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STEAM TURBINE DESIGN

1
INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a heat engine in which the energy of the steam is transformed into work. First,
the energy in the steam expands through a nozzle and is converted into kinetic energy. Then, that kinetic
energy is converted into work on rotating blades.
The usual turbine has four main parts. The rotor is the rotating part which carries the blades or
buckets. The stator consists of a cylinder and casing within which the rotor turns. The turbine has a base
or frame, and finally there are nozzles or flow passages which expand the flow. The cylinder, casing, and
frame are often combined. Other parts necessary for proper operation would include a control system,
piping, a lubrication system, and a separate condenser.
There are many different types of turbines. The table below is taken from hurch
!
"
I) Classification of Steam Turbines
#team turbines may be classified in the following ways"
A$ %ith respect to form of steam passage between the blades"
a$ &mpulse
'($ #imple, or single)stage
'!$ *elocity)stage, urtis
'+$ ,ressure stage, -ateau
'.$ ombination pressure) and velocity)stage
b$ -eaction, ,arsons
c$ ombination impulse and reaction
/$ %ith respect to general arrangement of flow"
a$ #ingle)flow
b$ 0ouble)flow
c$ ompound, two)or)three cylinder, cross) or tandem)connected
d$ 0ivided)flow
$ %ith respect to direction of steam flow relative to plane of rotation"
a$ Axial)flow
b$ -adial)flow
c$ Tangential)flow
0$ %ith respect to repetition of steam flow through blades"
a$ #ingle)pass
b$ -eentry or repeated flow
1$ %ith respect to rotational speed"
a$ For 23)sysle generators
b$ For 43)cycle generators
c$ For !4)cycle generators
d$ For geared units and for direct)connected or electric drive marine units, no special speed
re5uirements
F$ %ith respect to relative motion of rotor or rotors"
a$ #ingle)motion
b$ 0ouble)motion
6$ %ith respect to steam and exhaust conditions"
a$ 7igh)pressure condensing
b$ 7igh)pressure non)condensing
c$ /ack)pressure
d$ #uperposed or topping
e$ 8ixed)pressure
f$ -egenerative
g$ 1xtraction, single
h$ 1xtraction, double
i$ -eheating or resuperheating
9$ :ow)pressure
For a thorough discussion of each type, please see Steam Turbines
+
.
(
Adapted from 1. F. hurch, ;r., Steam Turbines, 8c6raw)7ill, (<43.
!
&d., pg !.
+
&d., pg +.
(
CONERSION O! "INETIC ENERG# O! T$E GAS%STEAM INTO B&ADE 'OR"
onsider a frictionless blade that turns the steam through (=3 and exits with zero absolute
velocity. This condition represents the greatest possible conversion of kinetic energy of the entering 9et
into blade work. %e proceed to develop a relation between the absolute velocity of the 9et entering the
blade, V1, and the blade speed, Vb, For a given blade speed, this relation will permit us to design a nozzle
such that the exiting velocity will provide for maximum energy conversion, or, in different words,
maximum efficiency.
:et W be the velocity of the 9et relative to
the blade. The positive direction is to the
right.

( ( b
V W V +

! ! b
V W V +
/ecause the blade is frictionless,
! (
W W . Furthermore, because energy conversion in the blade is
complete,
!
3 V . #ubstituting and combining e5uations we get"
( ! ( !
!
b
V V W W V + + +
(
!
b
V V '($
As we shall see later, the centrifugal force of rotation and the strength of the blade material limit the blade
speed. 6iven the blade speed, however, we can determine the ideal absolute velocity entering the blade.
ACTUA& NO((&E ANG&E
%e must now modify this result to account for the geometry restrictions of a real turbine. &n our
derivation, the acute angle between V1 and the tangential direction, called the nozzle angle, is zero. &n an
actual turbine, because of physical constraints, the nozzle angle must be greater than zero but not so great
as to cause an appreciable loss in efficiency. >or should the angle be so small as to cause an excessively
long nozzle that would increase friction and decrease efficiency. ?The values used in practice range from
(3 to +3 deg., (! to !3 deg. being common. The larger angles are used only when necessary and usually at
the low)pressure end of large turbines.?
.
15uation '($, corrected for a finite nozzle angle, , becomes"
(
cos !
b
V V '!$
/ecause of disk friction and fanning losses, V1, is usually increased somewhat, say (3@, over the
theoretical value.
.
Id., p.<(.
!
*( %(
*b
*! %!
B&ADE 'OR" AND )O'ER
First write the -eynolds transport theorem for angular momentum"
( )
( )
( ) ( )
' $
Sys
CV
Shaft
CS
D rxmv
rxmv
rxV V dA rxF T
Dt t

v v
v v
v v v v
v v
Assuming steady state and steady flow with one entrance '($ and one exit '!$ , the e5uation
reduces to"
( ) ( )
! ! ( ( Shaft
T m r xV r xV
1

]
v v
v v
&
For the turbine blade, the mean radius is constant between entrance and exit. Furthermore, the
tangential component of velocity is the only contributor to tor5ue. The radial and axial components affect
bearing loads but have no effect on tor5ue, thus"
( )
! ( Shaft
T m rV rV

&
The shaft work then is"
( )
! ( Shaft
W T m r V V


&
&
/ut
b
V r , therefore, ( )
! ( Shaft b
W mV V V


&
&
'+$
On a unit mass basis" ( )
! ( Shaft b
w V V V

'.$
This result is most easily visualized by constructing entering and leaving velocity triangles.
IM)U&SE B&ADING E&OCIT# TRIANG&ES AND B&ADE 'OR"
7aving determined blade speed from strength considerationsA nozzle angle from fabrication and
efficiency considerationsA and V1 from e5uation '!$A we proceed to construct the velocity triangles. From
these triangles we can find the change in absolute tangential velocity and calculate the shaft work.
Entrance Trian*le
%e first draw a horizontal line representing the tangential direction. Then we construct a vector
representing V1 at angle , after which we complete the entering triangle using the vector relation"
( ( b
V W V +
v v v
The angle between the relative velocity and the
tangential direction is designated ..
+
*b
B
*b
C
*a(
%a(
%(
*(
T+e E,it Trian*le
0raw W2 at angle to the tangent. -educing
somewhat from the calculated value for will result in
increased blade efficiency. ?*alues of in use vary from (4
to +3 deg. at high and intermediate pressures and from +3 to
.3 deg. at the low)pressure end of the turbine, sometimes
reaching .3 to 43 deg. in large turbines where maximum flow
area is needed.?
4
W2 is found by multiplying W1 by the
ve!"ity "!effi"ient, #b, which accounts for friction and
turbulence. The velocity coefficient is a function of the total
change of direction of the steam in the blade ( ) (=3 1 +
]
o
A
the blade width to radius ratioA and the relative velocity and
density at blade entrance. /ecause sufficient data are not
available at the beginning of the design, the following
empirical formula, adapted from hurch for a one inch blade
width, is suggested.
2
( )
(D !
4
(
3.=<! 2.33 (3
b
# x W


The triangles are easily solved for needed values as follows"
( (
cos V V


! ( b
W # W
( ( (
sin
a a
V W V 'axial component$
! !
sin
a
V W
( ( b
W V V


! !
cos W W


! !
( ( ( a
W W W

+
! ! b
V V W

+

( (
(
tan
a
W
W


! !
! ! ! a
V V V

+
T+e Re+eat !actor an- t+e Con-ition Cur.e
Only a portion of the available energy to a stage is turned into work. The remainder, termed
reheat '$r $, shows up as an increase in the enthalpy of the steam. /ecause the constant pressure lines on an
h%s chart '8ollier chart$ diverge, the summation of the individual isentropic drops for the total stages is
greater than the isentropic drop between the initial and final steam conditions. %e account for this
variation using a reheat factor, &, which has been pre)calculated by various investigators.
4
Id. p. (4+.
2
Id. p. 1'(,').
.
%E! *E!
F
*a!
%a!
*!
%!
%E( *b
*b
( )
( )
s
i
i
s
t!ta
h
&
h

For preliminary design, & can be estimated from the following chart taken from hurch.
G
The value from the chart must be corrected for the actual number of stages and stage efficiency.
( )
( (
( ( (
3.!
s
n
& &
n
_ _
+

, ,
'.$
A line connecting the initial and final states, plus the intervening states found by adding the reheat at
constant pressure, is called the "!nditi!n ine.
G
Id. p. !.3.
4
E/AM)&E STEAM TURBINE DESIGN
0
?The design of a steam turbine, like that of any other important machine, involves a 9udicious
combination of theory with the results of experience, governed to a great extent by the commercial element,
cost. The progress of a particular design involves a continuous series of compromises between what is
most efficient, what will operate most reliably, and what will cost the least.?
The following example design is for a pressure)stage impulse turbine. This is one of the most
simple and straightforward to design. All of the steam expansion for this turbine takes place in the fixed
nozzles, not in the passages with the moving turbine blades. The turbine is multi)stage. 1ach stage has a
chamber with a single impulse turbine in it, with all wheels on the same shaft. 1ach individual chamber or
stage receives the steam through groups of nozzles. The pressure drop for the turbine is divided into as
many steps as there are chambers, and each is considered to be a pressure stage. The last stage of the
turbine discharges to the condenser.
The client will usually specify steam conditions, condenser vacuum, rotational speed and capacity
in kilowatts or horsepower. The client may also specify a maximum cost and minimum efficiency.
alculate the principal dimensions of the nozzles and blading of a turbine given the following
specifications"
,ower delivered at the shaft coupling 4333 k%
-evolutions per minute !.33 rpm
8aximum blade speed 4G3 ftDs
&nitial steam pressure (43 psia
&nitial steam temperature 4.3 F
=
Id., hapter *&&&.
2
ondenser pressure ( in 7g
onstant mean blade diameter for all stages
Bla-e 'or1
#elect a nozzle angle e5ual to !3A then"
( )
(
!
(!(+ D
cos !3
b
idea
V
V ft s
o
&ncrease this value by about (3@ 'the example uses ((.=2@ to follow hurch$ to account for disk friction
and fanning.
(
(+4G D V ft s
T+e Entrance Trian*le
s ft V V
!
D (!G4 !3 cos (+4G cos
( (

( (
(!G4 4G3 G34 D
b
W V V ft s


( ( (
sin (+4Gsin !3 .2. D
a a
W V V ft s
o
! ! ! !
( ( (
.2. G34 =.. D
a
W W W ft s

+ +
( ( (
(
.2.
tan tan ++.+4
G34
a W
W



o
T+e E,it Trian*le
( ) ( )
(D ! (D !
4 4
(
3.=<! 2 (3 3.=<! 2 (3 =.. 3.<(G
b
# x W x x


( ) ( )
! (
3.<(G =.. GG. D
b
W # W ft s
Assume that H H ++.+4
s ft W W D 2.G +4 . ++ cos GG. cos
3
! !

! !
2.G 4G3 G2.4 D
b
V W V ft s

+ +
! ! !
sin GG.sin++.+4 .!2 D
a a
W V W ft s
o
3 (
!
! (
= . G<
$ 4 . G2 '
.!2
tan


an
V
V
a

G
%E( *b
*a(
%a(
%(
*(
C B
*b *E!
*!
%!
*a!
%a!
F
I
Bla-e 'or1 )er Unit Mass
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
!
! (
4G3 G2.4 (!G4
GG= +!.!
f
b b
f m
b s ft ft *tu
w V V
V
s s ft b b ft

/

/ / /
+3.G4 D
b m
w *tu b
Actual Ener*2 A.ailable to Bla-e
( )
( )
( ) ( )
!
! !
!
(
!
(+4G
. . +2.G4 D
! ! GG= +!.!
f
m
b a"tua
f m
b s ft V *tu
A + *tu b
s ft b b ft



Bla-e Efficienc2
( )
+3.G4
3.=+2
. . +2.G4
b
b
b a"tua
w
A +


No33le elocit2 Coefficient4 kn
The following empirical formula based on experimental results was adapted from hurch.
<

! + .
(.3!( 3.(2. 3.(24 3.32G( 3.33==
n
# x x x x + +
where
(
D(333
s
x V .
<
Id., p. =!, Fig. G<.
=
1xamining Figure +)!3
(3
above, it can be seen that a good starting value for kn is 3.<24, which is
confirmed by the calculation below.
I-eal 5Isentro6ic) No33le E,it%Bla-e Entrance elocit2
(
(
(+4G
(.32 D
3.<24
s
n
V
V ft s
#

No33le Efficienc2
( )
! ! !
!
! ( (
! !
( (
D ! D !
3.<24 3.<+(
D ! D !
n s
n n
s s
# V V
#
V V

Combine- No33le an- Bla-e Efficienc2
( ) ( ) 3.<+( 3.=+2 3.GG=
nb n b

Sta*e Efficienc2
Assume an average loss from disk friction and fanning of .@ and from leakage of (.4 @. orrecting for
these effects gives"
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( D 3.GG= ( 3.3. 3.3(4 3.G+4
st b
Fri"ti!n Fannin, -ea#a,e

+ + 1
]
:et 3.G+
st
. This is a provisional value. &t will be modified as the design proceeds and more
precise information becomes available.
Number of Sta*es
I-eal A.ailable Ener*2 to Bla-e
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
!
!
!
(
(.32 D
+<.4 D
! ! +!.! GG=
f
s
s m
m
f
ft s *tu s b V
h *tu b
ft ft
b b

/
g g
g g
Jse the enthalpy at the given inlet conditions to the turbine and that of the inlet to the condenser to get the
total isentropic drop in enthalpy"
( ) ( ) (!<+.G <3!.< +<3.= D
s m
t!ta
h *tu b
(.3.24 &


'-eheat from above graph$
(3
&d., pg.=G.
<
Trial Number of Sta*es4 n
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
+<3.= D (.3.24
(3.+4
+<.4 D
m s
t!ta
m s
h & *tu
b
n
h *tu
b

#elect (3 stagesA then correct for actual value of reheat"


( )
( ( 3.G+
( (.3.24 ( ( (.3424
(3 3.!
&
_ _
+

, ,
Trial Isentro6ic Dro6 )er Sta*e
The enthalpy drop per stage is the total amount of actual enthalpy change in the turbine, including the
reheat, divided by the number of stages.
( ) ( )
( )
+<3.= D (.3424
.(.+ D
(3
m
s m
*tu b
h *tu b
The trial value is (.= /tuDlbm greater than +<.4 and will cause a slight increase in V1 which will be
accounted for later.
Sta*e Re+eat4 qr
7ere we determine the amount of heat leak at each stage.
( ) ( ) .(.+ ( 3.G+ ((.(4 D
r s s st m
$ h h *tu b
&f the desired final pressure '3..<( psia$ is not reached, a new trial hs and corresponding $r are found and
additional iterations run as needed. To estimate the re5uired change, divide the error in enthalpy by the
number of stages and by the stage efficiency and then add or subtract this 5uantity from hs to get a new
trial value. After the correct value for hs is found, the final velocity triangles can be constructed and
corresponding values calculated.
The corrected value for V1 is given by"
( ) ( ) ( )
(
!
! .(.+ D GG= +!.!
! (.+=..< D
m f
s s
f
*tu ft ft
b b b
m
V ft s
h
*tu
b s



( )
( (
3.<24 (.+=..< (+=G D
n s
V ft s
# V

from the velocity triangle, W1 is =G+ ftDs and the blade velocity coefficient is"
[ ] <(2 . 3 $ =G+ $' (3 2 ' =<! . 3
! D (
4


x #
b
This value is close enough to the previously calculated value of 3.=+2. ,roceeding"
(3
Total Internal 'or1 )er )oun- of Steam
m m r s i
b *tu b *tu $ h n w D 4 . +3( D $ (4 . (( + . .( ' $ (3 ' $ '
Internal Efficienc2 of t+e Turbine
+3(.4 D
3.GG(4
+<3.= D
m
i
m
*tu b
*tu b

Mec+anical &osses
hurch states the following rough rule for total mechanical losses, including bearing friction and
gland, pump and governor resistances"
8echanical loss in per cent at normal rating
. .
(.=
D(333 4333D(333 #w

Assume a radiation loss of about 3.! @, the combined mechanical and radiation losses amount to
about ! @.
En*ine Efficienc24 e
( ) ( ) 3.GG(4 3.<= 3.G42
e

I-eal Steam Rate
The ideal steam rate represents the mass of steam re5uired to produce a single kilowatt of power.
( )
( )
+.(+
=.G+ D
+<3.=
m
m
*tu b
IS& b #Wh
#Wh *tu
/

/
Bra1e Steam Rate
The brake steam rate corrects the ideal steam rate for the inefficiencies of the engine 'turbine$.
( ) =.G+ D D 3.G42 ((.44 D
m m e
*S& IS& b #Wh b #Wh
Turbine Mass !lo7 Rate
( ) ( )
( )
((.44 4333
(2.3. D
+233
m
m
b #Wh
m b s
#Wh s
&
((
Mollier Dia*ram
A 8ollier chart, or an h)s diagram, offers a uni5ue description of the thermodynamic interactions occurring
within the turbine. The condition line details the thermodynamic state progression and is usually drawn
superimposed on the 8ollier chart. &n order to construct this chart, it is useful to detail the state at each of
the various stages. This is most easily achieved by constructing a table of the stage properties.
To construct the table, and from there the 8ollier chart, one must understand how the thermodynamic state
changes between stages. All the pertinent information has already been determined. &t is simply a 5uestion
of organization. The state table for the example in progress is given on the following page. Jsing a tabular
format, we proceed in turn for each stage to subtract hs from the entrance enthalpy and then add back the
reheat to determine the stage end point. The needed thermodynamic state properties, including specific
volume, are found as the process proceeds. &nitially, the state is fixed and set by the inlet steam pressure
and temperature. &t is possible to determine the entropy of the steam directly. Then as the steam flows
through the first stage nozzle, it goes through an isentropic expansion. &t is here that the enthalpy of the
fluid drops. The amount of enthalpy change at each stage is considered constant, and has already been
determined. Knowing the new value of the enthalpy and assuming isentropic expansion, it is possible to
determine the pressure at the end of the nozzle.
#team then flows across the vanes on the wheel where it is reheated due to friction. This process occurs
under constant pressure, or isobaric conditions. Thus, the increase in energy due to the heating is added to
the previous value of the enthalpy. The constant pressure assumption fixes the state, and the resulting value
of entropy can be determined at the entrance to the nozzle for the next stage. This procedure is continued
and the values are tabulated until the total number of stages has been completed.
Once the values of the enthalpy and the entropy are determined at each stage, it is possible to plot these
values on the 8ollier chart. These plotted values create the condition line and indicate the state
progression of the steam through the various turbine stages. The appropriate 8ollier chart for this example
is given on page (.. 11# will produce a property plot automatically. The tabulated enthalpy and entropy
values can then be superimposed on the plot using the LOverlay ,lotM option in the ,lot menu.
(!

(+
Sta*e )art
Ent+al62
5BTU%lbm)
Entro62
5BTU%lbm8R)
)ressure
56sia)
(
>ozzle
(!<+.G3
).(.+3 'htria$
(.2=3 (43
%heel
(!4!..3
N((.(4 '$$
O (33.4
!
.
(!2+.44
).(.+3
(.2<! O
W
(!!!.!+
N((.(4
O 24.3
+
.
(!++..3
).(.+3
(.G34 O
W
((<!.(3
N((.(4
O .3.<
.
.
(!3+.!4
).(.+3
(.G(< O
W
((2(.<4
N((.(4
O !..4
4
.
((G+.(3
).(.+3
(.G+. O
W
((+(.=3
N((.(4
O (..3
2
.
((.!.<4
).(.+3
(.G4( O
W
((3(.24
N((.(4
O G.=!
G
.
(((!.=3
).(.+3
(.G2= O
W
(3G(.43
N((.(4
O ..3G
=
.
(3=!.24
).(.+3
(.G=2 O
W
(3.(.+4
N((.(4
O !.(3
<
.
(34!.43
).(.+3
(.=32 O
W
(3((.!3
N((.(4
O (.3!
(3
.
(3!!.+4
).(.+3
(.=!2 O
W
<=(.34
N((.(4
O (.33 'in)7g$
1nd ,oint O <<!.!3 (.=.G
Thermodynamic state table for the stages of the steam turbine.
8ollier chart 'h%s diagram$ showing energy distribution within the turbine.
(.

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