Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems

and Technologies, v2 (2014)

Design for Closed Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics

Jef R. Peeters, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Belgium, jef.peeters@cib.kuleuven.be
Paul Vanegas, University of Cuenca, Ecuador, paul.vanegas@cib.kuleuven.be
Tom Devoldere, TP Vision Bruges, Belgium, tom.devoldere@tpvision.be
Wim Dewulf, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Belgium, wim.dewulf@kuleuven.be
Joost R. Duflou, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Belgium, joost.duflou@kuleuven.be

Abstract. In response to increasing material prices and consumer awareness, Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) strive to reduce resource consumption and to lower the
environmental load of their products. One of the particular technical challenges that recycling
companies and OEMs of electronic products face is closing material loops for plastic housings,
which is impeded by the increasing presence of additives, such as flame retardants (FRs).
Performed analyses indicate that the reliability of plastic identification techniques requires
further improvement and that identification and product disassembly make up 35% and 20%
respectively of the processing costs for closed loop plastic recycling of LCD TVs. To facilitate
and increase the reliability of plastic identification, the incorporation of a knowledge based
decision tree in the software of plastic analyzers is proposed. In addition, novel fasteners, which
can be simultaneously disassembled by the application of an external trigger and have the
potential to substantially lower the disassembly costs, are presented.





Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSN
2329-9169) is published annually by the Sustainable Conoscente Network. Melissa Bilec and
J un-Ki Choi, co-editors. ISSSTNetwork@gmail.com.

Copyright 2014 by J ef R. Peeters, Paul Vanegas, Tom Devoldere, Wim Dewulf, J oost Duflou
Licensed under CC-BY 3.0.
Cite as:
J ef R. Peeters, Paul Vanegas, Tom Devoldere, Wim Dewulf, J oost Duflou, Design for Closed
Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics, 2014, Proc. ISSST, San Francisco,
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Design for Closed Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics

Introduction.
Approximately 2.4 million tonnes of plastics per year are destined for Electric and Electronic
Equipment (EEE) production and 3.8 million tonnes per year for the automotive market (Plastic
Recycling Europe, 2012). However, only less than 12% of the collected plastics from Waste
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) are currently
recycled and reapplied in new products in Europe (EuPR, 2012). The main reason for this low
recycling efficiency compared to other sectors, such as packaging and agriculture, is the
increasing complexity of the plastic mix with up to 300 different plastic types which are
commonly applied in WEEE and ELVs (Peeters et al. , 2014b). As a result, most plastics are
only present in relatively small amounts, which impede recyclers to achieve the economies of
scale that are required for recycling non-commodity plastics in a shredder based treatment.
In addition, many plastics in WEEE and ELVs cannot be separated post-shredder with
commonly applied density based separation techniques, such as sink float techniques. This
because, most plastics in WEEE and ELVs have overlapping densities due to a high
concentration of additives, such as FRs (Peeters et al., 2014b). Moreover, automated sorting of
shredded plastics based on identification with Near Infrared (NIR) is impeded by the large
fraction of black colored plastics in WEEE and ELVs. As a result, all FR plastics and non-
commodity plastics are commonly incinerated with energy recovery or landfilled, and only the
decreasing share of commodity non- FR plastics, such as PolyPropylene (PP), PolyEthylene
(PE), High Impact PolyStyrene (HIPS) and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), are currently
recycled {Al-Salem, 2009 #4}.
Prior research demonstrated that disassembly of Printed Wiring Boards (PWBs) significantly
improves the recycling efficiency of the Precious Metals (PMs) present in these PWBs (Meskers
et al. , 2009). As a result of the rise in PMs prices over the last decade, End-of-Life (EoL)
electronics are increasingly being disassembled to increase value recovery. In consequence,
plastic housings are also systematically disassembled to access the PWBs, which facilitate
plastic separation based on advanced optical identification techniques. Since plastic
identification allows sorting out and recycling multiple plastics including FR and non-commodity
plastics, in a single step, the adoption of systematic disassembly and plastic identification
processes have the potential to bring plastic recycling to the next level.
Within an industrial collaboration, it has been demonstrated by means of practical experiments
that close loop recycling of the blend of PolyCarbonate (PC) and ABS with FRs from housings
of LCD TVs after manual disassembly and plastic identification is technically feasible (Peeters et
al., 2014b). Peeters et al. conclude that the processing costs for closed loop recycling of
PC/ABS with FRs from LCD TVs can be significantly reduced by facilitating material
identification and product disassembly, which account for roughly 35% and 20% of the total
processing costs respectively (Peeterset al., 2014b). Since existing techniques for plastic
identification all have their advantages and disadvantages, an overview of the commercially
available plastic identification techniques is presented in the next section and their applicability
for identifying LCD TV housing plastics is discussed. In the third section, opportunities to
improve the efficiency and reliability of these plastic identification techniques for the purpose of
closed loop plastic recycling are discussed. Thereafter, novel fasteners which can be
simultaneously released by means of an external trigger are presented.
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J . R. Peeters et al.
Research Questions
- How can recyclers cluster non-commodity and FR plastics from the current WEEE and
ELVs to recycle those plastics in a closed loop system?
- How should OEMs adapt product design to facilitate plastic identification and to improve
the disassemblability of plastic components for closed loop plastic recycling?
Anal yzers to identify the plastic types and FRs
After disassembly, plastic components can be sorted based on the plastic type and FR indicated
in the mold. However, prior studies, as well as plastic analyses performed by the authors,
indicate that a substantial share of plastic components is mismarked (Gent et al. , 2011, Xiuli et
al. , 2006). Plastic component producers often have the possibility to choose to produce a
component from different types of plastics and foresee, therefore, often a possibility in the mold
to easily adapt the in mold indication by turning a mold insert with an arrow indication which can
be pointed to the correct description of the applied plastic and FR type. The reason why some
plastic components have a wrong in mold indication is that that these producers sometimes
dont adapt this in mold indication when switching from one plastic type to another. In addition,
the in mold marking of plastic components is often difficult to retrieve and indecipherable.
Consequently, the best option to correctly sort disassembled components, as required for
closed loop plastic recycling, is to perform plastic and FR analyses. To evaluate the technical
feasibility of plastic and FR identification in EoL housing plastics of LCD TVs, series of
experiments are set up with different identification techniques. The tested plastic analysis
techniques are the following:
- Near InfraRed (NIR), this technology analyzes the near infrared absorption spectrum of
the plastic and compares it with those of reference samples stored in a library. The
tested NIR scanner is a hand held device which has a relatively low cost and can
analyze the plastic type in less than a second. Unfortunately, NIR scanners can only be
used for white, light colored plastics and in some cases black plastics with a low soot
concentration. Since 93% of the analyzed LCD TVs are black, the applicability of NIR
scanners is limited for the identification of LCD TVs housing plastics.
- Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR), which analyses the mid-infrared absorption spectrum
of the plastics and compares it with those of reference samples stored in a library. FTIR
analyzers are able to identify the plastic type of black plastics, since absorption bands in
the region of mid-infrared depend on molecular composition and structure. The
evaluated FTIR scanner is a lab scale device which requires multiple seconds for
performing the plastic identification, but nowadays also hand held FTIR scanners exist.
Normally, the used reference sample library can be enhanced with analyses of reference
plastics under study. However, this was due to software limitations not possible during
the performed experiments.
- An X-Ray Transmission (XRT) analyzer, which analyzes the extent to which X-rays are
absorbed by the material to determine the plastic density. The tested XRT scanner
demonstrated to be capable of differentiating FR from non-FR plastics. However, since
PFR and BrFR plastics have overlapping densities (Peeterset al., 2014b), XRT cannot
be used to differentiate phosphor based (P)FR from Bromine based (Br)FR plastics.
- X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), which uses electromagnetic radiation to activate the
different elements in the plastic. The activated elements emit a radiation of which the
spectrum and intensity are analyzed to determine the concentration of these elements.
XRF scanners are claimed to be able to detect all elements from the periodic table with
an atomic number higher than 13 (Aluminum) ,depending on the concentration of the
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Design for Closed Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics

element. However, with the tested XRF hand scanner the phosphor present in PFR was
not detected. This is in line with findings of other companies who tested XRF scanners
and who indicated that only the elements with an atomic number higher than 22
(Titanium) can be detected with XRF. Accordingly, only BrFR content in plastics can be
analyzed with this technique
- Sliding-Spark SPectroscopy (SSSP), which thermally vaporizes a small amount of the
plastic surface by using high-voltage sparks to activate the different elements present in
the plastic, which emit a specific and measurable radiation. According to manufacturers
information, SSSP scanners can also be used to determine the plastic type based on
spectrum analysis or based on the shape of the burn mark. However, the tested SSSP
hand scanner proved to be unreliable for differentiating HIPS from ABS based plastics.
On the other hand, SSSP successfully differentiated PFRs and BrFRs.
- Lased Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), which uses a high energetic laser
beam to form a plasma and to excite a range of elements to emit light with an element
specific wavelength. The tested LIBS scanner was able to identify both the presence of
PFRs and BrFRs, as well as the identification of most plastic types used in housings of
LCD TVs. Only the identification of co-polymers, such as the blend 6575 wt% PC and
1525 wt% ABS, the blend 1060 wt% HIPS and 3070 wt% Poly (p-Phenylene) Ether
(PPE) and the blend 80% ABS and 20% Poly(Methyl MethAcrylate) (PMMA) (L et al.
, 2001), proved to require further improvements in the spectral library.
To evaluate the reliability of the tested plastic identification techniques the plastic analyses are
cross-checked and compared with the plastic types indicated in the molds, results of plastic
density analysis and with available manufacturers information, as shown in Table 1. In total,
506 samples from EoL LCD TVs were analyzed with XRF and 26 of these samples were also
analyzed with LIBS, 480 of these samples with FTIR, and 239 of these samples with SSSP.
XRT and NIR were not tested on a larger number of samples, due to their limited applicability.
Based on the available information a decision could be made on the type of plastic and FR for
93% of the plastics samples, but comparison of these results indicated multiple inconsistencies.
Due to a lack of good reference samples of a known plastic type with different types of FRs it
was not possible to statistically quantify the reliability of the tested plastic identification
techniques.
Table 1 Cross checking of the analysis results and comparison of these results with in
mould indication and density anal ysis (n.a.: not analyzed)
Brand In mold
marking
Density FTIR 1 FTIR
2
XRF SSSP LIBS Decision
Philips PC/ABS
FR40
n.a. n.a. PC/A
BS
PC/ABS
PFR
PC/ABS PFR PC/ABS PFR
Philips n.a. 1.096 PPO
(possibly
with PS)
HIPS Br FR n.a. PC/ABS HIPS/PPE PFR
Panasonic PS/PPE
FR40
n.a. n.a. HIPS PC/ABS
PFR
HIPS PFR HIPS/PPE PFR
Samsung n.a. 1.037 PS HIPS Br FR n.a. HIPS HIPS
LG PS n.a. n.a. HIPS Br FR ABS
BrFR
HIPS Br FR HIPS BrFR
Seettech n.a. 1.043 ABS PC/A
BS
Br FR n.a. HIPS ABS
Targa ABS V0 n.a. n.a. ABS Br FR ABS Br
FR
ABS Br FR ABS BrFR
Samsung ABS/PM
MA
n.a. n.a. ABS PBT PC/ABS ABS/PMMA

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Nonetheless, based on a better understanding of the underlying technology of the evaluated
identification techniques and a comparison of the limited set of analysis results, it can be
concluded that either further enhancements of the spectral libraries stored in the LIBS or FTIR
devices are required or that a combination of multiple identification techniques is needed to
properly sort housing plastics of LCD TVs.
A decision tree to improve plastic identification and clustering
Besides improving the spectral libraries or the identification technology, one of the possibilities
to improve plastic identification reliability is to include a knowledge based decision tree in the
software of the plastic identification equipment. The implementation of a decision tree will
facilitate plastic and FR identification by limiting options and indicating the most likely analysis
results and will increase the reliability of plastic identification by enabling to discover analysis
errors. In addition, information, such as product brand, can be taken into account with such a
decision tree to determine the plastic and FR type.
A decision tree for plastic identification can first of all be based on product and market
knowledge, since FRs are only used when a power (and potential ignition) source is present in
EEE. In addition, the application of FRs strongly depends on possible legislative requirements.
For example, the European legislation (EN 60065:2002/A11:2008) obliges the use of fire safe
housings in LCD TVs from 2010 onwards, which is mostly achieved by applying FRs. As a result,
the concentration of FRs is known to strongly dependent on the EEE category (Bni et al. , 2010,
Moy, 2005). Furthermore, brand policies have been demonstrated to have a significant influence
on the application of FRs and the selection of FR type (Peeters et al. , 2013). Consequently, a
decision tree can be constructed based on this knowledge to indicate the FR type that is used
depending on the product category and brand, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Decision tree for plastic identification and sorting for LCD TV housings based
on waste analysis of LCD TVs produced between 2002 and 2011
Furthermore, due to incompatibility of specific plastic types and types of FRs, the possible
combinations of plastic types and FR types are limited. Accordingly, by combining this
knowledge of polymer chemistry with the market knowledge the decision tree can be further
extended. In addition, information obtained by visual inspection should not be ignored.
Therefore, a decision tree should enable to include either information provided by the operator
or from an automated visual inspection system to determine the type of plastic and FR. For
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Design for Closed Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics

example, ABS/PMMA is characterized by a very unique high gloss and can, therefore, be
visually distinguished from ABS or HIPS.
Finally, the compatibility of plastics should also be taken into account to cluster plastics for
further processing and to limit the number of batches, which allows to profit from economies of
scope (Peeters et al., 2014b). In addition, if no markets exist for specific plastics, these plastics
can be clustered as well to be sent to either chemical recycling, incineration or landfill. For
example, recycling of BrFR plastics for the European market is only rarely performed. This is
mainly due to the fact that BrFR plastics are mostly only present in low concentrations and this
in a broad range of WEEE streams. On the other hand, when markets for BrFR plastics
recyclates emerge further separation and recycling of BrFR plastics could become an option,
since the concentration of the restricted BrFRs PBDE and Octa BDE in most waste streams is
below the allowed concentration of 1000 ppm for reapplication in Europe (Leslie et al. , 2013,
Wger et al. , 2011). Since it is not economically viable to remove colorants from plastic
recyclates, plastics with high concentrations of colorants can only be applied for black
components. Whereas this restriction does not hinder closed loop recycling of plastics, it is often
economically preferable to cluster non-black components based on visual identification due to
their wider application range. Therefore, it is advised to also cluster plastic components based
on their dark or white color and to incorporate this in the decision tree.
It should be noted that, as a result of the recent developments in legislation, the introduction of
eco-labels and the awareness campaigns of NGOs, the type of plastics and FRs applied in EEE
by OEMS is shifting (Wgeret al., 2011). Therefore, continuous updates of the knowledge based
decision tree are required.
Labeling to facilitate sorting of the future plastic waste
The required investments for plastic analyzers are limited compare to those required for
automated processes to sort shredded plastics (Peeterset al., 2014b). In addition, sorting based
on plastic analysis after disassembly can be started up at a relatively small scale, which is
expected to facilitate an early implementation. However, the economic viability of the application
of these techniques at recycling facilities with low capacity is still uncertain, whereas 95%of the
recycling companies in Europe are small or medium sized enterprises (EU Commision, 2014).
In addition, plastic analyzers are expected to remain too expensive for recycling companies in
developing countries, whereas 54% of the European WEEE was treated in substandard
processes likely outside Europe (EU Commision, 2008). Therefore, an alternative approach is
required to facilitate closed loop plastic recycling for small scale recycling companies possibly in
developing countries.
One of the options is to provide recyclers the required plastic information for large plastic
components by marking them in line with the ISO 11469 and associated standards. This will
enable to sort plastics even faster compared to sorting based on plastic identification. Moreover,
this will allow sorting plastics with a higher accuracy, since the ISO 11469 standard allows to
provide detailed information on the adopted plastic type, plasticizer, filler and flame retardant.
However, to avoid the problems currently faced with in mold indications, it is advised that the
required verification of the markings is performed or that these markings are applied based on
the results of accurate material characterization. In addition, it is of importance that such
markings are made with sufficient contrast and a high resolution to facilitate both visual and
automated plastic identification,
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Novel fasteners to facilitate plastic disassembly of the future was
Besides facilitating the identification and clustering of disassembled plastic components, also a
reduction of the disassembly costs will contribute to closed loop plastic recycling, since it will
make it economically viable to also disassemble smaller plastic components and those located
deeper in the assembly. Prior research demonstrated that the time to localize and identify
fasteners covers approximately 30% of the total disassembly time (Willems et al. , 2005).
Therefore, new fastening techniques, which can simultaneous unfasten without the need to
identify the location of the individual fasteners, are required to significantly increase the
disassembly efficiency (Duflou et al. , 2008, Peeters et al. , 2012).
The most advanced research on such fastening techniques for Active Disassembly (AD) has
focused on the use of Shape Memory Polymers and Alloys (SMP and SMA) which are able to
return to an initial shape when heated above their trigger temperature (Chiodo et al. , 2002, Nick
J ones, 2003). In addition, temperature sensitive tapes have been developed which contain
thermoplastic expandable microspheres which encapsulate a hydrocarbon liquid, volatile agent,
sublimation agent or water which gasifies and expands when exposed to heat (Bain et al. , 2006,
Kawaguchi, 2004). The disadvantage of temperature sensitive fasteners is that a dedicated
disassembly setup and a substantial amount of energy is required for heating up electronic
products above the upper limit of the maximum temperature during the use phase. In addition,
the maximum surrounding temperature during the use phase can in extreme conditions almost
reach the temperature at which electronic components start to fail and plastic components start
to soften, which leaves only a small temperature range to trigger temperature sensitive
fasteners. Since the fasteners are often insulated by the product housing, a temperature
triggered disassembly process is generally slow and can only be accelerated by submersion of
the product in a hot liquid (Carrell, 2010).
Furthermore, pressure sensitive fasteners have been developed within prior research
[US005102253A] [US2003/0044229] (Duflouet al., 2008, Neubert, 2000). Within the performed
research, the next generation of pressure sensitive snap-fits is developed, which make use of a
closed cell elastomer foam that contracts under increased surrounding pressure and will cause
the snap-fit to release, as shown in Table 2 (Peeters et al. , 2014a). An advantage of using
pressure increase as a trigger for AD is that it requires substantially less energy compared to
applying heat. In addition, there is a wide trigger range for pressure sensitive fasteners, since
pressure increases during the lifetime of an electronic product are very limited and different
electronic components have been evaluated to maintain full functionality after a pressure
increase of 7 bar (Peeterset al., 2014a). On the other hand, one of the disadvantages of using
pressure as a trigger for AD is that it requires a costly and dedicated disassembly setup.
Within the performed research also fasteners made from elastomer material have been
developed which can be released by the application of an external force (Van den Bossche et
al. , 2014).The working principle of these fasteners is based on the mechanical properties of
elastomer materials, which can undergo large elastic deformations. Because of the damping
capacity, elastomer material behavior is time dependent in such a way that fasteners can be
constructed to withstand high-frequency vibrations applied over a short period of time, such as
impact caused by an accidental product drop. On the other hand, these elastomers will easily
deform when a load is applied over a longer period of time. Accordingly, these fasteners can
only be released when a force is applied with an energy content that surpasses a predefined
level, for example by smashing the product in a rotating drum or by exerting a force on the
product housing with a lever. The main advantage of these fasteners is that they can be
released without the need of dedicated disassembly setups. On the other hand, it is only
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Design for Closed Loop Recycling of Housing Plastics

possible to simultaneously release multiple fasteners, but not to simultaneously disassemble
multiple products in a non-destructive manner.
Table 2 Overview of triggers, working principles and embodiments for fasteners for
Active Disassembly
To evaluate the applicability of the discussed fasteners it should first of all be considered that it
is too costly for recycling companies to either apply a trigger to all products or sort out all
products to differentiate the EoL treatment, if only a small share of the treated products can be
actively disassembled. In addition, recyclers are not likely to invest in dedicated disassembly
installations for AD if the quantity of products that can be processed by this installation, even if it
is only a small quantity, cannot be guaranteed. Hence, the application of pressure and
temperature sensitive fasteners is only interesting for products which will be separately collected
with a high collection rate for the purpose of repair, component reuse or recycling. Such high
collection rate for EoL products by OEMs is, for example, often the case for products sold in a
time- or performance-based Product Service Systems (PSS). This because in PSS business
models the OEM remains owner of the product and revenue is generated per time unit the
customer has a product at his disposal or based on the functional performance of a product
(Van Ostaeyen et al. , 2013). Since products sold in a PSS are likely to be collected by the OEM
when they reach their EoL, the implementation of fasteners for AD will also result in direct
benefits of reduced disassembly costs for OEMs.
On the other hand, the application of elastomer fasteners is interesting for products collected
together with products of different brands and processed either in a disassembly or smashing
based process. Since WEEE and ELVs are generally processed by independent recycling
companies, the implementation of such elastomer fasteners does not result in direct benefits for
OEMs.
Trigger Temperature Pressure Force
Working
principle
SMP, SMA and phase
change materials
Compression of cavity
or closed cell foam
Damping by elastomer
and creep in polymer
Example of
embodi-
ment (of
working
principle)
1.
2.
3.
Component A
Component B
Microspheres
Double sided
tape

1.
2.
Component A
Component B
Closed cell
foam
Snap-fit

Component A
Component B
Elastomer
Screw
1.
2.
3.

Trigger
boundaries
90C (max. use temp.) -
110C (plastic softening
temp.)
1,5 bar (max. use
pressure) - 7 bar (max.
tested pressure)
Dependent on point of
impact and impulse of
force
Required
installation
Costly oven / high
energy intensity
Costly pressure room /
low energy intensity
Low cost hand tools /
very low energy
intensity
Trigger time Slow due to insulation of
fasteners / multiple
products simultaneously
Very fast / multiple
products simultaneously
Fast / multiple fasteners
simultaneously but
product per product
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Conclusion
To facilitate plastic identification from the current WEEE and ELVs, and to increase plastic
sorting reliability, the authors propose to include a knowledge based decision tree in the
software of plastic identification equipment. By taking into account information of product brand,
production year and knowledge of the EEE market, polymer chemistry and plastics compatibility,
such a decision tree will facilitate the plastic analysis by limiting options and indicating the most
likely analysis results. In addition, such a knowledge based decision tree will increase the
reliability of plastic identification by enabling to discover analysis errors and can assist in
clustering plastics that are compatible for recycling.
In addition, fasteners which can be simultaneously released by the application of either an
increase in temperature or an increase in pressure are presented. These fasteners have the
potential to drastically reduce the processing costs of closed loop plastic recycling from products
which are separately collected, such as products sold in a PSS. In addition, fasteners made
from an elastomer material are presented, which have the potential to drastically reduce the
disassembly costs for products which are jointly collected and processed in a disassembly
based treatment.
Future research will focus on evaluating the reliability of plastic analysis on an industrial scale
and their applicability for multiple pass closed loop plastic recycling. In addition, the
improvement in separation efficiency by the adaptation of a knowledge based decision tree will
be assessed. Furthermore, to stimulate the implementation of fasteners for AD opportunities to
generate incentives for OEMs and new business models in which manufacturers and recyclers
can cooperate are being explored.
Besides improving identification and disassembly efficiency, one of the main obstacles that
needs to be tackled for closed loop plastic recycling of FR and non-commodity plastics to
become an industrial reality, is that recyclers will not invest in recycling processes unless they
are certain that there is a market for these plastic recyclates. Likewise, OEMs will not use
recycled materials if there is uncertainty on the supply of high quality plastics. To overcome this
chicken and egg dilemma, the initial risk of investment should be lowered for recyclers, as well
as the risk of using recycled plastics for OEMs. To achieve this, more knowledge on the
feasibility of plastic recycling and close collaboration between all stakeholders involved in the
lifecycle of plastics is required.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Flemish Environmental Technology Platform (MIP) and the
Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT) for funding this research.
The authors also like to acknowledge the companies TP Vision, Van Gansewinkel, Bertin
Technologies, Nitto Denko Europe, Recycling Consult B.V. and Lein Tange ICL-IP Europe
representing EFRA for their cooperation.
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