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to
equal V
+
= Vin. Consequently the op amp behaves like a per-
fect voltage follower.
Understanding how the second rule is actually satisfied is
particularly easy for the follower. If the output Vout were to deviate low, V
+
V
< 0 and the amplifier would drive its output lower, once again reestablishing
Vin = Vout. If the input voltage Vin were to change, Vin = Vout would be similarly reestablished.
5
Op Amp Inverting Amplifiers
A second simple op amp circuit is the inverting amplifier.
Since the non-inverting input V
+
is tied to ground, and the
second golden rule insists that V
+
= V
must also be at ground. As this ground is enforced by the op
amp itself rather than by any physical connection to ground,
it is often called a virtual ground. The current flowing into
the V
end of
R2 is at virtual ground, the output of the op amp must be at Vout = R2I = R2Vin/R1. Thus the gain of
the circuit is R2/R1.
Golden Rule Limitations
The golden rules apply only to circuits which satisfy the following requirements:
1. The circuit must use negative feedback.
2. There must be feedback at DC.
3. The feedback must not push the output into saturation. (The golden rules must not demand that
the output voltage be greater than the power supply voltages.)
Several circuits in this and the following labs will illustrate these limitations.
5
Since V
+
V
, one might
conclude that the output voltage Vout must also be zero. But remember that an ideal-op amps gain is
infinite. Since zero times infinity is undefined, it is not contradictory to set V
+
V
= 0 and Vout 0.
More realistically, the op amps finite gain means that the error voltage V
+
V
= Vout/G and Vout = Vin/(1+1/G) for an op amp with gain G. As G is enormous for most op amps,
the follower is essentially perfect.
6
Because of Kirchoffs current law.
V
out
V
in
V
out
V
in
R
2
R
1
Last Revision: August 2013 Page 3 of 10
2013 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
Physics 111 BSC Laboratory Lab 6 Op Amps I
Comparators and Hysteresis
A comparator is a circuit that compares two voltages. An op amp used without feedback can func-
tion as a comparator. When V
+
V