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1999 by CRC Press LLC

LeveI Neasuremenf

11.1 Measuiements Using the Effects of Density

Displacei Float Piessuie Gages Balance Method

11.2 Time-of-Flight Measuiements

Basic Piinciple Ultiasonic Miciowaves Lasei/Light
Commonly Used Evaluation Methods

11.3 Level Measuiements by Detecting Physical
Piopeities

Electiical Piopeities Radiation Attenuation Theimal and
Mechanical

11.4 Instiuments

Level is defned as the flling height of a liquid oi bulk mateiial, foi example, in a tank oi ieseivoii.
Geneially, the position of the suiface is measuied ielative to a iefeience plane, usually the tank bottom.
If the pioduct`s suiface is not at (e.g., with foam, waves, tuibulences, oi with coaise-giained bulk
mateiial) level usually is defned as the aveiage height of a bounded aiea.
Vaiious classic and modein methods exist to measuie pioduct level in piocess and stoiage tanks in
the chemical, petiochemical, phaimaceutical, watei, and food industiies, in mobile tanks on vehicles and
ships, but also in natuial ieseivoiis like seas, dams, lakes, and oceans. Typical tank heights aie appioxi-
mately between 0.5 m and 40 m.
Two diffeient tasks can be distinguished: (1) continuous level measuiements (level indication, LI),
and (2) level switches (LS) (e.g., to detect an alaim limit to pievent oveiflling). Figuie 11.1 shows the
piincipal opeiational modes of level measuiement. Eveiy continuous system can also be used as a
piogiammable switch. Many level devices aie mounted on top of the tank and measuie piimaiily the
distance

J

between theii mounting position and the pioduct`s suiface. The level

L

is then calculated,
defning the tank height

|

as constant, as shown in Figuie 11.1 and expiessed as:
(11.1)
The following examples desciibe piimaiily the measuiement of liquids, but most of the methods can
also be applied to solids (bulk mateiial). The emphasis of this chaptei will be geneial infoimation about
the measuiement piinciples. The focus of the desciiptions is on the methods most commonly piacticed;
othei piinciples aie mentioned less compiehensively. Readeis inteiested in moie detailed discussions may
iefei to 1-5].
L | J

IefIel BrumlI

Kro|ne Merec|n| CmbH
1999 by CRC Press LLC

11.1 Measurements Lsing the Ellects ul Density

All methods desciibed in this chaptei have in common that the pioduct in the tank has an effect due to
its density


, (1) pioducing buoyancy to a solid submeiged into the liquid, oi (2) executing a foice due
to its weight.

Disp!acer

Displaceis measuie the buoyancy of a solid body that is paitially submeiged in the liquid. The change
in weight is measuied. Figuie 11.2 illustiates the paiameteis used foi these calculations. The cioss section


of the body is assumed to be constant ovei its length

|

. The weight of foice

F

G

due to giavity

g

and
mass

m

is:
(11.2)
The buoyant foice

F

B

accounts foi the paitial length

L

d

that is submeiged with the iemaindei of the
body in the atmospheie:
(11.3)

FIGURE 11.1

Repiesentation of a tank with a liquid oi solid mateiial (hatched aiea), the pioduct to be measuied.
The level sensoi can be mounted (

a

) contacting pioduct at the bottom, (

|

) as a contactless instiument on top, (

t

) as
an intiusive sensoi, oi (

J

) at the sides as a level switch.
F g m g |
G D
p
F g L g | L
B d L d A
+
, ,
p p
1999 by CRC Press LLC

Combining Equations 11.2 and 11.3 gives the iesulting foice to be measuied by an appiopiiate method
(see Chaptei 23 of this handbook):
(11.4)
The iesult foi level

L

d

, ielated to the lowei edge of the displacei is:
(11.5)
The density of the body should be highei than the density of the liquid; otheiwise, the measuiement
opeiating iange is limited (until the displacei oats on the liquid). In anothei veision, a seivo-gage moves
the displacei up and down to detect the inteiface between the atmospheie and a liquid, oi between two
diffeient liquids, by measuiing the change in buoyancy. Figuie 11.3 shows a special confguiation, in
which a small ball with volume

V

is mounted to a thin wiie diiven by a stepping motoi and put into
iesonant vibiation. The iesulting foice

F

can be measuied fiom the iesonating fiequency

[

of the wiie
between points A and B:
(11.6)
wheie

|

length of the wiie between the points A and B


w

density of the wiie


w

cioss-sectional aiea of the wiie

FIGURE 11.2

Quantities of a solid body immeised into a liquid. The foices

F

can be calculated fiom Equations 2,
3, and 4.


density;

|

length of the body;

L

d

dipped length.
F F F
R G B

L
|
F
g
d
D A
R
L A

, ,

p p
p p
F [ | p
W W
4
2 2
1999 by CRC Press LLC

And the suiiounding density


L

can be calculated:
(11.7)

F!uat

Floats aie similai to displaceis, but aie swimming on the liquid`s suiface due to the buoyancy. Hence,
the density of the oat must be lowei than the density of the liquid. Figuie 11.4(

a

) shows the piinciple

FIGURE 11.3

Level, inteiface and density sensoi using the effects of buoyancy. A stepping motoi diives the small
ball attached to the thin wiie to diffeient heights in the liquid oi to the inteifaces. The iesulting foice

F

as a diffeience
between weight foice and buoyant foice is measuied fiom the iesonant fiequency of the wiie-ball system. The levei
aim excites the wiie into oscillation and a sensoi coil coupled to the levei aim measuies its fiequency. The signal
conveitei contiols the stepping motoi and calculates the measuied values 6].
F g V
F
gV

, ,
. p p p p
D L L D
1999 by CRC Press LLC

of opeiation. The position of the oat is (1) obseived visually, oi (2) tiansfeiied to an exteinal display
oi to an angle tiansmittei. In geneial, the oat is coupled to the tiansmittei magnetically. Figuie 11.4(

|

)
shows a level switch, using a ieed ielay magnetically coupled with the oat. Also, a magnetostiictive
lineai sensoi may deteimine the position of the oat. Foi moie infoimation about this, iefei to Chaptei 6,
Section 9 of this handbook.
If the oat is veiy at, it is called a sensing plate". This plate is mechanically guided, e.g., by a seivo
contiol, on the suiface until uplift is detected. Foi solids, specially shaped peipendiculai oats aie helpful.

Pressure Gages

A hydiostatic piessuie


, caused by the weight of the pioduct, is piesent at the bottom of a tank, in
addition to the atmospheiic piessuie


0

:
(11.8)
Piessuie gages at the bottom of the tank measuie this piessuie. In piocess tanks with vaiying atmos-
pheiic piessuie, a diffeiential piessuie measuiement is achieved by measuiing the diffeience between the
piessuie at the bottom and that at the top of the tank, above the liquid. Figuie 11.5(

a

) shows such a
confguiation with a diffeiential piessuie sensoi. Foi techniques of piessuie measuiement, iefei to
Chaptei 26, Section 1 of this handbook. Because measuiement by hydiostatic piessuie is piopoitional
to the density, level eiiois iesult if density changes; see Equation 11.8. Piimaiy piessuie gaging is a mass
measuiement. Figuie 11.5(

|

) shows a veitical aiiangement with thiee sensois; the measuiements of


1

and


2

aie used to compensate foi the inuence of density


L

, and to calculate the level:

FIGURE 11.4

Piinciple of opeiation foi oat level meteis. (

a

) A countei weight balances the oat that swims on
the liquid`s suiface. Its position iepiesents the level. (

|

) The oat contains a magnet that contacts a ieed switch inside
a guide tube. Using a bistable ielay, this system is used as a level switch. One can also inseit multiple ielays into the
tube to achieve diffeient switching points foi quasicontinuous opeiation.
g L L

g
+ .

0
0
p
p
L
L
1999 by CRC Press LLC

(11.9)
A system of this confguiation is often called hydiostatic tank gaging" (HTG). Figuie 11.5(

t

) shows
a fuithei aiiangement, called bubble tube," in which the bottom piessuie is tiansmitted to the top of
the tank. This is often used foi level gaging if the sensoi cannot be mounted at the bottom of the tank.
It iequiies a tank with piessuie equalization due to the steady inseition of ineit gas.

Ba!ance Methud

Heie simply the weight

F

of the complete tank is measuied, dependent on the level

L

:
(11.10)
wheie

F

0

is the weight of the empty tank and


the cioss-sectional aiea, which is assumed to be constant
thioughout the tank height. In oidei to measuie the weight foice coiiectly, it is necessaiy to isolate the
complete tank mechanically. Foi piecise measuiements, the buoyancy in aii must be taken into consideiation:
(11.11)

FIGURE 11.5

Level gaging by hydiostatic piessuie measuiement. The bottom piessuie


is piopoitional to level.
(

a

) The atmospheiic piessuie


0

can be taken into consideiation by a diffeiential measuiement. The low side of the
diffeiential piessuie sensoi is connected via a thin pipe to the top of the tank. (

|

) A diffeiential measuiement within
the liquid is called hydiostatic tank gaging, HTG" and can be used to foi compensate eiiois due to density vaiiations
of the liquid. The signals fiom all thiee sensois aie evaluated by a computei. (

t

) With a so-called bubble tube," the
sensoi can be mounted on the top of the tank: an ineit gas is injected into the tube such that bubbles of gas escape
fiom the end of the tube. The ow iate of the gas is constant so the head piessuie in the system can be measuied at
the inlet of the pipe.
p
L


=


g |
L


|
2 1 2 0
2 1
F F g L +
0
p
L
F F g L L
F F
g
+
, ,
.

, ,
0
0
p p
p p
L A
L A
1999 by CRC Press LLC

Foi techniques of weight measuiement, iefei to Chaptei 20 of this handbook.
This method has seveie disadvantages when the tank is not inside a building. Outside, wind foices
and the weight of snow and iain can cause eiiois.

11.2 Time-ul-F!ight Measurements

An indiiect measuiement of level is evaluating the time-of-ight of a wave piopagating thiough the
atmospheie above the liquid oi solid. This is piimaiily a distance measuiement; the level can then be
calculated accoidingly. The incieasing demand of industiy foi nonintiusive continuous level gaging
systems has been instiumental in acceleiating the development of technologies using time-of-ight
measuiements 7].

Basic Princip!e

Although diffeient types of physical waves (acoustic oi electiomagnetic) aie applied, the piinciple of all
these methods is the same: a modulated signal is emitted as a wave towaid the pioduct, ieected at its
suiface and ieceived by a sensoi, which in many cases is the same, (e.g., the ultiasonic piezoelectiic
tiansducei oi the iadai antenna). Figuie 11.6 demonstiates the piinciple of opeiation. The measuiing
system evaluates the time-of-ight


of the signal:
(11.12)
wheie


is the piopagation velocity of the waves.
One can geneiate an unmodulated pulse, a modulated buist as in Figuie 11.6(

|

), oi special foims.
Table 11.1 lists the main piopeities of the thiee piefeiied types of waves, used foi time-of-ight level gaging.
The veiy shoit time spans of only a few nanoseconds foi iadai and lasei measuiement techniques
iequiie the use of time expansion by sampling (see Chaptei 85 of this handbook) oi special evaluation
methods (see below).

L!trasunic

Ultiasonic waves aie longitudinal acoustic waves with fiequencies above 20 kHz. Ultiasonic waves need a
piopagation medium, which foi level measuiements is the atmospheie above the pioduct being measuied.
Sound piopagates with a velocity of about 340 m s

-1

in aii; but this value is highly dependent on tempeiatuie
and composition of the gas, and also on its piessuie (see Chaptei 6, Section 7 of this handbook). In vacuum,
ultiasonic waves cannot piopagate. In piactice, the ieection iatio is neaily 100% at the pioduct`s suiface
(e.g., at tiansitions gas/liquid oi gas/solid). Piezoelectiic tiansduceis (see Chaptei 26, Section 3 of this
handbook) aie utilized as emittei and detectoi foi ultiasonic waves, a membiane coupling it to the atmo-
spheie. The sensoi is installed as in Figuie 11.1(

|

), the signal foim is as in Figuie 11.6(

|

). Level gaging is,
in piinciple, also possible with audible sound 16 Hz to 20 kHz oi infiasonic waves less than 16 Hz.
Anothei pioceduie is to piopagate the waves within the liquid by a sensoi mounted at the bottom of
the tank. The velocity of sound in the liquid must be known, consideiing the dependence on tempeiatuie
and type of liquid. This method is similai to an echo soundei on ships foi measuiing the watei depth.
Foi moie infoimation about time-of-ight ultiasound evaluation techniques, iefei to Chaptei 6, Section 7
of this handbook.

Micruvaves

Miciowaves aie geneially undeistood to be electiomagnetic waves with fiequencies above 2 GHz and
wavelengths of less than 15 cm. Foi technical puiposes, miciowave fiequencies aie used up to max.
120 GHz; in piactice, the iange aiound 10 GHz (X-band) is piefeiied.

2
1999 by CRC Press LLC

FIGURE 11.6

(

a

)Repiesentation of time-of-ight measuiements. The emittei couples a wave (ultiasonic oi elec-
tiomagnetic) into the atmospheie that piopagates the wave towaid the liquid. Its suiface ieects the wave and a
sensoi ieceives it. (

|

) Due to the piopagation velocity


, a time delay is measuied between emission and ieceipt of
the signal. This example is chaiacteiized by a modulated buist. The time scale is aibitiaiy.

TABLE 11.1

Piopeities of the wave types foi time-of-ight measuiing.

Piinciple Wave Velocity Avg. Caiiiei Fiequency Wavelength Avg. Buist Time

Ultiasonic 340 m s

-1

50 kHz 7 mm 1 ms
Radai 300,000 km s

-1

10 GHz 3 cm 1 ns
Lasei 300,000 km s

-1

300 THz 1


m 1 ns
1999 by CRC Press LLC

The usually applied time-of-ight measuiements with miciowaves aie RADAR-based 8, 9]. The teim
RADAR" is geneially undeistood to mean a method by means of which shoit electiomagnetic waves
aie used to detect distant objects and deteimine theii location and movement. It is an acionym fiom
RAdio Detection And Ranging. Figuie 11.7 shows piefeiied antenna foims. They aie usually combined
with a compact sensoi, as in Figuie 11.8. Foi level measuiing systems, a small iadiation angle is desiiable
in oidei to avoid inteifeiing ieections fiom the tank wall oi tank inteinals as much as possible. The
laigei the apeituie aiea, the smallei the iadiation angle and the highei the antenna gain. The powei
balance is given by the geneial iadai equation:
(11.13)
wheie

P

R

ieceived powei

P

T

tiansmitted powei

C

T

tiansmitting antenna gain

R

ieection factoi of taiget

C
R
ieceiving antenna gain
D
2
piopagation loss to and fiom the suiface, due to powei density deciease and atmospheiic
inuences
The ieection factoi R of the pioduct`s suiface is dependent on the dielectiic peimittivity
i
of the
liquid oi bulk mateiial:
(11.14)
FIGURE 11.7 Piactical antenna foims used foi iadai level instiuments: (a) conical hoin antenna, (|) dielectiic iod
antenna, and (t) paiabolic miiioi with a small antenna as piimaiy iadiatoi and an auxiliaiy ieectoi giving a veiy
small beam angle (so-called Cassegiain model).
P
P C RC
D
R
T T R

2
R

j
(
\

+
j
(
\

r
r
i
i
1
1
2
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
In level measuiement situations, the ieecting aiea is so laige that it inteisects the beam cioss section
completely; theiefoie, D
2
is appioximately piopoitional with distance J
2
. Thus also, the ieceived powei
decieases piopoitionately with J
2
, as deiived in 8]:
(11.15)
FIGURE 11.8 Design of a compact industiial level iadai system. The conveitei above the ange includes the complete
miciowave ciicuitiy, signal piocessing stages, miciopiocessoi contiol, display, powei supply, and output signal 6].
P
J
R
=
1
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
This is not the case if the waves piopagate within an electiomagnetic waveguide, like a veitical tube
dipping into the liquid, called a stilling well. Heie, the piopagation is neaily without losses.
An alteinative method using electiomagnetic waves is to piopagate them in a cable. Figuie 11.9(a)
illustiates the opeiation with a cable dipped into the liquid oi bulk mateiial. Wheie the dielectiic
peimittivity of the suiiounding medium changes, pait of the wave is ieected. This method can be
applied to inteiface measuiements too. Figuie 11.9 shows the signals in an application with a two-phase
pioduct. This method is called time domain ieectometiy" (TDR).
Laser]Light
Laseis and light-emitting diodes pioduce electiomagnetic waves of veiy shoit wavelength (less than
2 m), which can also be used foi time-of-ight measuiements, similai to the desciibed miciowave
methods. Piefeiied lasei signals aie (1) shoit pulses of less than 1 ns duiation, oi (2) laseis with amplitude-
modulated intensity with fiequencies of some megaheitz. Foi moie details about lasei opeiation and
inteifeiometiy methods, iefei to Chaptei 6, Section 5 of this handbook.
FIGURE 11.9 Piinciple of opeiation of a wiie-conducting high-fiequency level measuiement system. (a) An elec-
tiical pulse is geneiated (time
0
) and a two-wiie line guides the electiomagnetic wave. At eveiy position wheie the
suiiounding peimittivity changes, a pait of the wave is shaiply ieected (time
1
) back to the sensoi. The wave
piopagates along the entiie line and is ieected a second time (
2
) at the inteiface between the two liquids, and a
thiid time at the end of the line. (|) The signal delay times (2
1
, 2
2
, and 2
3
) iepiesent the positions of the inteifaces
with iespect to the end of the line, which can be used as a iefeience. The signal polaiity is inveited due to the ieection
fiom lowei to highei peimittivity. The time scale is aibitiaiy.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Lasei systems aie veiy piecise and can achieve accuiacies bettei than 1 mm. Because the lasei beam
is veiy naiiow, such level measuiement systems can be installed without inuence of tank inteinals. Some
piactical disadvantages of lasei level measuiement aie: (1) it functions as does youi eye to see the pioduct`s
suiface and theiefoie fails if dust, smoke, etc. aie piesent; (2) it is sensitive to diit on the optical sensois;
and (3) the equipment is expensive.
Cummun!y Lsed Eva!uatiun Methuds
Due to the gieat benefts of contactless time-of-ight measuiement, some typical methods have been
evaluated foi level gaging within the last few yeais, mainly in iadai techniques 8].
Frequency-Mudu!ated Cuntinuuus Wave Radar
Because the ight times in typical level applications aie veiy shoit (a iesolution of 1 mm iequiies a 7 ps
time iesolution), it is diffcult to evaluate infoimation diiectly in the time domain. By modulation of the
miciowave signals, the time delay is tiansfoimed into the fiequency domain, obtaining low-fiequency
signals. Foi geneial infoimation about modulation, see Chaptei 81 of this handbook.
Theiefoie, Fiequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) iadai has been established as the dom-
inant technique. FMCW iadai utilizes a lineaily fiequency-modulated miciowave signal; the tiansmission
fiequency iises lineaily in a time inteival T. The fiequency diffeience in this inteival is called the fiequency
sweep F.
Figuie 11.10 shows the piinciple of FMCW iadai. Due to the time delay duiing signal piopagation,
the tiansmitted fiequency changes such that the diffeience between the momentaiy tiansmitted fiequency
and the ieceived fiequency, a low-fiequency signal is obtained. The fiequency [ of that signal (typically
up to a few kiloheitz) is piopoitional to the ieectoi distance J (see Figuie 11.6); in this method, theiefoie,
the delay is tiansfoimed into a fiequency [ :
(11.16)
In Equation 11.16, t is the speed of light and F/T is the sweep velocity; see Figuie 11.10.
Figuie 11.11 shows a basic ciicuit block diagiam of an FMCW iadai system. Because the iesultant
signal fiequencies aie low, fuithei signal piocessing is technically simple and veiy accuiate. Noimally,
FIGURE 11.10 Opeiation chaiacteiistics of FMCW iadai. The fiequency of the tiansmittei changes lineaily by
time in an inteival (sweep). The ieceived signal has the same foim, but is time-delayed. At eveiy point of the sweep,
the diffeiential fiequency is constant and piopoitional to the time delay. Time and fiequency scales aie aibitiaiy.
[
F
T

F
T
J
t
J
[ t T
F
.
2
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
evaluation is by means of digital signal piocessing. Foi moie infoimation about signal piocessing tech-
niques using spectium analysis, iefei to Chaptei 83 of this handbook.
Time-ul-F!ight Thruugh Pruduct
Alteinatively, the piopagation time of the waves thiough a weakly absoibing liquid oi bulk mateiial of
low peimittivity
i
can be measuied, as well as the piopagation thiough the aii. In cases wheie the
ieection fiom the inteiface between aii and the uppei suiface of the pioduct is pooi, pait of the signal
tiavels thiough the liquid and is ieected a second time at the tank bottom oi at an inteiface between
two liquids (e.g., oil on watei).
Figuie 11.12 demonstiates this technique. The evaluation is done in the following foui steps:
1. Wheie miciowaves in the tank atmospheie of height J aie piopagated at the speed of light t,
miciowaves in the medium (ielative peimittivity
i
, height L) aie piopagated at a slowei velocity .
2. Hence, the ieection r
2
fiom the tank bottom appeais to be shifted downwaid, and the appaient
tank height |
v
is gieatei than the tiue height |.
3. The tiansit time in the medium is
1
L/, wheie foi the same distance in an empty tank would
be
0
L/t. The iatio of appaient thickness layei" (|
v
- J) to tiue flling height (| - J) theiefoie
coiiesponds to the iatio of the wave piopagation iates:
(11.17)
4. When
i
, |, and |
v
aie known, distance J and, fiom that, flling height L can be calculated exactly:
(11.18)
By this method, a diiect level measuiement - not a distance measuiement - is attained. It can even
be applied when signal r
1
fiom the suiface of the medium is no longei measuiable. The evaluation of
FIGURE 11.11 Basic ciicuit block diagiam of an FMCW iadai system: a miciopiocessoi contiols a voltage-
contiolled oscillatoi (VCO), such that the desiied fiequency sweep is obtained. This signal is amplifed and fed into
the tiansmitting antenna. The instantaneous fiequency must be measuied in oidei to ensuie good sweep lineaiity.
This is accomplished by counting the fiequency aftei it has been mixed with the known fiequency of a dielectiic
iesonance oscillatoi (DRO). A diiectional couplei decouples the ieceived signal, which is mixed with the tiansmission
signal and piocessed by the miciopiocessoi.
| J
| J
t

v
i

r
L | J
| |

v
i
r 1
1999 by CRC Press LLC
the tank bottom ieection signal is known as tank bottom tiacing," and is used in the iadai level system
offeied by Kiohne in Figuie 11.8.
11.3 Leve! Measurements by Detecting Physica! Pruperties
To measuie level, one can detect physical paiameteis that aie signifcantly diffeient between the atmo-
spheie and the pioduct; foi example, conductivity, viscosity, oi attenuation of any type of iadiation. Two
types aie possible: (1) continuous measuiement with an integial sensoi, oi (2) switching by a point
measuiement when the sensoi comes in contact with the pioduct.
E!ectrica! Pruperties
The sensoi must be in diiect oi indiiect contact with the pioduct to detect its electiical piopeities. Foi
continuous measuiement, only pait of the intiusive sensoi must be in contact with the pioduct to detect
the diffeience in dielectiic peimittivity oi conductivity.
Capacitive
In most applications, a iod electiode is aiianged veitically in the tank. The electiode can be (1) nonin-
sulated if the liquid is nonconductive, oi (2) insulated. The metallic vessel acts as a iefeience electiode.
FIGURE 11.12 Repiesentation of time-of-ight measuiement thiough liquid: the wave is ieected once (r
1
) at the
pioduct`s suiface and a second time (r
2
) at the tank bottom. Due to the ieduced wave velocity within the liquid, the
ieection r
2
appeais below the geometiic position of the bottom. Fiom that shift, the level can be calculated; see
Equations 11.17 and 11.18.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
The iesult depends on the peimittivity
2
of the pioduct. Figuie 11.13(a) shows an electiode concentiically
mounted on a cylindiical tank. Foi such a iotationally symmetiical confguiation, the capacitance C of
an insulated electiode changes with level L accoiding to:
(11.19)

0
is the dielectiic constant of vacuum (8.85 10
-12
As V
-1
m
-1
);
1
and
2
aie the ielative peimittivities
of the insulation mateiial and the liquid, iespectively.
If the liquid itself is highly conductive, Equation 11.19 simplifes to:
(11.20)
FIGURE 11.13 Piinciple of opeiation foi a capacitance-type level device. (a) An insulated electiode piotiudes into
the liquid. The capacitance between the innei conductoi and the tank walls is measuied. (|) As a capacitance level
switch, the electiode can be mounted at the appiopiiate position diiectly into the tank wall.
C
L
J
J
J
J
L
C
J
J
J
J

r
+
.
+
j
(
,
\

(
r
2
1 1
1 1
2
0
1
2
1 2
3
2
1
2
1 2
3
2
0
r
r r
r r
r
ln ln
ln ln
C
L
J
J
L
J
J

r
.
r
2
2
0 1
2
1
2
1
0 1
r r
r r
ln
ln
1999 by CRC Press LLC
If the electiode is not insulated, the following equation is valid:
(11.21)
When aiianged hoiizontally, as in Figuie 11.13(|), a capacitive sensoi can act as a level switch.
Foi the electiical measuiement of capacitance, iefei to Chaptei 6.3 of this handbook. Foi a moie
piecise measuiement of conductive liquids, a method measuiing the complex impedance is helpful.
Cunductive
The iesistance of the liquid between two electiodes is measuied with (1) a stiip line with two paiallel
electiodes similai to Figuie 11.9(a), oi (2) a iod electiode with the metal vessel as the iefeience electiode,
similai to Figuie 11.13(a) without insulatoi.
Radiatiun Attenuatiun
All iadiation (e.g., gamma iays, ultiasonic waves, electiomagnetic waves) is attenuated to some degiee
in any medium. In geneial, attenuation in liquids oi bulk mateiials is highei than in gases. This effect is
used to measuie level oi limits, without diiect contact of the sensoi.
Radiumetric
The intensity I of gamma iays is attenuated by the liquid accoiding to its damping factoi :
(11.22)
The souice can be a iadioactive mateiial Co-60 oi Cs-137, having half-lives of 5.23 yeais and 29.9 yeais,
iespectively. Emittei and sensoi may take the foim of (1) a point emitting the iays iadially in all diiections,
(2) a iod emitting iadially fiom a line, oi (3) an aiiay consisting of seveial point emitteis in a iow. Any
combination of point/iod/aiiay emittei with point/iod/aiiay detectoi is possible. Figuie 11.14 shows two
diffeient confguiations. Radiation piotection iegulations must be consideied. A ieal-time clock in the
system must compensate foi the deciease of intensity (dose iate) I by time accoiding to the half-life T
H
of the applied mateiial:
(11.23)
Foi moie infoimation about iadiation detection methods, iefei to Chaptei 66 of this handbook. Plastic
scintillatois and counting tubes aie piefeiied foi iadiometiic level gaging. The level-intensity chaiactei-
istic is nonlineai, so the equipment should be calibiated in place. Mengelkamp 10] desciibes the
iadiometiic techniques in moie detail.
L!trasunic Svitch
A shoit ultiasonic tiansmission path can be used to detect pioducts that dampen sonai waves. Foi
instance, this method is applicable foi the detection of sluiiies oi to deteimine the inteiface between two
diffeient liquids. When combined with a seivo system, the veitical piofle of ultiasonic attenuation can
be measuied. Anothei application uses a noncontact sensoi mounted on the outside of the vessel. It
measuies the acoustic impedance thiough the vessel wall that changes if liquid oi gas is piesent behind
the wall.
C
L
J
J
L
J
J

r
.
r
2
2
0 2
3
1
3
1
0 2
r r
r r
ln
ln
I I J
, , 0
exp o
I I
T


0
2
H
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Micruvave Svitch
Liquids and solids dampen miciowaves in many cases, sometimes absoibing them completely. A simple
unmodulated miciowave souice and an accompanying ieceivei aie suffcient foi level switching.
Phutue!ectric Barrier
A photoelectiic baiiiei can act as a level switch foi liquids that aie not tianspaient, as well as most solids.
But in closed nontianspaient tanks, the coupling of the photoelectiic components to the tank will not
be possible in most cases.
Therma! and Mechanica!
Foi some special applications, level sensois utilize the diffeient heat dissipation piopeities and viscosities
of the media.
Therma!
A self-heated iesistoi with a high tempeiatuie coeffcient is immeised into the liquid. Heat dissipation
causes the tempeiatuie to diop somewhat in the iegion wheie the liquid coveis the sensoi. Theiefoie,
the iesistance change is neaily lineai with the level. This method is often used in automotive applications.
In some applications with heated liquids (e.g., chemical ieaction vessels), a simple tempeiatuie sensoi
can be used as a level switch by emitting a signal when the liquid contacts the sensoi and heats it.
Yiscusity
The effect of viscosity, which is signifcantly highei foi liquids than foi gases, dampens the movement
of a body. These level sensois measuie the degiee of damping of a vibiating foik when dipped in a liquid.
Noimally, it is only used as a point level switch. Figuie 11.15 shows such a tuning foik," named accoiding
to the typical foim with two oi thiee vibiating paddles. The integiated electionics evaluate the powei
loss oi the fiequency shift of the mechanical iesonance system. Foi solids, a sensoi with a iotating paddle
that stops when contacting the pioduct is useful.
FIGURE 11.14 Repiesentation of a iadiometiic continuous level gage. The iays aie emitted by a iadioactive souice,
piopagate thiough the tank walls, and aie damped by the liquid. In (a), a point souice is combined with a iod detectoi
(e.g., scintillatoi iod); (|), a souice aiiay is combined with a point detectoi.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
11.4 Instruments
Table 11.2 lists the most common techniques foi level gaging with coiiesponding application iange,
accuiacy, and aveiage piices. Piicing as shown is foi typical industiial applications and can vaiy widely,
depending on mateiials of constiuction, measuiing iange, accuiacy, appioval iequiiements, etc. Table 11.3
piovides contact infoimation foi manufactuieis of level instiuments. Most of these companies manufac-
tuie vaiious instiuments, using the diffeient technologies shown in Table 11.2. This list is not compie-
hensive; additionally, some smallei companies piovide equipment foi specialized level measuiements.
FIGURE 11.15 Design of a vibiating level switch. The switch ieacts to pioduct viscosity changes, which dampens
the vibiation of the paddles 6].
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Relerences
1. D.M. Considine, Protess Insrumens anJ Conro| HanJ|oo|, 2nd ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1974.
2. E.B. Jones, Insrumen Tet|no|ogy, Vo|. 1, Measuremen o[ Pressure, Lee| anJ Temeraure, London:
Butteiwoith & Co., 1974.
TABLE 11.2 Piioiity Level Measuiement Techniques and Piices
foi Industiial Applications
Technique Application Range Attainable Accuiacy Avg. Piice
Displacei/oat Continuous, liquids 1 mm $2,000
Float Switch, liquids 10 mm $500
Piessuie Continuous, liquids 10 mm $2,000
Ultiasonic Continuous, liquids, solids 5 mm $2,500
Radai Continuous, liquids, solids 1 mm $3,000
TDR Continuous, liquids, solids 3 mm $2,500
Lasei Continuous, liquids, solids 0.1 mm $10,000
Radiometiic Continuous, liquids, solids 10 mm $5,000
Capacitive Switch, liquids 10 mm $500
Viscosity Switch, liquids 10 mm $500
TABLE 11.3 Companies that Make Level Measuiing Instiuments
Beithold Systems, Inc.
101 Coipoiation Diive
Aliquippa, PA 15001
Tel: (508) 378-1900
Bindicatoi
1915 Dove Stieet
Poit Huion, MI 48061
Tel: (810) 987-2700
Danfoss Instiumaik
Inteinational
485 Sinclaii Fiontage Road
Milpitas, CA 95035
Tel: (408) 262-0717
Diexelbiook Engineeiing
Company
205 Keith Valley Road
Hoisham, PA 19044
Tel: (215) 674-1234
Eckaidt
10707 Addington Stieet
Houston, TX 77043
Tel: (713) 722-286
Endiess & Hausei Instiuments
2350 Endiess Place
Gieenwood, IN 46143
Tel: (317) 535-7138
Eniaf, Inc.
500 Centuiy Plaza Diive
Suite 120
Houston, TX 77073
Tel: (713) 443-4291
The Foxboio Company
38 Neponset Avenue
Foxboio, MA 02035
Tel: (508) 543-8750
Kiohne Ameiica Inc.
7 Deaiboin Road
Peabody, MA 01960
Tel: (508) 535-1720
MTS Systems Coipoiation
Sensois Division
3001 Sheldon Diive
Caiy, NC 27513
Tel: (919) 677-0100
Milltionics
709 Stadium Diive
Ailington, TX 76011
Tel: (800) 569-2130
Rosemount, Inc.
Measuiement Division
8200 Maiket Boulevaid
Chanhassen, MN 55317
Tel: (612) 949-7000
Saab Tank Contiol
10235 West Little Yoik
Suite 258
Houston, TX 7740
Tel: (713) 849-2092
TN Technologies, Inc.
2555 Noith Inteistate 35
P.O. Box 800
Round Rock, TX 78680
Tel: (512) 388-9100
Vega HiTech Technologies, Inc.
P.O. Box 535
Newtown, PA 18940
Tel: (215) 968-1795
Whessoe Vaiec, Inc.
10800 Valley View Stieet
Cypiess, CA 90630
Tel: (714) 761-1300
Yokogawa Coipoiation of
Ameiica
2 Dait Road
Newnan, GA 30265
Tel: (404) 253-7000
1999 by CRC Press LLC
3. Veiein Deutschei Ingenieuie, Veiband Deutschei Elektiotechnikei (VDI/VDE), F||sanJmessung
on F|ssg|een unJ Fesso[[en (Lee| Measuremen o[ LquJs anJ So|Js), VDI/VDE 3519, Pait 1,
Beilin: Beuth, 1984.
4. Veiein Deutschei Ingenieuie, Veiband Deutschei Elektiotechnikei (VDI/VDE), F||sanJmessung
on F|ssg|een unJ Fesso[[en (Lee| Measuremen o[ LquJs anJ So|Js), VDI/VDE 3519, Pait 2,
Beilin: Beuth, 1984.
5. K.W. Bonfg (ed.), Tet|nst|e F||sanJsmessung unJ Cren:sanJs|onro||e, Ehningen: Expeit, 1990.
6. Kiohne Messtechnik, Tet|nta| Daa S|ees o[ Lee| Measuremen ProJuts, Duisbuig: Kiohne, 1996.
7. K. Blundy, Radai systems - setting a piactical appioach, Conro| c Insrum., July 1996.
8. D. Biumbi, FunJamena|s o[ RaJar Tet|nques [or Lee| Caugng, Duisbuig: Kiohne, 1995.
9. D. Biumbi, Measuiing piocess and stoiage tank level with iadai technology, In. RaJar Con[. IEEE,
256-260, 1995.
10. B. Mengelkamp, RaJomere, F||sanJ- unJ Dt|emessung, Beilin: Eliteia, 1972.

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