INTRODUCTION TO SOUND

After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Discuss why sound plays an important role in your life.
Everyday your world is filled with a multitude of sounds. Sound can let you
communicate with others or let others communicate with you. It can be a
warning of danger or simply an enjoyable experience. Some sounds can be
heard by dogs or other animals but cannot be heard by humans. Click on the
buttons below to listen to various sounds.
It is hard to imagine a world without sound. he ability the hear is definitely
an important sense. !ut people who are deaf are remarkable in the ways that
they can compensate for their loss of hearing. "ou will learn more about
sound in the following pages.
1
VIRATION
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Summari#e how sound travels and explain what the energy is
that allows it to occur.
Describe the different components waves have.
$ist and discuss the different types of waves that exist.

!uestions
1. In each case% what is the energy that makes the sound
happen&
2
Discussion
"ow does sound tra#el$
Sound comes from a series of vibrations% and all the sounds you heard in the
experiment occurred because of vibrations and energy. Sound travels in
waves. 'hen a source% or something that produces sound% vibrates% it
produces kinetic energy. "our vocal chords and the strings on a guitar are
both sources which vibrate to produce sounds. Sound energy is in the form
of waves% which travel outward in all directions from the source. 'ithout
energy% there would be no sound. $et(s take a closer look at sound waves.
%hat do wa#es consist of$
'aves are made up of compressions and rarefactions. Co&'ression happens
when molecules are forced% or pressed% together. Rarefaction is just the
opposite% it occurs when molecules are given extra space and allowed to
expand. )emember that sound is a type of kinetic energy. *s the molecules
are pressed together% they pass the kinetic energy to each other. hus
sound energy travels outward from the source. hese molecules are part of
a medium% which is anything that carries sound. Sound travels through air%
water% or even a block of steel% thus% all are mediums for sound. 'ithout a
medium there are no molecules to carry the sound waves. In places like
space% where there is no atmosphere% there is no sound.
$et(s look at the example of a stereo speaker. o produce sound% a thin
surfaced cone% called a dia'hrag&% vibrates back and forth and creates
energy. 'hen the diaphragm moves to the right% its energy pushes the air
molecules on the right together% opening up space for the molecules on the
left to move into. 'e call the molecules on the right compressed and the
molecules on the left rarefied. 'hen the diaphragm moves to the left% the
opposite happens. +ow% the molecules to the left become compressed and
the molecules to the right are rarefied. hese alternating compressions and
rarefactions produce a wave. ,ne compression and one rarefaction is called a
wa#elength. Different sounds have different wavelengths.
3
%hat do sound wa#es loo( li(e$
'e cannot see the energy in sound waves% but a sound wave can be modeled
in two ways. ,ne way is to create a graph of the reed-s position at different
times. hink of a number line. 'e call the reed-s rest position #ero. *s it
travels to the right% it moves to an increasingly positive position along the
number line. *s is travels to the left% its position becomes more and more
negative. he graph of the reed-s position as it vibrates looks like the sine
graph% with its highest point when the reed is the farthest right and its
lowest point when the reed is farthest left.
*nother graph can be made using the amount of pressure versus time. he
most pressure is applied when the reed is moving through its original
position. his is similar to the way we feel the greatest force on a swing as
we move through the center% where we started. *s the reed moves to the
right% it is exerting less and less force. *t its rightmost position% it is
exerting no pressure and begins its trip the opposite way. Similarly% the reed
is exerting no pressure at its leftmost position. .or our graph% we say the
pressure is the least% or the most of a pull rather than a push% when the reed
moves through its starting position heading the opposite way. 'hen the
pressure is exerting a pulling force% we assign negative values to it. * graph
of the pressure versus time also resembles the sine graph.
)ore about co&'ression and rarefaction
Compression and rarefaction are terms defining the molecules near the reed.
Co&'ression is the point when the most pressure is being applied to a
molecule and rarefaction is the point when the least pressure is applied. It
is important to note that when a molecule to the right of the reed is
experiencing compression% a molecule to the reed-s left is experiencing
rarefaction. .or right hand molecules% compression occurs when the reed is
in its original position% moving towards the right. his is where the molecule
experiences the most pressure. )arefaction happens when the reed is once
again in the center% this time moving towards the left. *t this point% the
molecule is experiencing the least pressure. ,f course% this is the opposite
for molecules to the reed-s left.
4
*ongitude
Shear
Surface
+late,Sy&&etric-
+late,Asy&&etric-
5
Different ty'es of wa#es
*s the reed vibrates back and forth% the sound waves produced move the
same direction /left and right0. 'aves that move in the same direction% or
are parallel to their source are called longitudinal wa#es. $ongitudinal sound
waves are the easiest to produce and have the highest speed% however% it is
possible to produce other types. 'aves which move perpendicular to the way
their source does are called shear wa#es. Shear waves travel at slower
speeds than longitudinal waves% and can only be made in solids. *nother type
of wave is the surface wave. Surface wa#es travel at the surface of a
material and move in elliptical orbits. hey are slightly slower than shear
waves but difficult to make. * final type of sound wave is the plate wave.
hese waves also move in elliptical orbits but are much more complex. hey
can only be created in very thin pieces of material.
6
T". S+..D O/ SOUND IN AIR
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Discuss the relationship between the speed of sound and
speed of light.
Describe what the sound barrier is.
!uestions
1. 'hat conclusion can you draw about the speed of sound
relative to the speed of light&
7
Discussion
Sound and s'eed
If you have ever been to a baseball game or sat far away from the stage
during a concert% you may have noticed something odd. "ou saw the batter
hit the ball% but did not hear the crack of the impact until a few seconds
later. ,r% you saw the drummer strike the drum% but it took an extra moment
before you heard it. his is because the speed of sound is slower than the
speed of light% which we are used to seeing. he same thing is at work during
a thunderstorm. $ightning and thunder both happen at the same time. 'e
see the lightning almost instantaneously% but it takes longer to hear the
thunder. !ased on how much longer it takes to hear thunder tells us how far
away the storm is. he longer it takes to hear the thunder% the farther the
distance its sound had to travel and the farther away the storm is.
The sound barrier
he speed of sound through warm air has been measured at 234 meters per
second or 5.234 km per second. hat is the same as a car traveling about
675 miles per hour8 Even jets do not travel nearly that fast. he speed of
sound is called the sound barrier. If a plane does break the sound barrier%
or go faster than the speed of sound% it will produce a sonic boom. ,n
,ctober 13% 1936% Chuck "eager did just that. In a small plane called the :;
1% he was the first person to fly faster than the speed of sound and the
listeners on the ground were the first to witness the loud echo of a sonic
boom.
%hy do we see lightning before the thunder$
$ightning travels at 255%555 kilometers per second or 174%555 miles per
second. his is why we see it so much sooner than we hear the thunder. If
lightning occurs a kilometer away% it will take 1.< seconds before you hear
the thunder. If you prefer to think in terms of miles% it takes thunder <
seconds to travel 1 mile. +ext time you see lightning count the number of
seconds before the thunder arrives% then divide this number by < to find out
how far away the lightning is.

8
T". S+..D O/ SOUND IN OT".R )AT.RIA*S
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain whether or not the speed of sound is constant for all
materials.
Describe what elasticity and density are and what relationship
they have to the speed of sound.
"ou are in a long mining tunnel deep under the earth. "ou have a friend that
is several thousands of feet away from you in the tunnel. "ou tell this person
using a walkie talkie to yell and clang on the pipes on the tunnel floor at the
same time. =ress the play button below to find out what happens.
S'eeds of Sound
)aterial S'eed of Sound
)ubber 45 m>s
*ir at 35
o
C 2<< m>s
?lass 3<35 m>s
$ead 1@15 m>s
Stone <961 m>s
Copper 2155 m>s
9
!uestions
1. 'hat happens when you change the material through which
the sound travels&
2. hrough which material does sound move faster& 'hy do you
think it is faster&
Discussion
%hat ha''ens when there is a change in the &aterial through which the
sound tra#els$
he speed of sound is not always the same. )emember that sound is a
vibration of kinetic energy passed from molecule to molecule. he closer the
molecules are to each other% the less energy it takes for them to pass the
sound to each other and the faster sound can travel. It is easier for sound
waves to go through solids than through liAuids because the molecules are
closer together in solids. Similarly% it is harder for sound to pass through
gases than through liAuids% because gaseous molecules are farther apart.
he speed of sound is faster in solid materials and slower in liAuids or gases.
.lasticity
he speed of sound is also different for different types of solids% liAuids%
and gases. Some materials% like nickel or iron% are more elastic than others.
.lasticity describes how Auickly the molecules return to their original
positions. Bolecules that return to their original shape Auickly are ready to
move again more Auickly% thus they can vibrate at higher speeds. Sound can
travel faster through mediums that vibrate faster. Sound travels faster
through elastic solids like nickel or iron than through solids like lead% which
is less elastic.
10
Density
he density of a medium also affects the speed of sound. Density describes
the mass of a substance per volume. * substance that is denser per volume
has more mass per volume. Csually% larger molecules have more mass. If a
material is denser because its molecules are larger% it will transmit sound
slower. Sound waves are made up of kinetic energy. It takes more energy to
make large molecules vibrate than it does to make smaller molecules vibrate.
hus% sound will travel at a slower rate in the denser object. If sound waves
of the same energy were passed through a block of wood and a block of
steel% which is more dense than the wood% the molecules of the steel would
vibrate at a slower rate. hus% sound passes more Auickly through the wood%
which is less dense.
Suppose% however% that two substances are made of different molecules
which weigh the same amount. hey have the same volume% but one substance
is more dense. 'e know the denser substance must have more mass per
volume. Since both substances have molecules of similar weight% this extra
mass means the denser substance has more molecules per volume. Bore
molecules are sAuee#ed into the same volume% therefore the molecules are
closer together. Since sound is more easily transmitted between close
molecules% it travels faster in the denser substance. Sound moves faster
through denser air because the molecules are closer together in dense air
and sound can be more easily passed on.
11
T.)+.RATUR. AND T". S+..D O/ SOUND
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
,bserve the demonstrations below and explain the
differences in the speed of sound when the temperature is
changed.

!uestions
1. 'hat happens to the speed of sound when the temperature
changes&
2. Does sound travel faster or slower as temperature increases&
Discussion
Te&'erature and the s'eed of sound
emperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound. Deat% like
sound% is a form of kinetic energy. Bolecules at higher temperatures have
more energy% thus they can vibrate faster. Since the molecules vibrate
faster% sound waves can travel more Auickly. he speed of sound in room
temperature air is 234 meters per second. his is faster than 221 meters
per second% which is the speed of sound in air at free#ing temperatures.
he formula to find the speed of sound in air is as followsE
v F 221m>s G .4m>s>C H
v is the speed of sound and is the temperature of the air. ,ne thing to
keep in mind is that this formula finds the average speed of sound for any
given temperature. he speed of sound is also affected by other factors
such as humidity and air pressure.

12
T". "U)AN .AR
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain the main parts of the human ear and how they
contribute to our hearing.
he human ear has three main sections% which consist of the outer ear% the
middle ear% and the inner ear. Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel
through your ear canal to the middle ear. he ear canal channels the waves
to your eardrum% a thin% sensitive membrane stretched tightly over the
entrance to your middle ear. he waves cause your eardrum to vibrate. It
passes these vibrations on to the hammer% one of three tiny bones in your
ear. he hammer vibrating causes the anvil% the small bone touching the
hammer% to vibrate. he anvil passes these vibrations to the stirrup% another
small bone which touches the anvil. .rom the stirrup% the vibrations pass into
the inner ear. he stirrup touches a liAuid filled sack and the vibrations
travel into the cochlea% which is shaped like a shell. Inside the cochlea% there
are hundreds of special cells attached to nerve fibers% which can transmit
information to the brain. he brain processes the information from the ear
and lets us distinguish between different types of sounds.
13
T". CO)+ON.NTS O/ SOUND
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain what three things cause the differences in sounds.
Discuss why some sounds are pleasing and others are not.
%hy are sounds different$
*s you know% there are many different sounds. .ire alarms are loud%
whispers are soft% sopranos sing high% tubas play low% every one of your
friends has a different voice. he differences between sounds are caused
by intensity% pitch% and tone.
%hat is the difference between &usic and noise$
!oth music and noise are sounds% but how can we tell the difference& Some
sounds% like construction work% are unpleasant. 'hile others% such as your
favorite band% are enjoyable to listen to. If this was the only way to tell the
difference between noise and music% everyone-s opinion would be different.
he sound of rain might be pleasant music to you% while the sound of your
little brother practicing piano might be an unpleasant noise. o help classify
sounds% there are three properties which a sound must have to be musical.
* sound must have an identifiable pitch% a good or pleasing Auality of tone%
and repeating pattern or rhythm to be music. Noise on the other hand has no
identifiable pitch% no pleasing tone% and no steady rhythm.
14
/R.!U.NC0 AND +ITC"
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain how you can change pitch by altering sources.
Describe what resonance is.
!uestions
1. 'hat happens when you make the string shorter& $onger&
hicker& hinner& ighter& $ooser&
@. 'hat happens when you make the string out of different
material&
15
Discussion
Resonance
Sound waves traveling through the air or other mediums sometimes affect
the objects that they encounter. )ecall that sound is caused by the
molecules of a medium vibrating. he molecules vibrate at a specific
freAuency for each source% called its natural fre1uency. Steel% brass% and
wood all have different natural freAuencies.
,ccasionally% objects vibrating at their natural freAuencies will cause
resonance. Resonance is when objects with the same natural freAuency as
the vibrating source also begin to vibrate. )esonance does not happen very
often and only affects object close to the vibrating source. Sometimes% the
effects of resonance can be powerful. * singer can make glass vibrate
enough to shatter% just by singing a note with the glass-s natural freAuency8
Changing +itch
* string vibrates with a particular fundamental freAuency. It is possible%
however% to produce pitches with different freAuencies from the same
string. he four properties of the string that affect its freAuency are
length% diameter% tension% and density. hese properties are described
belowE
1. 'hen the length of a string is changed% it will vibrate with a different
freAuency. Shorter strings have higher freAuency and therefore
higher pitch. 'hen a musician presses her finger on a string% she
shortens its length. he more fingers she adds to the string% the
shorter she makes it% and the higher the pitch will be.
@. Dia&eter is the thickness of the string. hick strings with large
diameters vibrate slower and have lower freAuencies than thin ones. *
thin string with a 15 millimeter diameter will have a freAuency twice
as high as one with a larger% @5 millimeter diameter. his means that
the thin string will sound one octave above the thicker one.
16
2. * string stretched between two points% such as on a stringed
instrument% will have tension. ension refers to how tightly the string
is stretched. ightening the string gives it a higher freAuency while
loosening it lowers the freAuency. 'hen string players tighten or
loosen their strings% they are altering the pitches to make them in
tune.
4. he density of a string will also affect its freAuency. )emember that
dense molecules vibrate at slower speeds. he more dense the string
is% the slower it will vibrate% and the lower its freAuency will be.
Instruments often have strings made of different materials. he
strings used for low pitches will be made of denser material than the
strings used for high pitches.
17
T". DO++*.R .//.CT
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
,bserve the experiment below and discuss why you hear a
difference when an object is moving% but the sound itself is
not changing.
!uestions
1. If the noise the object makes is not changing% why do you hear
a change&
18
Discussion
Sound and &otion
'hen we are moving% or a source producing a sound is moving% we hear things
differently. "ou may have noticed that a train whistle gets lower as it passes
you. he whistle is not changing pitch% but you are hearing a change. his
principle is known as the Doppler effect. he Doppler effect is named after
the *ustrian physicist% Christian Iohann Doppler% who discovered it.
%hat did Christian 2ohann Do''ler disco#er$
Doppler claimed that if a sound is getting closer to you% either because its
source is approaching you or because you are going towards the source% the
sound will seem higher than it really is. If you are heading away from a
source or it is going away from you% he believed the sound would seem lower
than its actual pitch. o test his theory% scientists hired 1< trumpeters to
play on a moving train. *s the train passed by them% they heard a drop in
pitch% just like Doppler predicted.he Do''ler effect happens because
distance affects the amount of time it takes you to hear the sound. Imagine
you are playing in the park and your friend rolls a ball to you. he ball would
reach you sooner if you walked towards it and later if you moved away from
it. he same is true for sound. )emember that freAuency is wavelengths per
time. If you hear a freAuency in a shorter amount of time% it seems like you
are hearing a higher freAuency. .or example% say you heard a sound that had
<5 wavelengths by the time it reached you% it would have taken it < seconds
to reach you. he freAuency of that sound is <5 divided by <% or 15 Dert#.
Imagine you heard the same sound% but this time you were moving towards
its source and it only took @ seconds for <5 wavelengths to reach you. +ow
the freAuency you hear is <5 divided by @% or @< Dert#. he freAuency
seemed higher because you were moving. If you were not moving% after @
seconds% only @5 wavelengths would have reached you and the freAuency
would still sound like 15 Dert#.
he opposite happens when the distance between you and a source of sound
widens. +ow it takes longer for you to hear a certain amount of wavelengths.
herefore% the freAuency seems lower. he Doppler effect makes a pitch
appear to change when you% or the source% are in motion.
19
SOUND %AV. INT.R/.R.NC.
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain what can happen to the energy of sound waves when
the waves interact.
Compare and contrast constructive interference and
destructive interference.
Explain what a critical angle is.
!uestions
1. 'hat is the difference in sound between the overlap area and
the single color area&
@. 'hat is the difference in sound in the white area&
20
Discussion
%a#e Interference
'hen two or more sound waves from different sources are present at the
same time% they interact with each other to produce a new wave. he new
wave is the sum of all the different waves. 'ave interaction is called
interference. If the compressions and the rarefactions of the two waves
line up% they strengthen each other and create a wave with a higher
intensity. his type of interference is known as constructi#e.
'hen the compressions and rarefactions are out of phase% their interaction
creates a wave with a dampened or lower intensity. his is destructi#e
interference. 'hen waves are interfering with each other destructively% the
sound is louder in some places and softer in others. *s a result% we hear
pulses or beats in the sound.
21
Dead s'ots
'aves can interfere so destructively with one another that they produce
dead s'ots% or places where no sound at all can be heard. Dead spots occur
when the compressions of one wave line up with the rarefactions from
another wave and cancel each other. Engineers who design theaters or
auditoriums must take into account sound wave interference. he shape of
the building or stage and the materials used to build it are chosen based on
interference patterns. hey want every member of the audience to hear
loud% clear sounds.
Sound Tra#eling etween )aterials
)emember that sound travels faster in some materials than others. Sound
waves travel outward in straight lines from their source until something
interferes with their path. 'hen sound changes mediums% or enters a
different material% it is bent from its original direction. his change in angle
of direction is called refraction. )efraction is caused by sound entering the
new medium at an angle. !ecause of the angle% part of the wave enters the
new medium first and changes speed. he difference in speeds causes the
wave to bend.
22
Critical Angle
he angle of refraction depends on the angle that the waves has when it
enters the new medium. *s the angle from the wave to the barrier between
the two mediums gets smaller% the angle of refraction also gets closer to the
barrier. 'hen the wave-s entering angle reaches a certain point% called the
critical angle% the refraction is parallel to the dividing line between the
mediums. he critical angle depends on the two mediums the sound is coming
from and going to. he speed of sound is different in every medium. !ecause
of this% even if the sound hits at the same angle% the angle of refraction will
vary for different mediums. he greater the difference in speed between
the two mediums% the greater the critical angle will be.
If sound hits the new medium with any angle smaller than the critical angle%
it will not be able to enter. Instead it will bounce off% or be reflected% from
the dividing line. 'hen a wave is reflected% it returns with an angle eAual to
the one with which it hit. 'henever sound hits a new medium% part of it is
reflected back. he rest enters the new medium and is refracted. Imagine
sound is traveling through the air and hits the wall of a brick building. Some
of the wave is reflected% but much of it enters the brick. he part of the
wave going through the brick is now going faster than the part in the air.
his is because brick is a solid whose molecules are closer together and can
transmit sound more Auickly. his difference in speeds caused the wave to
bend% or be refracted. Suppose that the wave hits the building with an angle
that is smaller than its critical angle. his time% the wave cannot enter the
brick and all of it is reflected. If the wave struck the wall with an angle of
1< degrees% it would reflect back with the same angle from the other side.
Since there are 175 degrees total% the reflected angle would be 14<
degrees% 1< degrees measured from the other direction.

23
R./RACTION O/ SOUND
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Define sound refraction and why it occurs.
Describe what occurs when a sound wave reaches the critical
angle.

!uestions
1. 'hat happens to sound traveling in one material when it
enters another material at an angle normal to surface between
the two materials /95 degrees to the surface0&
2. 'hat happens to sound traveling in one material when it
enters another material at an angle other than normal to
surface between the two materials&
2. 'hat happens to the sound as the incident angle approaches
being parallel to the surface&
24
Sound tra#eling between &aterials
)emember that sound travels faster in some materials than others. Sound
waves travel outward in straight lines from their source until something
interferes with their path. 'hen sound changes mediums% or enters a
different material% it is bent from its original direction. his change in angle
of direction is called refraction. Refraction is caused by sound entering the
new medium at an angle. !ecause of the angle% part of the wave enters the
new medium first and changes speed. he difference in speeds causes the
wave to bend.
he angle of refraction depends on the angle that the waves has when it
enters the new medium. *s the angle from the wave to the barrier between
the two mediums gets smaller% the angle of refraction also gets closer to the
barrier. 'hen the wave-s entering angle reaches a certain point% called the
critical angle% the refraction is parallel to the dividing line between the
mediums. he critical angle depends on the two mediums the sound is coming
from and going to. he speed of sound is different in every medium. !ecause
of this% even if the sound hits at the same angle% the angle of refraction will
vary for different mediums. he greater the difference in speed between
the two mediums% the greater the critical angle will be.
If sound hits the new medium with any angle smaller than the critical angle%
it will not be able to enter. Instead it will bounce off% or be reflected% from
the dividing line. 'hen a wave is reflected% it returns with an angle eAual to
the one with which it hit. 'henever sound hits a new medium% part of it is
reflected back. he rest enters the new medium and is refracted. Imagine
sound is traveling through the air and hits the wall of a brick building. Some
of the wave is reflected% but much of it enters the brick. he part of the
wave going through the brick is now going faster than the part in the air.
his is because brick is a solid whose molecules are closer together and can
transmit sound more Auickly. his difference in speeds caused the wave to
bend% or be refracted. Suppose that the wave hits the building with an angle
that is smaller than its critical angle. his time% the wave cannot enter the
brick and all of it is reflected. If the wave struck the wall with an angle of
1< degrees% it would reflect back with the same angle from the other side.
Since there are 175 degrees total% the reflected angle would be 14<
degrees% 1< degrees measured from the other direction.
25

R./*.CTION O/ SOUND
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
,bserve the experiment below and explain why the wave
reacts differently depending on what surface it hits.
Discuss how echoes are made.
!uestions
1. 'hat happens when a sound wave hits a concave shaped
surface&
@. Is the sound reflected back to the source from a concave
shaped surface more or less than that reflected from a flat
surface&
2. 'hat happens when a sound wave hits the porous surface&
3. 'hat happens when a sound wave hits an irregular surface&
26
Discussion
Reflection
'hen sound reflects off a special curved surface called a 'arabola% it will
bounce out in a straight line no matter where it originally hits. Bany stages
are designed as parabolas so the sound will go directly into the audience%
instead of bouncing around on stage. If the parabola is closed off by another
curved surface% it is called an elli'se. Sound will travel from one focus to the
other% no matter where it strikes the wall. * whispering gallery is designed
as an ellipse. If your friend stands at one focus and you stand at the other%
his whisper will be heard clearly by you. +o one in the rest of the room will
hear anything.
)eflection is responsible for many interesting phenomena. .choes are the
sound of your own voice reflecting back to your ears. he sound you hear
ringing in an auditorium after the band has stopped playing is caused by
reflection off the walls and other objects. * sound wave will continue to
bounce around a room% or reverberate% until it has lost all its energy. * wave
has some of its energy absorbed by the objects it hits. he rest is lost as
heat energy.
Sound Absor'tion
Everything% even air% absorbs sound. ,ne example of air absorbing sound
waves happens during a thunderstorm. 'hen you are very close to a storm%
you hear thunder as a sharp crack. 'hen the storm is farther away% you
hear a low rumble instead. his is because air absorbs high freAuencies more
easily than low. !y the time the thunder has reached you% all the high pitches
are lost and only the low ones can be heard. he best absorptive material is
full of holes that sound waves can bounce around in and lose energy. he
energy lost as heat is too small to be felt% though% it can be detected by
scientific instruments.
27
"ow does sound reach e#ery 'oint in the roo&$
Since sound travels in a straight path from its source% how does it get
around corners& "ou already know that if you and your friend are standing on
either side of a wall and there is an open door nearby% you will be able to
hear what your friend says. !ecause you would not hear your friend if the
door was closed% sound is not traveling through the wall. Instead% it must be
going around the corner and out the door.
"ou hear your friend because of sound diffraction. Diffraction uses the
edges of a barrier as a secondary sound source that sends waves in a new
direction. hese secondary waves overlap and interfere with each other and
the original waves% making the sound less clear. 'orking together%
diffraction and reflection can send sounds to every part of a room.

28
+U*S.3.C"O U*TRASONIC T.ST
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain what a pulse;echo ultrasonic test is measuring.
In general terms% explain how a pulse;echo ultrasonic test is
completed.
=erform your own simulated pulse;echo ultrasonic test and be
able to communicate what is happening.
29
0our Turn 3 Try this nor&al bea& test
* pulse;echo ultrasonic measurement can determine the location of a
discontinuity with a part or structure by accurately measuring the time
reAuired for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel
through a thickness of the material. hen it reflects from the back or
surface of a discontinuity and is returned to the transducer.
he applet below allows you to move the transducer on the surface of a
stainless steel test block and see the reflected echoes as the would appear
on an oscilloscope.
%hat the gra'hs tell us$
he ultrasonic tester graphs a peak of energy whenever the transducer
receives a reflected wave. *s you recall% sound is reflected any time a wave
changes mediums. hus% there will be a peak anytime the waves change
mediums. )ight when the initial pulse of energy is sent from the tester%
some is reflected as the ultrasonic waves go from the transducer into the
couplant. he first peak is therefore said to record the energy of the initial
pulse. he next peak in a material with no defects is the backwall peak. his
is the reflection from waves changing between the bottom of the test
material and the material behind it% such as air or the table it is on. he
backwall peak will not have as much energy as the first pulse% because some
of the energy is absorbed by the test object and some into the material
behind it.
he amount of distance between peaks on the graph can be used to locate
the defects. If the graph has 15 divisions and the test object is @ inches
thick% each division represents 5.@ inches. If a defect peak occurs at the
7th division% we know the defect is located 1.4 /5.@ x 70 inches into the test
object.
30
%hat if the thic(ness is un(nown$
If the thickness of the object is unknown% it can be calculated using the
amount of time it takes for the backwall peak to occur. he thickness of the
object is traveled twice in that time% once to the backwall and once
returning to the transducer. If we know the speed of our sound% then we can
calculate the distance it traveled% which is the thickness of the object times
two.
%hat ha''ens when a defect is 'resent$
If a defect is present% it will reflect energy sooner also. *nother peak would
then appear from the defect. Since it reflected energy sooner than the
back wall% the defect(s energy would be received sooner. his causes the
defect peak to appear before the backwall peak. Since some of the energy is
absorbed and reflected by the defect% less will reach the backwall. hus the
peak of the backwall will be lower than if had there been no defect
interrupting the sound wave.
'hen the wave returns to the transducer% some of its energy bounces back
into the test object and heads towards the back wall again. his second
reflection will produce peaks similar to the first set of backwall peaks. Some
of the energy% however% has been lost% so the height of all the peaks will be
lower. hese reflections% called multiples% will continue until all the sound
energy has been absorbed or lost through transmission across the
interfaces.

Re#iew
1. * pulse;echo ultrasonic test can locate a discontinuity in a
material.
2. During a pulse;echo ultrasonic test the time is measured to
see how long it takes a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a material% and then it is
reflected from the back or surface of a discontinuity and is
returned to the transducer.
31
U*TRASOUND AND U*TRASONIC T.STIN4
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Define the acronym J+D.J
Explain how sound is used in +D to find flaws.
Explain how sound is used in +D to measure material
thickness.
%hy is it i&'ortant to understand sound$
here are many uses for sound in the world today. 'e have already
mentioned a few. Busicians can benefit from a greater understanding of
sound% architects must understand sound to design effective auditoriums%
detectives can use sound to identify people% and many new types of
technology apply sound recognition. *nother use of sound is in the area of
science called +ondestructive testing% or +D.
%hat is NDT$
+ondestructive testing is a method of finding defects in an object without
harming the object. ,ften finding these defects is a very important task. In
the aircraft industry% +D is used to look for internal changes or signs of
wear on airplanes. Discovering defects will increase the safety of the
passengers. he railroad industry also uses nondestructive testing to
examine railway rails for signs of damage. Internally cracked rails could
fracture and derail a train carrying wheat% coal% or even people. If an
airplane or a rail had to be cut into pieces to be examined% it would destroy
their usefulness. 'ith +D% defects may be found before they become
dangerous.
32
"ow is ultrasound used in NDT$
Sound with high freAuencies% or ultrasound% is one method
used in +D. !asically% ultrasonic waves are emitted from a
transducer into an object and the returning waves are
analy#ed. If an impurity or a crack is present% the sound will
bounce off of them and be seen in the returned signal. In
order to create ultrasonic waves% a transducer contains a
thin disk made of a crystalline material with pie#oelectric
properties% such as Auart#. 'hen electricity is applied to
pie#oelectric materials% they begin to vibrate% using the
electrical energy to create movement. )emember that waves
travel in every direction from the source. o keep the waves
from going backwards into the transducer and interfering
with its reception of returning waves% an absorptive material is layered
behind the crystal. hus% the ultrasound waves only travel outward.
,ne type of ultrasonic testing places the transducer in contact with the test
object. If the transducer is placed flat on a surface to locate defects% the
waves will go straight into the material% bounce off a flat back wall and
return straight to the transducer. he animation on the right% developed by
+D*% 'ellington% +ew Kealand% illustrates that sound waves propagate into
a object being tested and reflected waves return from discontinuities along
the sonic path. Some of the energy will be absorbed by the material% but
some of it will return to the transducer.
Cltrasonic measurements can be used to determine the thickness of
materials and determine the location of a discontinuity within a part or
structure by accurately measuring the time reAuired for a ultrasonic pulse
to travel through the material and reflect from the backsurface or the
discontinuity.
'hen the mechanical sound energy comes back to the transducer% it is
converted into electrical energy. Iust as the pie#oelectric crystal converted
electrical energy into sound energy% it can also do the reverse. he
mechanical vibrations in the material couple to the pie#oelectric crystal
which% in turn% generates electrical current.
33
0our Turn 3 Try this nor&al bea& test
* pulse;echo ultrasonic measurement can determine the location of a
discontinuity with a part or structure by accurately measuring the time
reAuired for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel
through a thickness of the material. hen it reflects from the back or
surface of a discontinuity and is returned to the transducer.
he applet below allows you to move the transducer on the surface of a
stainless steel test block and see the reflected echoes as the would appear
on an oscilloscope.
%hat the gra'hs tell us$
he ultrasonic tester graphs a peak of energy whenever the transducer
receives a reflected wave. *s you recall% sound is reflected any time a wave
changes mediums. hus% there will be a peak anytime the waves change
mediums. )ight when the initial pulse of energy is sent from the tester%
some is reflected as the ultrasonic waves go from the transducer into the
couplant. he first peak is therefore said to record the energy of the initial
pulse. he next peak in a material with no defects is the backwall peak. his
is the reflection from waves changing between the bottom of the test
material and the material behind it% such as air or the table it is on. he
backwall peak will not have as much energy as the first pulse% because some
of the energy is absorbed by the test object and some into the material
behind it.
he amount of distance between peaks on the graph can be used to locate
the defects. If the graph has 15 divisions and the test object is @ inches
thick% each division represents 5.@ inches. If a defect peak occurs at the
34
7th division% we know the defect is located 1.4 /5.@ x 70 inches into the test
object.
%hat if the thic(ness is un(nown$
If the thickness of the object is unknown% it can be calculated using the
amount of time it takes for the back wall peak to occur. he thickness of
the object is traveled twice in that time% once to the back wall and once
returning to the transducer. If we know the speed of our sound% then we can
calculate the distance it traveled% which is the thickness of the object times
two.
%hat ha''ens when a defect is 'resent$
If a defect is present% it will reflect energy sooner also. *nother peak would
then appear from the defect. Since it reflected energy sooner than the
back wall% the defect(s energy would be received sooner. his causes the
defect peak to appear before the backwall peak. Since some of the energy is
absorbed and reflected by the defect% less will reach the backwall. hus the
peak of the backwall will be lower than had there been no defect
interrupting the sound wave.
'hen the wave returns to the transducer% some of its energy bounces back
into the test object and heads towards the back wall again. his second
reflection will produce peaks similar to the first set of backwall peaks. Some
of the energy% however% has been lost% so the height of all the peaks will be
lower. hese reflections% called multiples% will continue until all the sound
energy has been absorbed or lost through transmission across the
interfaces.
35
AN4*. .A) T.STIN4
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain why it is important to know about sound refraction and
Snell(s $aw when performing an angle beam inspection.
Explain what a shear wave is.
,ften straight beam testing will not find a defect. .or example% if the
defect is vertical and thin enough% it will not reflect enough sound back to
the transducer to let the tester know that it exists. In cases like this%
another method of ultrasound testing must be used. he other method of
ultrasound testing is angle beam testing. Angle bea& testing uses an
incidence of other than 95 degrees. In contact testing% an angled plastic
block is place between the transducer and the object to create the desired
angle. .or angle beam testing in immersion systems% a plastic block is not
needed because the transducer can simply be angled in the water.
If the angle of incidence is changed to be anything other than 95 degrees%
longitudinal waves and a second type of sound wave are produced. hese
other waves are called shear wa#es. !ecause the wave entered at an angle% it
does not all travel directly through the material. Bolecules in the test
object are attracted to each other because solids have strong molecular
bonds. he molecules carrying the sound are attracted to their surrounding
molecules. !ecause of the angle% those sound carrying molecules get pulled
by attracting forces in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the
wave. his produces shear waves% or waves whose molecules travel
perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
36
*ngle beam testing and a change in the angle of incidence also creates
further complications. )emember that when a wave hits a surface at an
angle% it will be refracted% or bent% when it enters the new medium. hus% the
shear waves and the longitudinal waves will be refracted in the test object.
he amount of refraction depends on the speed of sound in the two mediums
between which the wave is traveling. Since the speed of shear waves is
slower than the speed of longitudinal waves% their angles of refraction will
be different. !y using Snell-s law% we can calculate the angle of refraction if
we know the speed of sound in our material.
Re#iew
1. *n angle beam test cannot be performed unless the angle of
refraction is calculted using Snell(s law% and the speed of
sound must be known too.
2. Shear waves are produced when the angle of incidence is not
95 degrees.
37
I)).RSION U*TRASONIC T.STIN4
After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain what an immersion ultrasonic test is and why they are
needed in +D.
*nother way to couple the sound from transducer to a
test object is coupling the sound with water. his can be
done with sAuirters where the sound travels through a
jet of water or by immersing the transducer and test
object in a tank of water. !oth techniAues are called
immersion testing. In i&&ersion testing% the transducer
is placed in the water% above the test object% and a beam
of sound is projected.
he graph of peaks using the immersion method is slightly different.
!etween the initial pulse and the back wall peaks there will be an additional
peak caused by the sound wave going from the water to the test material.
his additional peak is called the front wall peak. he ultrasonic tester can
be adjusted to ignore the initial pulse peak% so the first peak it will show is
the front wall peak. Some energy is lost when the waves hit the test
material% so the front wall peak is slightly lower than the peak of the initial
pulse.
Cltrasonic testing is an +D test techniAue that interrogates components
and structures to detect internal and surface breaking defects% and
measures wall thickness on hard /typically metallic or ceramic0 components
and structures.
38
"ow does ultrasonic testing wor($
Cltrasonic operates on the principle of injecting a very short pulse of
ultrasound /typically between 5.1 BD# and 155 Bh#0 into a component or
structure% and then receiving and analy#ing any reflected sound pulses.
Conventionally% an operator scans a transducer over the surface of the
component in such a way that he inspects all the area that is reAuired to be
tested by means of a scanning motion. he inspection relies on the training
and integrity of the operator to ensure that he has inspected all that is
necessary.
;;;;;;;;;;
Sound pulses reflected from features within the component or structure are
conventionally displayed on a screen. he operator also has to interpret
these signals and report if the component or structure is defective or
acceptable according to the test specification that he is given.
ypical detection limits for fine grained steel structures or components
/hand scanning0 are single millimeter si#ed defects. Smaller defects can be
detected by immersion testing and a programmed scan pattern with higher
freAuency ultrasound /slower testing0. Detection limits are in the order of
5.1 to 5.@ mm% although smaller defects /typically 5.53mm diameter0 can be
detected under laboratory conditions.
Re#iew
39
1. Immersion testing is completed with sAuirters where the
sound travels through a jet of water or by taking the
transducer and test object and immersing them in a tank of
water
40