Potato

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also potato (disambiguation) or Irish potato candy.
Page semi-protected
Potato
Potato cultivars appear in a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species: S. tuberosum
Binomial name
Solanum tuberosum
L.
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tub
erosum L. The word "potato" may refer to the plant itself in addition to the edi
ble tuber. In the Andes, where the species is indigenous, there are some other c
losely related cultivated potato species. Potatoes were introduced outside the A
ndes region four centuries ago,[1] and have become an integral part of much of t
he world's food supply. It is the world's fourth-largest food crop, following ma
ize, wheat and rice.[2]
Wild potato species occur throughout the Americas, from the United States to sou
thern Chile.[3] The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated ind
ependently in multiple locations,[4] but later genetic testing of the wide varie
ty of cultivars and wild species proved a single origin for potatoes in the area
of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia (from a species i
n the Solanum brevicaule complex), where they were domesticated 7,00010,000 years
ago.[5][6][7] Following centuries of selective breeding, there are now over a t
housand different types of potatoes.[6] Over 99% of the presently cultivated pot
atoes worldwide are descended from varieties that originated in the lowlands of
south-central Chile, which have displaced formerly popular varieties from the An
dean highlands.[8][9]
The annual diet of an average person in the first decade of the 21st century inc
luded about 33 kg (73 lb) of potato.[2] However, the local importance of potato
is extremely variable and rapidly changing. It remains an essential crop in Euro
pe (especially eastern and central Europe), where per capita production is still
the highest in the world, but the most rapid expansion over the past few decade
s has occurred in southern and eastern Asia. China is now the world's largest po
tato-producing country, and nearly a third of the world's potatoes are harvested
in China and India.[10]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Characteristics
3 Genetics
4 History
5 Role in world food supply
6 Nutrition
6.1 Comparison to other major staple foods
6.2 Toxicity
7 Growth and cultivation
7.1 Storage
7.2 Yield
7.3 Varieties
8 Genetically modified potatoes
9 Pests
9.1 Pesticides
10 Uses
10.1 Culinary uses
11 Art
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
14.1 Sources
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology
"Spud" redirects here. For other uses, see Spud (disambiguation).
The English word potato comes from Spanish patata (the name used in Spain). The
Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a compound of the Taino batata (s
weet potato) and the Quechua papa (potato).[11] The name potato originally refer
red to a type of sweet potato rather than the other way around, although there i
s actually no close relationship between the two plants. The English confused th
e two plants one for the other. In many of the chronicles detailing agriculture
and plants, no distinction is made between the two.[12] The 16th-century English
herbalist John Gerard used the terms "bastard potatoes" and "Virginia potatoes"
for this species, and referred to sweet potatoes as "common potatoes".[13] Pota
toes are occasionally referred to as "Irish potatoes" or "white potatoes" in the
United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes.[13]
The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prio
r to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally
(c. 1440) used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to Dutch
spyd and/or the Latin "spad-" root meaning "sword"; cf. Spanish "espada", Engli
sh "spade" and "spadroon". The word spud traces back to the 16th century. It sub
sequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845 it transfe
rred over to the tuber itself.[14] The origin of "spud" has erroneously been att
ributed to a 19th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of
Britain, calling itself The Society for the Prevention of an Unwholesome Diet.[1
4] It was Mario Pei's 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the fals
e origin. Pei writes, "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries
ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Preven
tion of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise
to spud." Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this one is false
.[14]
Characteristics
Flowers of a potato plant
Russet potatoes with sprouts
Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm (24 in) high, depe
nding on variety, the culms dying back after flowering. They bear white, pink, r
ed, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens. In general, the tubers of varie
ties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored
flowers tend to have pinkish skins.[15] Potatoes are cross-pollinated mostly by
insects, including bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, but
a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response
to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commerci
al varieties.[16]
Potato plants
After potato plants flower, some varieties produce small green fruits that resem
ble green cherry tomatoes, each containing up to 300 true seeds. Potato fruit co
ntains large amounts of the toxic alkaloid solanine and is therefore unsuitable
for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "tru
e seed" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. By finely choppi
ng the fruit and soaking it in water, the seeds separate from the flesh by sinki
ng to the bottom after about a day (the remnants of the fruit float). Any potato
variety can also be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tuber
s, cut to include at least one or two eyes, or also by cuttings, a practice used
in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Some commercial potat
o varieties do not produce seeds at all (they bear imperfect flowers) and are pr
opagated only from tuber pieces. Confusingly, these tubers or tuber pieces are c
alled "seed potatoes," because the potato itself functions as "seed".
Genetics
There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide. Three thousand of them are fou
nd in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. Th
ey belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart fro
m the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecie
s, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties, which has been don
e repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene
pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species. Genetically
modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and in the E
uropean Union.[17][18]
The major species grown worldwide is Solanum tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chr
omosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated.
There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): S. stenotomum, S. phu
reja, S. goniocalyx, and S. ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 c
hromosomes): S. chaucha and S. juzepczukii. There is one pentaploid cultivated s
pecies (with 60 chromosomes): S. curtilobum. There are two major subspecies of S
olanum tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean.[19] The Andean
potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equa
torial and tropical regions where it originated. The Chilean potato, native to t
he Chilo Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the high
er latitude region of southern Chile.[20]
The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds an ISO-accredited co
llection of potato germplasm.[21] The international Potato Genome Sequencing Con
sortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato
genome.[22] The potato genome contains 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs
making it a medium-sized plant genome.[23] More than 99 percent of all current
varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies tha
t once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile.[24] Nonetheless, genetic tes
ting of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato s
ubspecies derive from a single origin in the area of present-day southern Peru a
nd extreme northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the Solanum brevicaule comple
x).[5][6][7]
Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement
and not independently from the South American sources. However, at least one wil
d potato species, Solanum fendleri, is found as far north as Texas and used in b
reeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A
secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where importan
t wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, suc
h as the hexaploid Solanum demissum, as a source of resistance to the devastatin
g late blight disease.[25] Another relative native to this region, Solanum bulbo
castanum, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blig
ht.[26]
Potatoes yield abundantly with little effort, and adapt readily to diverse clima
tes as long as the climate is cool and moist enough for the plants to gather suf
ficient water from the soil to form the starchy tubers. Potatoes do not keep ver
y well in storage and are vulnerable to molds that feed on the stored tubers, qu
ickly turning them rotten. By contrast, grain can be stored for several years wi
thout much risk of rotting.[27]
History
Main article: History of the potato
The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and
extreme northwestern Bolivia[5] between 8000 and 5000 BC.[6] It has since spread
around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.
According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsi
ble for a quarter of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between
1700 and 1900.[28] Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spani
sh introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century. The s
taple was subsequently conveyed by European mariners to territories and ports th
roughout the world. The potato was slow to be adopted by distrustful European fa
rmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that pl
ayed a major role in the European 19th century population boom.[7] However, lack
of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially int
roduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as
late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora infestans, spread r
apidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland, resulting in the crop
failures that led to the Great Irish Famine.[25] Thousands of varieties still pe
rsist in the Andes however, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single
valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural househo
ld.[29]
Role in world food supply
Potato yield in producing countries, 2000
Top Potato Producers
in 2011
(million metric tons)
People's Republic of China 88.4
India 42.3
Russia 32.7
Ukraine 24.2
United States 19.4
Germany 11.8
Bangladesh 8.3
Poland 8.2
France 8.0
Belarus 7.7
World Total 374.4
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation
(FAO)[2]
The United Nations FAO reports that the world production of potatoes in 2010 was
about 324 million tonnes.[30] Just over two thirds of the global production is
eaten directly by humans with the rest being fed to animals or used to produce s
tarch. This means that the annual diet of an average global citizen in the first
decade of the 21st century included about 33 kg (or 73 lb) of potato.[2] Howeve
r, the local importance of potato is extremely variable and rapidly changing. It
remains an essential crop in Europe (especially eastern and central Europe), wh
ere per capita production is still the highest in the world, but the most rapid
expansion over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia. C
hina is now the world's largest potato-producing country, and nearly a third of
the world's potatoes are harvested in China and India.[10] The geographic shift
of potato production has been away from wealthier countries toward lower-income
areas of the world, although the degree of this trend is ambiguous.[31]
In 2008, several international organizations highlighted the potato's role in wo
rld food production, in the face of developing economic problems. They cited its
potential derived from its status as a cheap and plentiful crop that grows in a
wide variety of climates and locales.[32] Due to perishability, only about 5% o
f the world's potato crop is traded internationally; its minimal presence in wor
ld financial markets contributed to its stable pricing during the 20072008 world
food price crisis.[33][34] Thus, the United Nations officially declared 2008 as
the International Year of the Potato,[35] to raise its profile in developing nat
ions, calling the crop a "hidden treasure".[36] This followed the International
Rice Year in 2004.
Nutrition
Potato, raw, with skin
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 321 kJ (77 kcal)
Carbohydrates
17.47 g
Starch 15.44 g
Dietary fiber 2.2 g
Fat
0.1 g
Protein
2 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1) (7%) 0.08 mg
Riboflavin (B2) (3%) 0.03 mg
Niacin (B3) (7%) 1.05 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(6%) 0.296 mg
Vitamin B6 (23%) 0.295 mg
Folate (B9) (4%) 16 g
Vitamin C (24%) 19.7 mg
Vitamin E (0%) 0.01 mg
Vitamin K (2%) 1.9 g
Trace metals
Calcium (1%) 12 mg
Iron (6%) 0.78 mg
Magnesium (6%) 23 mg
Manganese (7%) 0.153 mg
Phosphorus (8%) 57 mg
Potassium (9%) 421 mg
Sodium (0%) 6 mg
Zinc (3%) 0.29 mg
Other constituents
Water 75 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
The potato contains vitamins and minerals, as well as an assortment of phytochem
icals, such as carotenoids and natural phenols. Chlorogenic acid constitutes up
to 90% of the potato tuber natural phenols. Others found in potatoes are 4-O-caf
feoylquinic acid (crypto-chlorogenic acid), 5-O-caffeoylquinic (neo-chlorogenic
acid), 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acids.[37] A medium-size 15
0 g (5.3 oz) potato with the skin provides 27 mg of vitamin C (45% of the Daily
Value (DV)), 620 mg of potassium (18% of DV), 0.2 mg vitamin B6 (10% of DV) and
trace amounts of thiamin, riboflavin, folate, niacin, magnesium, phosphorus, iro
n, and zinc. The fiber content of a potato with skin (2 g) is equivalent to that
of many whole grain breads, pastas, and cereals.
The potato is best known for its carbohydrate content (approximately 26 grams in
a medium potato). The predominant form of this carbohydrate is starch. A small
but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by enzymes in t
he stomach and small intestine, and so reaches the large intestine essentially i
ntact. This resistant starch is considered to have similar physiological effects
and health benefits as fiber: It provides bulk, offers protection against colon
cancer, improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, lowers plasma chole
sterol and triglyceride concentrations, increases satiety, and possibly even red
uces fat storage.[38][39][40] The amount of resistant starch in potatoes depends
much on preparation methods. Cooking and then cooling potatoes significantly in
creases resistant starch. For example, cooked potato starch contains about 7% re
sistant starch, which increases to about 13% upon cooling.[41]
The cooking method used can significantly affect the nutrient availability of th
e potato.
Potatoes are often broadly classified as high on the glycemic index (GI) and so
are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow a low-GI diet.
In fact, the GI of potatoes can vary considerably depending on type (such as re
d, russet, white, or Prince Edward), origin (where it was grown), preparation me
thods (i.e., cooking method, whether it is eaten hot or cold, whether it is mash
ed or cubed or consumed whole, etc.), and with what it is consumed (i.e., the ad
dition of various high-fat or high-protein toppings).[42]
In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the NHS as counting towards the five p
ortions of fruit and vegetables diet.[43]
Comparison to other major staple foods
The following table shows the nutrient content of potato and other major staple
foods, each in respective raw form. Staple foods are not commonly eaten raw and
are usually sprouted or cooked before eating. In sprouted and cooked form, the r
elative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains may be
different from the values reported in this table.
Nutrient content of major staple foods[44]
STAPLE: Maize / Corn[A] Rice[B] Wheat[C] Potato[D] Cassava[E]
Soybean (Green)[F] Sweet potato[G] Sorghum[H] Yam[Y] Plantain[Z]
Component (per 100g portion) Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount
Amount Amount Amount Amount
Water (g) 10 12 13 79 60 68 77 9
70 65
Energy (kJ) 1528 1528 1369 322 670 615 360 1419
494 511
Protein (g) 9.4 7.1 12.6 2.0 1.4 13.0 1.6 11.3
1.5 1.3
Fat (g) 4.74 0.66 1.54 0.09 0.28 6.8 0.05 3.3 0.17
0.37
Carbohydrates (g) 74 80 71 17 38 11 20
75 28 32
Fiber (g) 7.3 1.3 12.2 2.2 1.8 4.2 3 6.3
4.1 2.3
Sugar (g) 0.64 0.12 0.41 0.78 1.7 0 4.18 0
0.5 15
Calcium (mg) 7 28 29 12 16 197 30 28
17 3
Iron (mg) 2.71 0.8 3.19 0.78 0.27 3.55 0.61 4.4
0.54 0.6
Magnesium (mg) 127 25 126 23 21 65 25 0
21 37
Phosphorus (mg) 210 115 288 57 27 194 47 287
55 34
Potassium (mg) 287 115 363 421 271 620 337 350
816 499
Sodium (mg) 35 5 2 6 14 15 55 6
9 4
Zinc (mg) 2.21 1.09 2.65 0.29 0.34 0.99 0.3 0
0.24 0.14
Copper (mg) 0.31 0.22 0.43 0.11 0.10 0.13 0.15 -
0.18 0.08
Manganese (mg) 0.49 1.09 3.99 0.15 0.38 0.55 0.26 -
0.40 -
Selenium (g) 15.5 15.1 70.7 0.3 0.7 1.5 0.6 0
0.7 1.5
Vitamin C (mg) 0 0 0 19.7 20.6 29 2.4 0
17.1 18.4
Thiamin (mg) 0.39 0.07 0.30 0.08 0.09 0.44 0.08 0.24
0.11 0.05
Riboflavin (mg) 0.20 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.05 0.18 0.06 0.14
0.03 0.05
Niacin (mg) 3.63 1.6 5.46 1.05 0.85 1.65 0.56 2.93
0.55 0.69
Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.42 1.01 0.95 0.30 0.11 0.15 0.80
- 0.31 0.26
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.62 0.16 0.3 0.30 0.09 0.07 0.21 -
0.29 0.30
Folate Total (g) 19 8 38 16 27 165 11 0
23 22
Vitamin A (IU) 214 0 9 2 13 180 14187 0
138 1127
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg) 0.49 0.11 1.01 0.01 0.19
0 0.26 0 0.39 0.14
Vitamin K1 (g) 0.3 0.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 0 1.8 0
2.6 0.7
Beta-carotene (g) 97 0 5 1 8 0 8509
0 83 457
Lutein+zeaxanthin (g) 1355 0 220 8 0 0 0
0 0 30
Saturated fatty acids (g) 0.67 0.18 0.26 0.03 0.07 0.79
0.02 0.46 0.04 0.14
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) 1.25 0.21 0.2 0.00 0.08 1.28
0.00 0.99 0.01 0.03
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) 2.16 0.18 0.63 0.04 0.05 3.20
0.01 1.37 0.08 0.07
A corn, yellow
B rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched
C wheat, hard red winter
D potato, flesh and skin, raw
E cassava, raw
F soybeans, green, raw
G sweet potato, raw, unprepared
H sorghum, raw
Y yam, raw
Z plantains, raw
Toxicity
Early Rose variety seed tuber with sprouts
Potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prev
alent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is also found in other plants in the
family Solanaceae, which includes such plants as the deadly nightshade (Atropa b
elladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotiana) as well as the po
tato, eggplant, and tomato. This toxin affects the nervous system, causing weakn
ess and confusion.[citation needed]
These compounds, which protect the plant from its predators, are, in general, co
ncentrated in its leaves, stems, sprouts, and fruits.[45] Exposure to light, phy
sical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber;[46] the h
ighest concentrations occur just underneath the skin. Cooking at high temperatur
es over 170 C (340 F) partly destroys these. The concentration of glycoalkaloid in w
ild potatoes suffices to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloids may cau
se headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and in severe cases coma and death; however, poi
soning from potatoes occurs very rarely. Light exposure causes greening from chl
orophyll synthesis, thus giving a visual clue as to areas of the tuber that may
have become more toxic; however, this does not provide a definitive guide, as gr
eening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other. Som
e varieties of potato contain greater glycoalkaloid concentrations than others;
breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard a
n otherwise promising cultivar.
The toxic fruits produced by mature potato plants
Breeders try to keep solanine levels below 200 mg/kg (200 ppmw). However, when t
hese commercial varieties turn green, even they can approach concentrations of s
olanine of 1000 mg/kg (1000 ppmw). In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solani
ne levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with 7187 mg/kg bein
g found.[47] While a normal potato has 1220 mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a gre
en tuber contains 250280 mg/kg, and green skin 15002200 mg/kg.[48]
The U.S. National Toxicology Program suggests that the average American consume
at most 12.5 mg/day of solanine from potatoes (the toxic dose is actually severa
l times this, depending on body weight). Douglas L. Holt, the State Extension Sp
ecialist for Food Safety at the University of Missouri, notes that no reported c
ases of potato-source solanine poisoning have occurred in the U.S. in the last 5
0 years, and most cases involved eating green potatoes or drinking potato-leaf t
ea.[citation needed]
Growth and cultivation
Potato planting
Potato field in Fort Fairfield, Maine
Potatoes grown in a tall bag are common in gardens as they minimize the amount o
f digging required at harvest
Potatoes are generally grown from seed potatoes these are tubers specifically gr
own to be disease free and provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease
free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the USA
this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of the 50 stat
es that grow potatoes.[49] These locations are selected for their cold hard wint
ers that kill pests and long sunshine hours in the summer for optimum growth. In
the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland in areas where westerly winds
prevent aphid attack and thus prevent spread of potato virus pathogens.[50] Pota
to growth has been divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts eme
rge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second, photosynth
esis begins as the plant develops leaves and branches. In the third phase stolon
s develop from lower leaf axils on the stem and grow downwards into the ground a
nd on these stolons new tubers develop as swellings of the stolon. This phase is
often (but not always) associated with flowering. Tuber formation halts when so
il temperatures reach 27 C (81 F); hence potatoes are considered a cool-season cro
p.[51] Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins inves
ting the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this stage, se
veral factors are critical to yield: optimal soil moisture and temperature, soil
nutrient availability and balance, and resistance to pest attacks. The final ph
ase is maturation: The plant canopy dies back, the tuber skins harden, and their
sugars convert to starches.[52]
New tubers may arise at the soil surface. Since exposure to light leads to green
ing of the skins and the development of solanine, growers are interested in cove
ring such tubers. Commercial growers usually address this problem by piling addi
tional soil around the base of the plant as it grows ("hilling", or in British E
nglish "earthing up"). An alternative method used by home gardeners and smaller-
scale growers involves covering the growing area with organic mulches such as st
raw or with plastic sheets.[52]
Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good grou
nd preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a
little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowi
ngs, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Elimi
nating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potato
es themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home
gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of moun
ded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, you
ng plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are 'ro
gued' in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different var
iety from the seed crop.
Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even co
ld weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rottin
g, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.
At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-pr
ong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar
to the graip but with tines at a 90 angle to the handle. In larger plots, the pl
ow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is ty
pically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surround
ing earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links sever
al feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area
where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this
point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blo
wer system or "Flying Willard" to separate the potatoes from the plant. The resu
lt is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, sto
nes, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wag
on or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unlo
aded from the field vehicles and put into storage.
Immature potatoes may be sold as "new potatoes" and are particularly valued for
taste. These are often harvested by the home gardener or farmer by "grabbling",
i.e. pulling out the young tubers by hand while leaving the plant in place.
Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the pr
ocess by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Pota
to tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage d
uring harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and a
ny wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tube
rs during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures 50 to
60 C (122 to 140 F) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.[
53]
Storage
Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and
slow the natural process of decomposition, which involves the breakdown of starc
h. It is crucial that the storage area is dark, well ventilated and for long-ter
m storage maintained at temperatures near 4 C (39 F). For short-term storage befor
e cooking, temperatures of about 7 to 10 C (45 to 50 F) are preferred.[54] [55]
On the other hand, temperatures below 4 C (39 F) convert potatoes' starch into sug
ar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamid
e levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishesthe discovery of a
crylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to many international health concern
s as they are believed to be possible carcinogens and their occurrence in cooked
foods is currently under study as a possible influence in potential health prob
lems.[a][56]
Under optimum conditions possible in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stor
ed for up to ten to twelve months.[54] When stored in homes, the shelf life is u
sually only a few weeks.[55] If potatoes develop green areas or start to sprout,
these areas should be trimmed before using.[55] Trimming or peeling green areas
are inadequate to remove copresent toxins, and such potatoes are no longer suit
able as animal food.[57][58]
Commercial storage of potatoes involves several phases: drying of surface moistu
re; a wound healing phase at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below
25 C (77 F); a staged cooling phase; a holding phase; and a reconditioning phase,
during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Mechanical ventilation is used at va
rious points during the process to prevent condensation and accumulation of carb
on dioxide.[54]
Yield
The world dedicated 18.6 million hectares in 2010 for potato cultivation. The av
erage world farm yield for potato was 17.4 tonnes per hectare, in 2010. Potato f
arms in the United States were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide av
erage of 44.3 tonnes per hectare.[59] United Kingdom was a close second.
New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the
world, ranging between 60 to 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88
tonnes potatoes per hectare.[60][61][62]
There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even wit
h the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies range
s between 3844 tonnes per hectare. The two largest producers of potato, China and
India which accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, had yield
s of 14.7 and 19.9 tonnes per hectare respectively.[59] The yield gap between fa
rms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity lo
ss of over 400 million tonnes of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world po
tato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop b
reed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment.
Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the y
ield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developi
ng world.[63][64]
Varieties
Bamberg potatoes
Organically grown Russet Burbanks
While there are close to 4000 different varieties of potato,[65] it has been bre
d into many standard or well-known varieties, each of which has particular agric
ultural or culinary attributes. In general, varieties are categorized into a few
main groups, such as russets, reds, whites, yellows (also called Yukons) and pu
rplesbased on common characteristics. Around 80 varieties are commercially availa
ble in the UK.[66] For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by
their waxiness. Floury, or mealy (baking) potatoes have more starch (2022%) than
waxy (boiling) potatoes (1618%). The distinction may also arise from variation in
the comparative ratio of two potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in
water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that con
tain a slightly higher amylopectin content, a highly branched molecule, help the
potato retain its shape when boiled.[67]
The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative databa
se of potato variety descriptions, updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricu
ltural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme
for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)which is run by the International Pl
ant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).[68]
Popular varieties (cultivars) include:
Adirondack Blue
Adirondack Red
Agata
Almond
Alpine Russet
Alturas
Amandine
Annabelle
Anya
Arran Victory
Atlantic
Austrian Crescent
Avalanche
Bamberg
Bannock Russet
Belle de Fontenay
BF-15
Bildtstar
Bintje
Blazer Russet
Blue Congo
Bonnotte
British Queens
Cabritas
Camota
Canela Russet
Cara
Carola
Chelina
Chilo[69]
Cielo
Clavela Blanca
Dsire
Estima
Fianna
Fingerling
Flava
French Fingerling
German Butterball
Golden Wonder
Goldrush
Home Guard
Innovator
Irish Cobbler
Irish Lumper
Jersey Royal
Kennebec
Kerr's Pink
Kestrel
Keuka Gold
King Edward
Kipfler
Lady Balfour
Langlade
Linda potato
Marcy
Marfona
Maris Piper
Marquis
Megachip
Monalisa
Nicola
Norgold Russet[70]
Pachacoa
Pike
Pink Eye
Pink Fir Apple
Primura
Ranger Russet
Ratte
Record
Red La Soda
Red Norland
Red Pontiac
Rooster
Russet Burbank
Russet Norkotah
Selma
Shepody
Sieglinde
Silverton Russet
Sirco
Snowden
Spunta
Up to date
Stobrawa
Superior
Villetta Rose
Vivaldi
Vitelotte
Yellow Finn
Yukon Gold
Blue varieties
Two dark-skinned potatoes on a white plate. A further potato is cut into section
s to show the variety's purple-blue flesh, placed at lower-right on the plate.
Potato variety "Blue Swede"
The blue potato (or purple potato) originated in South America. It has purple sk
in and flesh, which becomes blue once cooked. It has a slight whitish scab that
seems to be present in all samples. The variety, called "Cream of the Crop", has
been introduced into Ireland and has proved popular.[71]
A mutation in the varieties' P locus causes production of the antioxidant anthoc
yanin.[72]
Genetically modified potatoes
Genetic research has produced several genetically modified varieties. 'New Leaf'
, owned by Monsanto Company, incorporates genes from Bacillus thuringiensis, whi
ch confers resistance to the Colorado potato beetle; 'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Le
af Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resista
nce to viruses. McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble announc
ed they would not use genetically modified potatoes, and Monsanto published its
intent to discontinue the line in March 2001.[73]
Waxy potato varieties produce two main kinds of potato starch, amylose and amylo
pectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. The German chemical com
pany BASF created the Amflora potato, which has been modified to contain antisen
se against the enzyme that drives synthesis of amylose, namely granule bound sta
rch synthase.[74] This resulting potato almost exclusively produces amylopectin,
and thus is more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commissi
on cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industria
l purposes onlynot for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries h
ave the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their
territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic
and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent
years.[75] Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was ma
de resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which
originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum.[76][77] In Octobe
r 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from
the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF.[78][79]
In 2010, a team of Indian scientists announced they had developed a genetically
modified potato with 35 to 60% more protein than non-modified potatoes. Protein
content was boosted by adding the gene AmA1 from the grain amaranth. They also f
ound 15 to 25% greater crop yields with these potatoes.[80] The researchers expe
cted that a key market for the GM potato would be the developing world, where mo
re than a billion people are chronically undernourished.[81]
In May 2013, the J.R. Simplot Company sought USDA approval for their "Innate" po
tatoes, which contain 10 genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce
less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the inserted genetic mat
erial comes from cultivated or wild potatoes, and leads to RNA interference, whi
ch prevents certain proteins from being formed.[82][83][84]
Pests
Main article: List of potato diseases
A potato ruined by late blight
The historically significant Phytophthora infestans (late blight) remains an ong
oing problem in Europe[25][85] and the United States.[86] Other potato diseases
include Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, black leg, powdery mildew, powdery scab and le
afroll virus.
Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the
Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (Myzus pers
icae), the potato aphid, beetleafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato root nem
atode is a microscopic worm that thrives on the roots, thus causing the potato p
lants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop ro
tation is recommended.
Pesticides
During the crop year 2008, many of the certified organic potatoes produced in th
e United Kingdom and certified by the Soil Association as organic were sprayed w
ith a copper pesticide[87] to control potato blight (Phytophthora infestans).[88
] According to the Soil Association, the total copper that can be applied to org
anic land is 6 kg/ha/year.[89]
According to an Environmental Working Group analysis[90] of USDA and FDA pestici
de residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potat
o samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 u
nique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no ind
ividual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average wa
s 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of al
l pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 ppm. While this is a ver
y low value of pesticide residue, it is the highest amongst the 50 vegetables an
alyzed.
Uses
Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, potcheen, or akvavi
t.
They are also used as food for domestic animals.
Potato starch is used in the food industry as, for example, thickeners and binde
rs of soups and sauces, in the textile industry, as adhesives, and for the manuf
acturing of papers and boards.[91][92]
Maine companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtai
n polylactic acid for use in plastic products; other research projects seek ways
to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging.[92][93]
Potato skins, along with honey, are a folk remedy for burns in India. Burn cente
rs in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to prote
ct burns while healing.[94][95]
Potatoes (mainly Russets) are commonly used in plant research. The consistent pa
renchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity p
rovide a very nice "model tissue" for experimentation. Wound-response studies ar
e often done on potato tuber tissue, as are electron transport experiments. In t
his respect, potato tuber tissue is similar to Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorha
bditis elegans and Escherichia coli: they are all "standard" research organisms.
Culinary uses
Various potato dishes
Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with sea
sonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch gr
anules. Most potato dishes are served hot, but some are first cooked, then serve
d cold, notably potato salad and potato chips/crisps.
Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and
then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiled or ste
amed potatoes; French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasted; scall
oped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and
fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rsti or potato pancakes.
Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and st
ill retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided they are covered in v
entilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping; this method produces a
meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conv
entionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient
.
Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25[96] minutes, depending on size and type, t
o become soft.
Grading
In the U.S., potato grading for Idaho potatoes is performed in which No. 1 potat
oes are the highest quality and No. 2 are rated as lower in quality due to their
appearance (e.g. blemishes or bruises, pointy ends).[97] Potato density assessm
ent can be performed by floating them in brines.[98] High-density potatoes are d
esirable in the production of dehydrated mashed potatoes, potato crisps and fren
ch fries.[98]
Latin America
Papa rellena
Peruvian cuisine naturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many d
ishes, as around 3,000 varieties of this tuber are grown there.[99] Some of the
more notable dishes include boiled potato as a base for several dishes or with a
j-based sauces like in Papa a la Huancana or ocopa, diced potato for its use in so
ups like in cau cau, or in Carapulca with dried potato (papa seca). Smashed cond
imented potato is used in causa Limea and papa rellena. French-fried potatoes are
a typical ingredient in Peruvian stir-fries, including the classic dish lomo sa
ltado.
Chuo is a freeze-dried potato product traditionally made by Quechua and Aymara co
mmunities of Peru and Bolivia,[100] and is known in various countries of South A
merica, including Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In Chile's Chilo Archipela
go, potatoes are the main ingredient of many dishes, including milcaos, chapalel
es, curanto and chochoca. In Ecuador, the potato, as well as being a staple with
most dishes, is featured in the hearty locro de papas, a thick soup of potato,
squash, and cheese.
European cuisine
Fish and chips
In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional staple fish and chips. Roast po
tatoes are commonly served with a Sunday roast, and mashed potatoes form a major
component of several other traditional dishes such as shepherd's pie, bubble an
d squeak, and bangers and mash. New potatoes are often cooked with mint and serv
ed with a little melted butter.
The Tattie scone is a popular Scottish dish containing potatoes. Colcannon is a
traditional Irish food made with mashed potato, shredded kale or cabbage, and on
ion; champ is a similar dish. Boxty pancakes are eaten throughout Ireland, altho
ugh associated especially with the north, and in Irish diaspora communities; the
y are traditionally made with grated potatoes, soaked to loosen the starch and m
ixed with flour, buttermilk and baking powder. A variant eaten and sold in Lanca
shire, especially Liverpool, is made with cooked and mashed potatoes.
Bryndzov haluky is the Slovakian national dish, made of a batter of flour and fine
ly grated potatoes that is boiled to form dumplings. These are then mixed with r
egionally varying ingredients.[101]
In Northern and Eastern Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries, Poland, Ru
ssia, Belarus and Ukraine, newly harvested, early ripening varieties are conside
red a special delicacy. Boiled whole and served un-peeled with dill, these "new
potatoes" are traditionally consumed with Baltic herring. Puddings made from gra
ted potatoes (kugel, kugelis, and potato babka) are popular items of Ashkenazi,
Lithuanian, and Belarussian cuisine.[102]
A baked potato served with butter
In Western Europe, especially in Belgium, sliced potatoes are fried to create fr
ieten, the original French fried potatoes. Stamppot, a traditional Dutch meal, i
s based on mashed potatoes mixed with vegetables.
In France, the most notable potato dish is the Hachis Parmentier, named after An
toine-Augustin Parmentier, a French pharmacist, nutritionist, and agronomist who
, in the late 18th century, was instrumental in the acceptance of the potato as
an edible crop in the country. The pt aux pommes de terre is a regional potato dis
h from the central Allier and Limousin regions.
In the north of Italy, in particular, in the Friuli region of the northeast, pot
atoes serve to make a type of pasta called gnocchi.[103] Similarly, cooked and m
ashed potatoes or potato flour can be used in the Kndel or dumpling eaten with or
added to meat dishes all over central and Eastern Europe, but especially in Bav
aria and Luxembourg. Potatoes form one of the main ingredients in many soups suc
h as the vichyssoise and Albanian potato and cabbage soup. In western Norway, ko
mle is popular.
A traditional Canary Islands dish is Canarian wrinkly potatoes or papas arrugada
s. Tortilla de patatas (potato omelete) and patatas bravas (a dish of fried pota
toes in a spicy tomato sauce) are near-universal constituent of Spanish tapas.
North America
French fries served with a hamburger
Poutine: Fried potatoes, cheese curds, and gravy
In the United States, potatoes have become one of the most widely consumed crops
and thus have a variety of preparation methods and condiments. French fries and
often hash browns are commonly found in typical American fast-food burger joint
s and cafeterias. One popular favorite involves a baked potato with cheddar chee
se (or sour cream and chives) on top, and in New England "smashed potatoes" (a c
hunkier variation on mashed potatoes, retaining the peel) have great popularity.
Potato flakes are popular as an instant variety of mashed potatoes, which recon
stitute into mashed potatoes by adding water, with butter or oil and salt to tas
te. A regional dish of Central New York, salt potatoes are bite-size new potatoe
s boiled in water saturated with salt then served with melted butter. At more fo
rmal dinners, a common practice includes taking small red potatoes, slicing them
, and roasting them in an iron skillet. Among American Jews, the practice of eat
ing latkes (fried potato pancakes) is common during the festival of Hanukkah.
A traditional Acadian dish from New Brunswick is known as poutine rpe. The Acadian
poutine is a ball of grated and mashed potato, salted, sometimes filled with po
rk in the center, and boiled. The result is a moist ball about the size of a bas
eball. It is commonly eaten with salt and pepper or brown sugar. It is believed
to have originated from the German Kle, prepared by early German settlers who live
d among the Acadians.
Poutine, by contrast, is a hearty serving of French fries, fresh cheese curds an
d hot gravy. Tracing its origins to Quebec in the 1950s, it has become a widespr
ead and popular dish throughout Canada.
Indian Subcontinent
In India, the most popular potato dishes are aloo ki sabzi, batata vada, and sam
osa, which is spicy mashed potato mixed with a small amount of vegetable stuffed
in conical dough, and deep fried. Potatoes are also a major ingredient as fast
food items, such as aloo chaat, where they are deep fried and served with chutne
y. In Northern India, alu dum and alu paratha are a favorite part of the diet; t
he first is a spicy curry of boiled potato, the second is a type of stuffed chap
ati.
A dish called masala dosa from South India is very notable all over India. It is
a thin pancake of rice and pulse paste rolled over spicy smashed potato and eat
en with sambhar and chutney. Poori in south India in particular in Tamil Nadu is
almost always taken with smashed potato masal. Other favorite dishes are alu ti
kki and pakoda items.
Vada pav is a popular vegetarian fast food dish in Mumbai and other regions in t
he Maharashtra in India.
Aloo posto (a curry with potatoes and poppy seeds) is immensely popular in East
India, especially Bengal. Although potatoes are not native to India, it has beco
me a vital part of food all over the country especially North Indian food prepar
ations. In Tamil Nadu this tuber acquired a name based on its appearance 'urulai
-k-kizhangu' (??????? ???????) meaning cylindrical tuber.
East Asia
In East Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, rice is by far the predominant starch
crop, with potatoes a secondary crop, especially in China and Japan. However, i
t is used in northern China where rice is not easily grown, with a popular dish
being ????? (qing jiao tu du si), made with green pepper, vinegar and thin slices
of potato. In the winter, roadside sellers in northern China will also sell roa
sted potatoes. It is also occasionally seen in Korean and Thai cuisines.[104]
Art
The potato has been an essential crop in the Andes since the pre-Columbian Era.
The Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from earth, water, and fire.
This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to re
present important themes. Potatoes are represented anthropomorphically as well a
s naturally.[105]
During the late 19th century, numerous images of potato harvesting appeared in E
uropean art, including the works of Willem Witsen and Anton Mauve.[106] Van Gogh
's 1885 painting "The Potato Eaters" portrays a family eating potatoes.[107]
Invented in 1949 and marketed and sold commercially by Hasbro in 1952, Mr. Potat
o Head is an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plast
ic parts such as ears and eyes to make a face. It was the first toy ever adverti
sed on television.[108]
See also
List of potato museums
Loy, a form of early spade used in Ireland for the cultivation of potatoes.
New World crops
Potato battery
Potatoes of Chilo
Notes
Jump up ^ See text: acrylamides, esp introduction; acrylamide was accidentally d
iscovered in foods in April 2002 by scientists in Sweden when they found the che
mical in starchy foods, such as potato chips, French fries, and bread that had b
een heated (production of acrylamide in the heating process was shown to be temp
erature-dependent)
References
Jump up ^ "Basalt-Firth Since 1900". mocavo.com. 1972. p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b c "International Year of the Potato 2008 The potato" (PDF). Un
ited Nations Food and Agricultural Organisation. 2009. Retrieved 26 October 2011
.
Jump up ^ Hijmans, RJ; Spooner, DM (2001). "Geographic distribution of wild pota
to species". American Journal of Botany (Botanical Society of America) 88 (11):
210112. doi:10.2307/3558435. JSTOR 3558435.
Jump up ^ University of Wisconsin-Madison, Finding rewrites the evolutionary his
tory of the origin of potatoes (2005) [1]
^ Jump up to: a b c Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robb
ie; Bryan, Glenn J. (2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multiloc
us amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". PNAS 102 (41): 1469499. do
i:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC 1253605. PMID 16203994.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Office of International Affairs (1989). "Lost Crops of the
Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation"
. nap.edu. p. 92. ISBN 030904264X.
^ Jump up to: a b c John Michael Francis (2005). Iberia and the Americas. ABC-CL
IO. ISBN 1-85109-426-1.
Jump up ^ Miller, N (29 January 2008). "Using DNA, scientists hunt for the roots
of the modern potato". American Association for the Advancement of Science. Ret
rieved 10 September 2008.
Jump up ^ Ames, M.; Spooner, D. M. (February 2008). "DNA from herbarium specimen
s settles a controversy about origins of the European potato". American Journal
of Botany 95 (2): 252257. doi:10.3732/ajb.95.2.252. PMID 21632349. edit
^ Jump up to: a b Hijmans, Robert (2001). "Global distribution of the potato cro
p". [American Journal of Potato Research] 78 (6): 40312. doi:10.1007/BF02896371.
Jump up ^ "Real Academia Espaola. Diccionario Usual" (in (Spanish)). Buscon.rae.e
s. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Weatherford, J. McIver (1988). Indian givers: how the Indians of the A
mericas transformed the world. New York: Fawcett Columbine. p. 69. ISBN 0-449-90
496-2.
^ Jump up to: a b J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed. (1989). "potato, n". Oxford E
nglish Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c David Wilton, Ivan Brunetti; p94 Word myths: debunking lingu
istic urban legends; Oxford University Press US; 2004; ISBN 0-19-517284-1
Jump up ^ Tony Winch (2006). Growing Food: A Guide to Food Production. Springer
Science+Business Media. ISBN 1-4020-6624-4.
Jump up ^ Virginia Amador, Jordi Bou, Jaime Martnez-Garca, Elena Monte, Mariana Ro
drguez-Falcon, Esther Russo and Salom Prat (2001). "Regulation of potato tuberizat
ion by daylength and gibberellins" (PDF). International Journal of Developmental
Biology (45): S37S38. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Consumer acceptance of genetically modified potatoes". American Journ
al of Potato Research cited through Bnet. 2002. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (24 July 2007). "A Genetically Modified Potato, N
ot for Eating, Is Stirring Some Opposition in Europe". New York Times. Retrieved
15 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Chilean Tetraploid Cultivated Potato, ''Solanum tuberosum'' is Distin
ct from the Andean Populations: Microsatellite Data, Celeste M. Raker and David
M. Spooner, Univewrsity of Wisconsin, published in ''Crop Science'', Vol.42, 200
2" (PDF). Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Molecular description and similarity relationships among native germp
lasm potatoes (Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum L.) using morphological data and
AFLP markers". Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "ISO accreditation a world-first for CIP genebank". International Pota
to Center. 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Potato Draft Sequence Available". Genoweb Daily News. 24 September 20
09. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Visser, R. G. F.; Bachem, C. W. B.; Boer, J. M.; Bryan, G. J.; Chakrab
ati, S. K.; Feingold, S.; Gromadka, R.; Ham, R. C. H. J.; Huang, S.; Jacobs, J.
M. E.; Kuznetsov, B.; Melo, P. E.; Milbourne, D.; Orjeda, G.; Sagredo, B.; Tang,
X. (2009). "Sequencing the Potato Genome: Outline and First Results to Come fro
m the Elucidation of the Sequence of the World's Third Most Important Food Crop"
. American Journal of Potato Research 86 (6): 417429. doi:10.1007/s12230-009-9097
-8. edit
Jump up ^ Story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff)
from materials provided by University of Wisconsin-Madison (4 February 2008). "U
sing DNA, Scientists Hunt For The Roots Of The Modern Potato". ScienceDaily (wit
h information from a report originally appearing in the American Journal of Bota
ny). Retrieved 27 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nowicki, Marcin et al.; Foolad, Majid R.; Nowakowska, Marzen
a; Kozik, Elzbieta U. (17 August 2011). "Potato and tomato late blight caused by
Phytophthora infestans: An overview of pathology and resistance breeding". Plan
t Disease (Plant Disease, ASP) 96: 4. doi:10.1094/PDIS-05-11-0458. Retrieved 30
August 2011
Jump up ^ "Gene RB cloned from Solanum bulbocastanum confers broad spectrum resi
stance to potato late blight, Junqi Song et al., PNAS 2003". Pnas.org. Retrieved
16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ The yield of Calories per acre (about 9.2 million) is higher than that
of maize (7.5 million), rice (7.4 million), wheat (3 million), or soybean (2.8
million). Ensminger, Audrey; Ensminger, M. E.; Konlande, James E. (1994). Foods
& Nutrition Encyclopedia. CTC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8981-X.
Jump up ^ Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2011). "The Potato's Contribution to Popula
tion and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment". Quarterly Journal
of Economics 126 (2): 593650. doi:10.1093/qje/qjr009. Retrieved 7 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Theisen, K (1 January 2007). "History and overview". World Potato Atla
s: Peru. International Potato Center. Archived from the original on 14 January 2
008. Retrieved 10 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "FAOSTAT". faostat.fao.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "World-wide potato production statistics". Potato World. Retrieved 10
September 2008.
Jump up ^ As other staples soar, potatoes break new ground By Terry Wade, Reuter
s, 15 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Getting Out of the food crisis". Global Policy Forum. Retrieved 14 No
vember 2008.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (26 October 2008). "Potatoes called savior in glo
bal food crisis". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "No Page Found". Khaleejtimes.com. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ 'Humble' Potato Emerging as World's next Food Source, p. 20
Jump up ^ Ferretti F (2011). "The correspondence between lise Reclus and Ptr Kropot
kin as a source for the history of geography". Journal of Historical Geography 3
7 (2): 216. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2010.10.001.
Jump up ^ Cummings JH, Beatty ER, Kingman SM, Bingham SA, Englyst HN (May 1996).
"Digestion and physiological properties of resistant starch in the human large
bowel". Br. J. Nutr. 75 (5): 73347. doi:10.1079/BJN19960177. PMID 8695600.
Jump up ^ Hylla S, Gostner A, Dusel G, et al. (January 1998). "Effects of resist
ant starch on the colon in healthy volunteers: possible implications for cancer
prevention". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67 (1): 13642. PMID 9440388.
Jump up ^ Raben A, Tagliabue A, Christensen NJ, Madsen J, Holst JJ, Astrup A (Oc
tober 1994). "Resistant starch: the effect on postprandial glycemia, hormonal re
sponse, and satiety". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60 (4): 54451. PMID 8092089.
Jump up ^ Englyst HN, Kingman SM, Cummings JH (1992). "Classification and measur
ement of nutritionally important starch fractions". Eur J Clin Nutr. 46: S33S50.
PMID 1330528.
Jump up ^ Fernandes G, Velangi A, Wolever TMS (2005). "Glycemic index of potatoe
s commonly consumed in North America". Journal of the American Dietetic Associat
ion 105 (4): 55762. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.01.003. PMID 15800557.
Jump up ^ List of what counts towards 5 A DAY portions of fruit and vegetables N
HS 18 December 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2010
Jump up ^ "Nutrient data laboratory". United States Department of Agriculture. R
etrieved January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Tomato-like Fruit on Potato Plants". Iowa State University. Retrieved
8 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Greening of potatoes". Food Science Australia. 2005. Retrieved 15 Nov
ember 2008.
Jump up ^ Glycoalkaloid and calystegine contents of eight potato cultivars J-Agr
ic-Food-Chem. 2003 May 7; 51(10): 296473
Jump up ^ Shaw, Ian (2005). Is it Safe to Eat?: Enjoy Eating and Minimize Food R
isks. Berlin: Springer. p. 129. ISBN 3-540-21286-8. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
Jump up ^ United States Potato Board -Seed Potatoes
Jump up ^ Scottish Government -Seed and Ware Potatoes
Jump up ^ "Potato". University of Illinois Extension Service. Retrieved 27 June
2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Growing Potatoes in the Home Garden". Cornell University Exte
nsion Service. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Kleinkopf G.E. and N. Olsen. 2003. Storage Management, in: Potato Prod
uction Systems, J.C. Stark and S.L. Love (eds), University of Idaho Agricultural
Communications, 363381.
^ Jump up to: a b c Potato storage, value Preservation: Kohli, Pawanexh (2009).
"Potato storage and value Preservation: The Basics". CrossTree techno-visors.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Potato Storage and Care" (PDF). Retrieved 19 September 2011
.
Jump up ^ Tareke E, Rydberg P. et al. (2002). "Analysis of acrylamide, a carcino
gen formed in heated foodstuffs". J. Agric. Food. Chem. 50 (17): 49985006. doi:10
.1021/jf020302f. PMID 12166997.
Jump up ^ Carol Deppe (2010). The Resilient Gardener: Food Production and Self-R
eliance in Uncertain Times. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing.
p. 157. ISBN 1-60358-031-X. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Small, Ernest (2009). Top 100 food plants. Ottawa: NRC Research Press.
p. 421. ISBN 0-660-19858-4. Retrieved 19 September 2011. "Green-colored potatoe
s should be discarded."
^ Jump up to: a b "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2010 data". Food and Agriculture O
rganization of the United Nations. 2011.
Jump up ^ Sarah Sinton (2011). "Theres yet more gold in them thar "hills"!". Grow
er Magazine, The Government of New Zealand.
Jump up ^ "Phosphate and potatoes". Ballance. 2009.
Jump up ^ "International Year of the Potato: 2008, Asia and Oceania". Potato Wor
ld. 2008.
Jump up ^ Workshop to Commemorate the International Year of the Potato. The Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2008.
Jump up ^ Foley, Ramankutty et al. (12 October 2011). "Solutions for a cultivate
d planet". Nature 478 (7369): 337342. doi:10.1038/nature10452. PMID 21993620.
Jump up ^ John Roach (10 June 2002). "Saving the Potato in its Andean Birthplace
". National Geographic. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Potato Council Ltd. "Potato Varieties". Potato Council website. Agricu
lture & Horticulture Development Board. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Potato Primer" (PDF). Cooks Illustrated. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
Jump up ^ "Europotato.org". Europotato.org. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Descripcin de tuberculos". Papas Nativas de Chilo. Retrieved 6 December
2009.
Jump up ^ Norgold Russet, potatoassociation.org
Jump up ^ McCann, Nuala (March 4, 2008). "Eat your blues!". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Jung CS, Griffiths HM, De Jong DM, Cheng S, Bodis M, De Jong WS (Janua
ry 2005). "The potato P locus codes for flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase". TAG 110 (2
): 26975. doi:10.1007/s00122-004-1829-z. PMID 15565378.
Jump up ^ "Genetically Engineered Organisms Public Issues Education Project/Am I
eating GE potatoes?". Cornell University. Retrieved 16 December 2008.
Jump up ^ GMO compass database
Jump up ^ GM potatoes: BASF at work GMO Compass 5 March 2010. Retrieved 19 Octob
er 2011.
Jump up ^ Research in Germany, 17 November 2011. Business BASF applies for appro
val for another biotech potato
Jump up ^ Burger, Ludwig (31 October 2011) BASF applies for EU approval for Fort
una GM potato Reuters, Frankfurt. Retrieved 29 December 2011
Jump up ^ BASF stops GM crop development in Europe, Deutsche Welle, 17 January 2
012
Jump up ^ Basf stop selling GM Product in Europe, New York Times, 16 Januari 201
2
Jump up ^ Chakrabortya, Subhra; Chakrabortya, Niranjan; Agrawala, Lalit; Ghosha,
Sudip; Narulaa, Kanika; Shekhara, Shubhendu; Naikb, Prakash S.; Pandec, P. C. e
t al. (20 September 2010). "Next-generation protein-rich potato expressing the s
eed protein gene AmA1 is a result of proteome rebalancing in transgenic tuber" (
PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (41): 175338. doi:10.10
73/pnas.1006265107. PMC 2955143. PMID 20855595. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Scientists invent genetically-modified 'superspud' that could help fig
ht hunger in the Third World The Daily Mail, 20 September 2010. Retrieved 24 Sep
tember 2010.
Jump up ^ J.R. Simplot Company Bets On Biotech Potatoes In Idaho, Associated Pre
ss, 14-May-2013
Jump up ^ Potato Pro. May 8, 2013. Simplot asks USDA for deregulation of their G
M Innate potatoes
Jump up ^ Federal Register. May 3, 2013. J.R. Simplot Co.; Availability of Petit
ion for Determination of Nonregulated Status of Potato Genetically Engineered fo
r Low Acrylamide Potential and Reduced Black Spot Bruise
Jump up ^ "NJF seminar No. 388 Integrated Control of Potato Late Blight in the N
ordic and Baltic Countries. Copenhagen, Denmark, 29 November -1 December 2006" (
PDF). Nordic Association of Agricultural Scientists. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Organic Management of Late Blight of Potato and Tomato (Phytophthora
infestans)". Michigan State University.
Jump up ^ Section 4.11.11, page 103 Soil Association Organic Standards for Produ
cer, Verion 16, January, 2009
Jump up ^ "Thousands of tons of organic food produced using toxic chemicals" art
icle by David Derbyshire in The Daily Mail 1 January 2008
Jump up ^ "Links to forms permitting application of copper fungicide on the webs
ite of the Soil Association". Soilassociation.org. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Metrics Used in EWG's Shopper's Guide to Pesticides Compiled from USD
A and FDA Data". Environmental Working Group. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Grant M. Campbell, Colin Webb, Stephen L. McKee (1997). Cereals: Novel
Uses and Processes. Springer. ISBN 0-306-45583-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Jai Gopal, S. M. Paul Khurana (2006). Handbook of Potato Produ
ction, Improvement, and Postharvest. Haworth Press. ISBN 978-1-56022-272-9.
Jump up ^ "Potatoes to Plastics" (PDF). University of Maine. Retrieved 8 January
2009.
Jump up ^ Why Do Men Have Nipples?: Hundreds of Questions You'd Only Ask a Docto
r ... - Billy Goldberg, M.D., Mark Leyner - Google Books. Books.google.com. 2005
-07-26. ISBN 9780307337047. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "International Abstracts". Medbc.com. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Cookbook:Potato - Wikibooks, open books for an open world". En.wikibo
oks.org. 17 September 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Idaho Potato Commission. Retrieved 6 Dec
ember 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Sivasankar, B. (2002). Food Processing and Preservation. PHI L
earning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 175-177. ISBN 8120320867
Jump up ^ Hayes, Monte (24 June 2007). "''Peru Celebrates Potato Diversity''". T
he Washington Post. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Timothy Johns: With bitter Herbs They Shall Eat it : Chemical ecology
and the origins of human diet and medicine, The University of Arizona Press, Tuc
son 1990, ISBN 0-8165-1023-7, p. 82-84
Jump up ^ Sinkovec, Magdalena (2004). "Bryndzov Haluky / Potato Dumplings with 'Br
yndza' Sheep Cheese and Bacon". Culinary Cosmic Top Secrets A Nato Cookbook. Lul
u. pp. 115116. ISBN 978-1-4116-0837-5.
Jump up ^ von Bremzen, Anya; Welchman, John (1990). Please to the Table: The Rus
sian Cookbook. New York: Workman Publishing. pp. 31920. ISBN 0-89480-845-1.
Jump up ^ Roden, Claudia (1990). The Food of Italy. London: Arrow Books. p. 72.
ISBN 0-09-976220-X.
Jump up ^ Solomon, Charmaine (1996). Charmaine Solomon's Encyclopedia of Asian F
ood. Melbourne: William Heinemann Australia. p. 293. ISBN 0-85561-688-1.
Jump up ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasure
s from the Museo Arqueolgico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson, 19
97.
Jump up ^ Steven Adams, Anna Gruetzner Robins (2000). Gendering Landscape Art. U
niversity of Manchester. ISBN 0-7190-5628-4.
Jump up ^ van Tilborgh, Louis (2009). "The Potato Eaters by Vincent van Gogh". T
he Vincent van Gogh Gallery. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mr Potato Head". Museum of Childhood website. V&A Museum of Childhood
. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
Sources
Economist. "Llamas and mash", The Economist 28 February 2008 online
Economist. "The potato: Spud we like", (leader) The Economist 28 February 2008 o
nline
Boomgaard, Peter. "In the Shadow of Rice: Roots and Tubers in Indonesian History
, 15001950." Agricultural History (2003) 77#4 pp 582610. in JSTOR
Hawkes, J.G. (1990). The Potato: Evolution, Biodiversity & Genetic Resources, Sm
ithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Lang, James. (2001) Notes of a Potato Watcher (Texas A&M University Agriculture
Series) excerpt and text search* Langer, William L. "American Foods and Europe's
Population Growth 17501850", Journal of Social History (1975) 8#2 pp. 5166 in JST
OR
McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." Social Researc
h (1999) 66#1 pp 6783. Issn: 0037-783x Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian
McNeill William H (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal
of Modern History 21 (3): 21821. JSTOR 1876068.
Grda, Cormac. Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, a
nd Memory. (1999). 272 pp.
Grda, Cormac, Richard Paping, and Eric Vanhaute, eds. When the Potato Failed: Cau
ses and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 18451850. (2007). 342 pp
. ISBN 978-2-503-51985-2. 15 essays by scholars looking at Ireland and all of Eu
rope
Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a s
tandard scholarly history
Salaman, Redcliffe N. (1989). The History and Social Influence of the Potato, Ca
mbridge University Press (originally published in 1949; reprinted 1985 with new
introduction and corrections by J.G. Hawkes).
Stevenson, W.R., Loria, R., Franc, G.D., and Weingartner, D.P. (2001) Compendium
of Potato Diseases, 2nd ed, Amer. Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesot
a.
Zuckerman, Larry. The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World. (19
98). 304 pp. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 0-86547-578-4.
Further reading
Bohl, William H. & Johnson, Steven B., ed. (2010). Commercial Potato Production
in North America: The Potato Association of America Handbook. Second Revision of
American Potato Journal Supplement Volume 57 and USDA Handbook 267. The Potato
Association of America.
"'Humble' Potato Emerging as World's Next Food Source". column (Japan). 11 May 2
008. p. 20.
Spooner, David M.; McLean, Karen; Ramsay, Gavin; Waugh, Robbie; Bryan, Glenn J.
(October 2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified
fragment length polymorphism genotyping". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102 (41):
1469414699. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC 1253605. PMID 16203994.
The World Potato Atlas at Cgiar.org, released by the International Potato Center
in 2006 and regularly updated. Includes current chapters of 15 countries:
South America: (English and Spanish): Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
Africa: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya
Eurasia: Armenia, Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan
38 others as brief "archive" chapters
Further information links at Cgiar.org.
World Geography of the Potato at UGA.edu, released in 1993.
Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 17001900. Pub. John Donald. ISBN 0-8597
6-067-7.
External links
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Potato
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solanum tuberosum.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Potato.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Potatoes.
Look up potato in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
GLKS Potato Database
Centro Internacional de la Papa: CIP (International Potato Center)
World Potato Congress
British Potato Council
Online Potato Pedigree Database for cultivated varieties
Potato Information & Exchange
GMO Safety: Genetic engineering on potatoes Biological safety research projects
and results
International Year of the Potato 2008
Solanum tuberosum (potato, papas): life cycle, tuber anatomy at GeoChemBio
Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium
Potato storage and value Preservation: Pawanexh Kohli, CrossTree techno-visors.
Potato, in Cyclopedia of American Agriculture
[show] v t e
Lists of countries by agricultural output rankings
[show] v t e
Potato cultivars
[show] v t e
Bioenergy
Categories: PotatoesCrops originating from the AmericasCrops originating from Bo
liviaCrops originating from PeruCuisine of Northern IrelandPlants described in 1
753Plants with sequenced genomesRoot vegetablesSpanish words and phrasesStaple f
oodsTubers
Navigation menu
Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView history
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikimedia Shop
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
Print/export
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
????
nglisc
??????
???????
Aragons
???????
Asturianu
Avae'?
Aymar aru
Az?rbaycanca
?????
Bn-lm-g
Basa Banyumasan
?????????
??????????
?????????? (???????????)?
?????????
Boarisch
???????
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Catal
Cebuano
Cetina
ChiShona
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Din bizaad
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
????????
Espaol
Esperanto
Euskara
?????
Franais
Frysk
Fulfulde
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gidhlig
Galego
??
???????
???
???????
??????
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Iupiak
????
IsiZulu
slenska
Italiano
?????
Basa Jawa
?????
Kapampangan
????????-???????
???????
????? / ?????
Kaszbsczi
???????
Kinyarwanda
Kirundi
Kiswahili
????
Kreyl ayisyen
Kurd
????? ????
?????
Latina
Latvieu
Ltzebuergesch
Lietuviu
Lumbaart
Magyar
??????????
Malagasy
??????
?????
????
Bahasa Melayu
???????
??????
Nahuatl
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
??????
????? ????
???
Napulitano
???????
Nordfriisk
Norsk bokml
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
O?zbekcha
Plzisch
??????
????? ????
Picard
Plattdtsch
Polski
Portugus
Qaraqalpaqsha
Ripoarisch
Romna
Runa Simi
??????????
???????
???? ????
Smegiella
Gagana Samoa
?????????
Sardu
Scots
Seeltersk
Shqip
Sicilianu
Simple English
Slovencina
Slovencina
Slunski
Soomaaliga
?????
?????? / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / ??????????????
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
?????
???????/tatara
??????
???
Lea faka-Tonga
Tsetshesthese
Trke
??????????
????
Ti?ng Vi?t
Walon
West-Vlams
Winaray
??
??????
??
emaiteka
??
Edit links
This page was last modified on 28 April 2014 at 02:02.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; add
itional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and P
rivacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, I
nc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersMobile viewWi
kimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki