}

Complement of a set:
The complement of a set A is the set of all those elements of universal set U excluding
the elements of A
It is written as A or A
c
.
i.e. A={x/xU & xA}
Ex: If U={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} is universal set & a={1,3,5,7} B={0,1,2,3,8}
then AUB={1,,3,5,7,0,2,8}
AB={1,3}

AB={5,7}; B

A={0,2,8}
A={0,2,4,6,8,9}; B={4,5,6,7,9}

The operation on the sets satisfy the following laws.
1) Commutative law
AUB=BUA
AB= BA

2) Associative law
AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC
A(BC)=(AB) C

3) Distributive law
AU(BC)=(AUB) (AUC)
A(BUC)=(AB)U(AC)
4) De Morgans law
(AUB)=aB
(AB)=aUB

5) Idempotent law
AUA=A
AA=A

6) Negation law
AA={ }
AUA=U

7) Identity law
AU{ }=A
A{ }={ }
AU=A
A =

8) Null law
AU=U
AU=A


9) Involution law
(A)=A

10) Absorption law
AB=A if AB
AB=B if BA
AUB=B if AB

Ordered pairs:
An ordered pair (a,b) of real numbers a & b, is a pair of elements in which a is
1
st
co-ordinate & b is 2
nd
co-ordinate. The ordered pair (a,b) is different from the
ordered pair (b,a) unless a=b.

Ex: (2,3), (-3,8), (2, 3), (1/2, 2+3) etc. are all ordered pair of real numbers.
If (a,b)=(c,d) then a=c, b=d & conversely.

Power set:
If A is a set, then the set of all possible subsets of A is called power set of A & is
denoted by P(A). If A contains n elements then P(A)=2
n
elements.

Let A={1,3,2}
P(A)={ { }, {1}, {3}, {2}, {1,3}, {1,2}, {3,2}, {1,2,3} }
[note that the empty set & the set itself are members of the power set].

Cartesian product of two sets
Given two non-empty sets A&B, the Cartesian product of A & B is the set of all
those order pairs (x,y) where x is an element of A, y is an element of B.
It is written as A X B or AB
Thus A X B={(x,y)/x A, & yB}

Ex: If A={p,q,r} & B={x,y}
then A X B={(p,x) (p,y) (q,x) (q,y) (r,x) (r,y)}
B X A={(x,p) (x,q) (x,r) (y,p) (y,q) (y,r)}
Note that A X B B X A & further if A contains m elements & B contains n elements then
A X B contains mn ordered pairs.

1) Prove that i) AUB=BUA
ii) AB=BA
Sol
n
:
i) For any x
x AUBxA or xB
xB or xA
xBUA
AUB=BUA

ii) xAB xA & xB
xB & xA
xBA
AB=BA

2) Prove that i) AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC
ii) A(BC)=(AB) C

i) For any x
x AU(BUC)
xA or x(BUC)
xA or [xB or xC]
[xA or xB] or xC
xAUB or xC
x(AUB)UC
AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC
ii) For any x
x A(BC)
xA and x(BC)
xA and [xB and xC]
[xA and xB] and xC
x AB and xC
x (AB)C
A(BC)=(AB) C


3) Prove that i) AU(BC)=( AUB)(AUC)
ii) A(BUC)= (AB)U(AC)

i) For any x
x AU(BC)
xA or x BC
xA or [xB and xC]
[xA or xB] and [xA or xC]
xAUB and xAUC
x( AUB) (AUC)
AU(BC)=( AUB)(AUC)

ii) For any x
xA(BUC)
xA and xBUC
xA and [xB or xC]
[xA and xB] or [xA and xC]
x (AB) or x (AC)
x(AB)U(AC)
A(BUC)= (AB)U(AC)

4) Prove that DeMorgans law i) (AUB)=AB
ii) (AB)=AUB

i) For any x
x(AUB)
x(AUB)
xA and xB
xA and xB
x AB
(AUB)=AB

ii) For any x
x(AB)
x(AB)

xA or xB
xA or xB
xAUB
(AB)=AUB

5) State and prove absorption law or if AB then show that AB=A & AUB=B

proof: i) clearly (AB) A --------------(1)
Every element of AB is an element of A.
Let xA
xB[AB]
A AB --------------(2)
From (1) and (2)
AB=A
ii) AUB=B
Clearly AUBB ---------------(1)
Every element of B is also an element of AUB
Let xAUB
xA or xB
xB or xB [AB]
xB
AUBB ---------------(2)
From (1) and (2)
AUB=B

Venn diagram


Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means of diagrams
which are known as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after the English
logician, John Venn(1834-1883). This diagrams consists of rectangles and closed
curves usually circles. The universal set is represented usually by a rectangle and its
subsets by circles. In Venn diagrams, the elements of the sets are written in their
respective circles.
Some of the Venn diagrams are

Addition principle

Let A & B be any two finite sets of a universal set U then we have formula for cardinality
IAUBI & IABI. Thus IAUBI=IAI+IBIIABI
Let U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A={1,2,34,5,6,8} B={2,3,7,8,9,10}
Sol
n
: IAI=6 AB={2,8}
IBI=6 IABI=2
IAUBI=10
IAUBI=IAI+IBIIABI
10=6+6-2
10=10

Addition principles for three sets

IAUBUCI=IAI+IBI+ICI- IABI- IACI- IBCI+ IABCI

Let U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A={1,2,3,5,6,7} B={2,4,6,8,9} C={1,5,6,10}
Sol
n
: IAI=6 IBI=5 ICI=4
AB={2,6} IABI=2
AC={1,6,5} IACI=3
BC={6} IBCI=1

IAI=6 ABC=6
IBI=5 IABCI=1
ICI=4 IAUBUCI=10
IAUBUCI=IAI+IBI+ICI-IABI-IACI-IBCI+IABCI
10=6+5+4-2-3-1+1
10=10

Out of 200 students, 50 of them take electronics, 140 of them takes computer
science & 24 of them take both the courses. Suppose that 60 of 200 students are UG
students. Among UG students 20 of them take electronics. 45 of them take
computer science & 16 of them take both the courses. Find how many PG students
will attend the function.
Sol
n
: IA
1
I=50 IA
2
I=140 IA
1
A
2
I=24 I A
3
I=60 IA
1
A
3
I=20
IA
2
A
3
I=45 IA
1
A
2
A
3
I=16
Now I A
1
U A
2
U A
3
I= IA
1
I+ IA
2
I+ IA
3
I- IA
1
A
2
I- IA
1
A
3
I- IA
2
A
3
I+ IA
1
A
2
A
3
I
=50+140+60-24-20-45+16
=250-89+16
=177
Thus the number of PG students will attend the function is 200-177=23.

Relations
Every one is familiar with the relations of the type is brother of, is sister of,
is mother of, etc. In mathematics the relations are of the kind is less than, is parallel
to, is similar to, etc. In each case, a relation involves two objects and it determines a set
of ordered pairs.
Relation: Given any two non-empty sets A & B, a relation R from A to B is defined as the
subset if A X B, consisting of those ordered pairs (x,y) where x is in A, y is in B and x is related
to y by the relation R.
i.e. R={(x,y)/xA, yB & xRy is true}
Hence xRy is true implies x is related to y by the relation R.

Ex: Take A={2,3,8} B={3,4,6} Let the relation r from A to B stabds for is less
than.
Then . R={(x,y)/xA, yB and x<y}
Clearly R={(2,3) (2,4) (2,6) (3,4) (3,6)}
Note that R is a subset of A X B and every ordered pair in R satisfies the
condition x<y.

Domain and Range of a relation
Let R be a relation from A to B i.e. R A X B.
The set of all first elements in r is called the Domain of R and the set of all
second elements is called the range of R.
In the previous example, Domain of R={2,3] Range of R={3,4,6}. Note that domain of R is a
subset of A and range of R is a subset of B. Relation R on a set A is defined as the subset of A
X A where every ordered pair in R satisfies the relation.
R={(x,y)/xA, yA and xRy is true}

For ex: A={1,2,3,4}
R is the relation standing for is greater than.
R={(x,y)/xA, yA and x>y}
R={(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (3,2) (3,1) (2,1)}

Different types of relations
Reflexive relation: A relation R on a set S is called a reflexive relation if (a,a) R aS.

Symmetric relation: A relation R on a set S is called a symmetric relation if (a,b) R
implies (b,a) R, where a,bS.
i.e. aRb is true bRa is true where a,bS.

Transitive relation : A relation R on a set s is called a transitive relation if (a,b) R and
(b,c) R(a,c) R where a,b,cS.
i.e. aRb is true bRc is true aRc where a,b,cS.

Equivalence relation: A relation R on a set S is called an equivalence relation if R is
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Examples:
1) On the set of real numbers the relation is equal to is an equivalence relation.
2) The divisibility on the set of non-zero integers is both reflexive and transitive but not
symmetric.
3) On the set of real numbers the relation < or > is only transitive but neither
reflexive nor symmetric. Because a real number cannot be less than itself and if a &
b are real numbers such that a<b then b<a. only a<b & b<c a<c is possible.
4) The relation is perpendicular to on the set of lines in a plane is only symmetric.
5) The relation is brother of is not symmetric. The reason is, if A is the brother of B, B
need not be the brother of A, B may be the sister of A.

Poset: A relation R on a non-empty set A is called a poset (partially ordered set). If
i)R is reflexive ii)R is symmetric iii) R is antisymmetric.

Examples:
1) Let A={1,2,3,4,5}, B={1,2,3} what is the graph of R={(x,y)/xA, yB and x>y} from
A into B. What is domain & range of R.

Sol
n
: R={(2,1) (3,1) (3,2) (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (5,1) (5,2) (5,3)}
Domain of R={2,3,4,5}
Range of R={1,2,3}

Graph:

2) Given a set S={1,2,3,4,5}. Find the equivalence relation generating the subsets
{1,2} {3} {4,5} as a partition for S draw the graph of the relation.

Proof: The subsets of the required partitions are [1,2} {3} {4,5}

The corresponding relation is required by
1R
1
, 1R
2
, 2R
1
, 2R
2
, 3R
3
, 4R
4
, 5R
4
, 5R
5

R={(1,1) (1,2) (2,1) (2,2) (3,3) (4,4) (4,5) (5,4) (5,5)}.
Clearly R is reflexive, symmetric, transitive
Hence R is an equivalence relation.
Its graph is given by

Diagraph of relation
Let R be a relation on a finite set A. Then R can be represented by pictorially as
described before
1) Draw a small circle for each element of A.
2) Label the circle with the corresponding element of A ( these are called vertices or
nodes).

3) Draw an arrow or arc between x & y if they are related (arc is called as an edge).
4) Mark the direction on the edges (since this is a diagraph).

Degree of a node:
In a undirected graph total degree is equal to sum of indegree and outdegree.

Note: Self loop is counted twice
d(v)=d
+
(v)+d
-
(v)
where d
+
(v)= indegree (v)
d
-
(v)=outdegree(v)

Represent the relation R defined on A={2,3,4,6} by the phrase is a factor of in a
diagraph.

Sol
n
: Notice that R={(a,b)A X A / is a factor of b}
R={(2,2) (2,4) (2,6) (3,3) (3,6) (4,4) (6,6)}

It contains four vertices: 2, 3, 4 & 6.
Since 3R6, vertex 6 is adjacent to vertex 3.

Give the relation R defined on A & its diagraph
Let A={1,2,3,4} &

Sol
n
: R={(1,1) (1,2) (1,4) (2,2) (2,3) (3,3) (3,4) (4,1)}

Let A={a,b,c,d,e} & R={(a,a) (a,b) (b,c) (c,e) (c,d) (d,e)}. Write the diagraph of the
above relation.

Sol
n
: Diagraph:

A={1,4,5} and let R be given by the diagraph. Find M
R
& R

Sol
n
: Relation={(1,4) (4,1) (1,5) (4,4) (5,4) (5,5)}

Give the relation & matrix of the following diagraph

i)

Nodes 1 2 3 4 5
Indegree 1 2 1 3 0
Outdegree 1 2 1 1 2

A={1,2,3,4,5}


ii)

Nodes 1 2 3 4 5
Indegree 1 2 1 2 1
Outdegree 3 1 0 2 0

R={(1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (2,2) (4,4) (4,1) (4,5)}


Draw diagraph of the following relation R on a set A={1,2,3,4} & R={(1,2) (2,2)
(2,4) (3,2) (3,4) (4,1) (4,3)}

Diagraph :

Let A={1,2,3,4} & R be the relation on A defined by xRy if and only if x divides y i)
write R as a set of ordered pairs ii) Draw diagraph of R iii) Determine the
indegree and outdegree.

Sol
n
: A={1,2,3,4}
A X A={(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (2,1) ( 2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (4,1) (4,2) (4,3)
(4,4)}
xRy if and only if x divides y
R={(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (2,2) (2,4) (3,3) (4,4)}
Diagraph of R:

Nodes Indegree Outdegree
1 1 4

Construction table

Equivalence class
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. aA. the equivalence class of aA is defined
by [a]={bA/bRa}
by definition aRba[b]
also, b[a] bRa.

Theorem : Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A show that any equivalence classes
[a] & [b] are equal if and only if aRb.
Case (i) Suppose [a]=[b]
Since a[a], a[b] aRb

Case (ii) Assume that aRb prove that [a]=[b]
Let x[a] xRa & aRb [assumption]
xRb [by transitive]
x[b]
[a][b] -----------------(1)
2
3
4
2
2
3
2
1
1
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Let y[b] yRb & aRb [assumption]
yRb & bRa [since R is Symmetric]
yRa [by transitive]
y[a]
[b] [a] -----------------(2)
From (1) & (2)
[a]=[b]

Composition relation
If R is a relation from x to y and S is a relation from y to z then the composition relation R
composition S (ROS) from x to z is,
ROS=R.S={(x,z)/xRy, ySz & xX, yY, zZ}
Ex:
1) Let R={(1,1) (1,2) (2,3) (3,4)}
S={(1,3) (1,4) (2,3) (3,2) (4,2)} over the set {1,2,3,4} obtain the relation matrix for
ROS, SOR, R
2
, S
2
.

Sol
n
:
ROS={(1,3) (1,4) (2,2) (3,1)}
SOR={(1,4) (2,4) (3,3) (4,1) (4,2)}
R
2
=ROR={(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (2,4)}
S
2
=SOS={(1,2) (1,1) (2,2) (3,3) (4,3) (4,4)}


Prove that union and intersection of reflexive relation are reflexive

Proof : Let R & S be both reflexive relation on a set A
case (i) Let xA
then xRx xA [R is reflexive]

(x,x) R, xA ----------(1)
Let xA
Then xSx xA [because S is also reflexive]
(x,x) S -----------------(2)
From (1) & (2)
(x,x) RUS, xA
x(RUS)x
Hence, RUS is reflexive
(x,x) RS, xA
x(RS)x
(RS) is reflexive

Show that union and intersection of symmetric relations are again a symmetric
relation.

Sol
n
: Let R and S be both symmetric relation on a set A
Prove that i) RUS is symmetric
Let x,y A, so that
x(RUS)y
(x,y) RUS
(x,y) R or (x,y) S
Since R & S are symmetric

(y,x) R or (y,x) S
(y,x) RUS
y(RUS)x
RUS is symmetric.

ii) RS is symmetric
Let x,yA, so that
x(RS)y
(x,y) RS
(x,y) R and (x,y) S
Since R & S are symmetric
(y,x) R & (y,x) S
(y,x) RS
y(RS)x
RS is symmetric

Prove that union of 2 transitive relations on a set is need not be transitive.
Proof : Let A={0,1,2,3}
R={(0,0) (1,2) (2,1) (1,1) (2,2)}
S={(0,0) (2,3) (3,2) (2,2) (3,3)}
RUS={ (0,0) (1,2) (2,1) (1,1) (2,2) (2,3) (3,2) (3,3)}
Clearly RUS is not transitive because (1,2) RUS and (2,3) RUS
(1,3)RUS
Hence RUS is not transitive on the given set.

Functions
Given two non-empty sets A & B, a function f : A->B is a rule which associates every
element of the set A with a unique element of B.
A function may also be defined in this way as follows.

Given two non-empty sets A & B, a function f : A->B is a subset of A X B with the properties
i) No 2 different ordered pairs in f have the same first element
ii) All the elements of A occur as first elements in f.

Ex 1): Consider A={1,2,3,4,5}, B={a,b,c,d,e} let the elements of the set A be
associated with the elements of B as shown below 1->a, 2->b, 3->c, 4->d, 5-
>e
These associations can also be shown in a diagram

Note that f(1)=a means a is the image of 1 under f etc. e is not an image of any element. F
can also be represented as f={ (1,a) (2,b) (3,b) (4,c) (5,d)}. In all these representation it
should be noted that every element of A is associated with a unique element of B and all the
elements of A are used.

Domain, co-domain and Range of a function
In a function f : A->B, the set A is called the domain of f. The set B is called the co-
domain of f and the set consisting of all images is called the range of f, which is written as
f(A).
In the previous example,
Domain of f=A={1,2,3,4,5}
Co-domain of f=B={a,b,c,d,e}
Range of f=f(A)={a,b,c,d}
Note that f(A) B

A function f : A->B is a subset of A X B with
certain properties. A relation R from A to B with a subset of A X B. so it can be concluded
that a function is a special type of relation.
i.e. every relation is a relation but the converse is not true.

Ex 2 :

Ex 3 :


Different types of functions

1) Into function

A function f : A->B is called an into function, if some elements of co-domain B are
not images. i.e. if the range f(A) is a proper subset of co-domain B(f(A)B).
In the adjacent diagram, the function f : A->B is an into function as the range {a,b,c} is a
proper subset of B.
2) Onto function (surjective)

A function f : A->B is called an onto function if all the elements of co-domain B are
images i.e. f(A)=B.
In the adjacent diagram f is onto, because all elements of B are images f(A)={a,b,c,d}=B.


3) One-one function (injective):

A function f : A->B is called a one-one function if different elements of
domain have different images. i.e. x
1
x
2
f(x
1
)f(x
2
). In the adjacent figure f is one-
one.

4) Many-one function

A function f : A->B is called a many-one function if two or more elements of
domain are associated with one element of co-domain. There are four combinations
of the above 4 types of functions. They are one-one and into, one-one and onto,
many-one and into and many-one and onto.
Among these types, the one-one and onto function is called a bijection.


5) Bijection (one-one & onto)

A function f : A->B is bijective if its both one-one and onto function. Note that
whenever the function is a bijection the 2 sets, domain & co-domain, must have the same
number of elements, the sets A & B are said to be in one-one correspondence with each
other. A & B are said to be equivalent.
Inverse function :
The inverse of a function exists only if the function is a bijection (i.e. one-one &
onto).If f : A->B is a bijection then & only then it has the inverse f
-1
: B->A.
Note that the inverse of every element of B is a single element of A. Further f
-1
: B->A is also
a bijection.

Composite functions :
Let A, B, C be three non-empty sets and f : A->B & g : B->C be two functions.
Let xA & let it be associated with yB under f then y=f(x). Let y be associated with zC
under g then z=g(y).

Z=g(y)=g[f(x)]. So z is the image of x under new function which is called a composite function
or product function. This composite function is denoted by gof.
Thus gof : A->C is a composite function defined by (gof)(x)=g[f(x)]. Similarly a composite
function fog is given by (fog)(x)=f[g(x)].

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Discrete mathematics Page 1

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