Title: Terrorism in India during the freedom struggle.

Date: 3/22/1993; Publication: The Historian; Author: Heehs, Peter

Violence in the form of terrorism as a significant as!ect of Indian resistance to
"ritish rule in 19##$%& des!ite the ides!read im!ression that 'ahatma (andhi)s
non*iolent strateg+ dominated the inde!endence mo*ement. Political terrorism
de*elo!ed first in "engal in the earl+ 2#th centur+ and as then disseminated
elsehere in India. Terrorist acts ,+ "engali societies and other e-tremist grou!s
hel!ed com!el the "ritish to ma.e concessions in negotiations ith more moderate
factions. Indian terrorists since inde!endence in 19%& ha*e lac.ed the idealism of
their !redecessors.
"ecause the Image of 'ahatma (andhi and the ultimate success of his non*iolent
methods ha*e dominated estern *ies of the mo*ement for India)s inde!endence,
man+ ,elie*e that India achie*ed its freedom ithout resorting to *iolence. In fact,
*iolent resistance as !reached and !racticed throughout the inde!endence mo*ement
and had a significant effect on its course and outcome. (andhi himself as forced to
ac.noledge the sincerit+ of re*olutionar+ terrorists. He claimed to admire the
!atriotism of the terrorists, though he had /no faith hatsoe*er in their method./ 'ost
scholars agree that the e-istence of terrorism made it easier for (andhi)s non*iolent
mo*ement to accom!lish its goals. This stud+ of Indian terrorism$$its nature, sources,
goals, and its relationshi! ith non*iolent resistance$$sheds light on ,oth the Indian
inde!endence mo*ement in the first half of the tentieth centur+ and the return of
terrorism at the end of this centur+.011
The effecti*eness of the "ritish in disarming the !o!ulace ,+ means of the 2rms 2ct
of 13&3 made it im!ossi,le for Indian re*olutionaries to organi4e large$scale
o!erations. 2s a result, those ho fa*ored *iolent resistance ere dran into
terrorism. 'an+ earl+ riters on the mo*ement !referred the unield+ coinage
/militant nationalism,/ hich might ha*e suited the sort of o!eration Indian
re*olutionaries dreamed of$$an armed u!rising throughout the countr+. Hoe*er, the+
succeeded onl+ once in !utting together an organi4ed militar+ force in 5orld 5ar H
hen the Indian 6ational 2rm+ too. !art in the 7a!anese in*asion of 2ssam. 2ll other
attem!ts at armed resistance against the "ritish ere relati*el+ small$scale acts of
co*ert *iolence such as armed ro,,eries and assassinations of officials and
colla,orators. 8ince 19&#, most riters on the Indian freedom mo*ement ha*e used
the term /re*olutionar+ terrorism/ or sim!l+ /terrorism/ to descri,e the acti*ities of
Indian re*olutionaries.021
The first act of terrorism in India dearl+ associated ith the freedom mo*ement as
the 139& assassination of a "ritish official in charge of enforcing anti$!lague
regulations in Poona near "om,a+ To ,rothers named 9ha!e.ar had found the
official)s methods offensi*e to Hindu sensi,ilities and .illed him ,ecause /he made
himself an enem+ of our religion./ 2ccording to one of the ,rothers, if the official had
,een /careful not to interfere ith our religion ... e ould not ha*e ,een com!elled
to !er!etrate the deed./ 8uch religious moti*ation led the "ritish go*ernment to
conclude that this /criminal cons!irac+ connected ith the re*olutionar+ mo*ement in
India :had; no definite !olitical aims./031
True !olitical terrorism arose at the ,eginning of the tentieth centur+ in "engal and
s!read from there to other !ro*inces. Terrorists from "om,a+, 'adras, Pun<a,, and
the =nited Pro*inces ere often more successful than their "engali counter!arts, +et
terrorist acti*ities in these regions ere less !re*alent. In "engal the+ ere
common!lace for three decades. 2n official go*ernment re!ort mentions 21#
/re*olutionar+ outrages/ and 1#1 more attem!ts in "engal in*ol*ing o*er one
thousand terrorists ,eteen 19#> and 191&. 2fter a decade of relati*e ?uiet, terrorism
again ,ro.e out in the !ro*ince. 2n official list gi*es 139 incidents in "engal during
the +ears 193#$193%. @utside "engal terrorist incidents ere so infre?uent that the+
ere not e*en itemi4ed in the official re!ort.0%1
In 19#> radical !oliticians hom historians no call /A-tremists/ !ut forard the
goal of India)s inde!endence. The first nes!a!ers to do so ere "engali ee.lies
called 7ugantar 0The ne age1 and 8andh+a 0A*ening, or /Period of transition/1. The+
used sadhinata 0inde!endence1 and sara<, a di!!ed form of sara<+a, hich means
/on .ingdom/ or /dominion./ 8ara<+a occurs infre?uentl+ in 8ans.rit literature,
,ut as used to indicate the territories under 'aratha rule. The term as re*i*ed at
the end of the nineteenth centur+ ,+ ". (. Tila., an A-tremist of estern India, and
,ecame the !rimar+ term of Indian !olitical discourse.0B1
The o,<ecti*es of the A-tremists and 'oderates in the Indian 6ational 9ongress ere
e!itomi4ed their inter!retation of sara<. Cada,hai 6aoro<i, an old$line 'oderate,
as thought daring in 19#> hen he said that the aim of the 9ongress should ,e to
attain sara< in the sense of /colonial self$go*ernment/ such as as then en<o+ed ,+
9anada, 2ustralia, and other hite colonies. 2uro,indo (hose, a leading "engali
A-tremist, inter!reted sara< differentl+ in his influential Anglish$language
nes!a!er "ande 'ataram 08alutation to 'other India1. He defined it as com!lete
!olitical inde!endence, /a free national go*ernment unham!ered e*en in the least ,+
foreign control./ Dord 'into, *icero+ of India from 19#B to 191#, and Indian
'oderates ho courted "ritish fa*or considered the claim for self$go*ernment to ,e
madness or too far in the future to ,e a matter of immediate concern. 'an+ +oung
"engalis, hoe*er, ,elie*ed sara< could ,e achie*ed in a fe +ears, es!eciall+ if
their demands ere ,ac.ed ,+ d+namite.0>1
'an+ A-tremist !oliticians had contacts ith acti*e terrorists. Tila. ga*e legal ad*ice
as ell as co*ert aid to the 9ha!e.ar ,rothers. (hose as one of the founders of a
secret societ+ that turned to terrorism under his ,rother "arindra Eumar 0/"arin/1
(hose. He and his associates =!endranath "anner<ee and Hemchandra Cas argued
that com!lete inde!endence as India)s !rimar+ need and *ital to national unit+, as
ell as to economic and social !rogress. The+ sometimes !resented economic and
historical arguments to <ustif+ their demand, ,ut its real ,asis as a con*iction that
the "ritish had no right to rule India. @ne re*olutionar+ rote that the men ho
<oined the !olitical mo*ement did so /sim!l+ out of an innate hatred of "ritish rule./
2lthough 2uro,indo (hose admitted to ha*ing /a strong hatred for the "ritish,/ he
.e!t this feeling out of his ritings and su!!orted his demand for inde!endence ith
an a!!eal to the inherent right of !eo!les to self$go*ernment. /The !rimar+ re?uisite
for national !rogress, national reform,/ he !roclaimed in 19#&, /is the free ha,it of
free and health+ national thought and action hich is im!ossi,le in a state of
ser*itude./0&1
Fe of the +ouths ho <oined the "engali terrorist mo*ement ere on o*er ,+ such
reasoned arguments. The emotional a!!eal of !am!hlets, songs, dramas, and the
inflammator+ ritings of such !a!ers as 7ugantar !rodded them to action. 2ll these
media condemned the in<ustice, arrogance, and immoralit+ of Auro!eans and e-tolled
the ancient, su!!ressed glor+ of 'other India. To ,e great again, India had first to ,e
free.
Di.e most "engali grou!s, "arin (hose)s secret societ+ as small, ur,an$,ased, and
made u! almost entirel+ of +oung Hindus of the ,hadralo. 0res!ecta,le1 class. @f the
thirt+$si- mem,ers for hom ade?uate records e-ist, thirt+$to ,elonged to the three
castes that ma.e u! the "engali ,hadralo.. The si- leaders had an a*erage age of
thirt+$si-, hile the thirt+ ran.$and$file mem,ers had an a*erage age of tent+. The
older men ere !rofessionals, !rimaril+ teachers and <ournalists; the +ounger men
ere students or former students. These num,ers remained remar.a,l+ constant
during the first !hase of the mo*ement through 5orld 5ar I.031
"engali terrorism as sha!ed ,+ ,oth indigenous religious and foreign re*olutionar+
influences. This dual influence resulted in the creation of antagonistic religious and
re*olutionar+ factions, ,ut mem,ers of ,oth factions em,raced a common goal of
!olitical li,eration. "ritish o,ser*ers regarded terrorism as a !er*ersion of religion;
nonreligious terrorists sa it the o!!osite a+ In his ritings and s!eeches 2uro,indo
(hose !ro!osed hat has ,een called a /religion of nationalism,/ here nationalism
as regarded as not onl+ high and no,le ,ut di*inel+ ordained. This A-tremist
!olitician and re*olutionar+ organi4er argued:
It is not ,+ an+ mere !olitical !rogramme, not ,+ 6ational Aducation
alone, not ,+ 8adeshi :use of indigenous !roducts; alone, not ,+
"o+cott alone, that this countr+ can ,e sa*ed.... These are merel+
a+s of or.ing; the+ are merel+ !articular concrete lines u!on
hich the s!irit of (od is or.ing in a 6ation, ,ut the+ are not in
themsel*es the one thing needful. 5hat is the one thing needfulG ...
:It is; the idea that there is a great !oer at or. to hel! India, and
that e are doing hat it ,ids us.
(hose came ,+ his con*iction of di*ine leadershi! not through the !rofession of
Hinduism as a creed ,ut through the !ractice of +oga, a s!iritual disci!line also
!racticed ,+ other A-tremists and re*olutionaries. Deaders as ell as the ran. and file
ere strongl+ influenced ,+ such Hindu scri!tures as the "haga*ad (ita and the Ce*i
'ahatm+am ,ut usuall+ did not a!!roach these te-ts as orthodo- ,elie*ers. 'an+
+oung "engalis, including some future terrorists, ere influenced ,+ the teachings of
8ami Vi*e.ananda 013>3$19#21. He*olutionar+ 0and later 9omintern leader1 '. 6.
Ho+ as im!ressed ,+ Vi*e.ananda)s insistence on self$reliance and /man$ma.ing,/
not the fundamentall+ s!iritual content of his message.091
2nother nineteenth$centur+ "engali hose ,oo.s influenced the terrorists as
no*elist "an.im 9handra 9hatter<ee 01333$139%1. He as !rofoundl+ influenced ,+
5estern thought and literature ,ut e*entuall+ re<ected the teachings of 9omte and
'ill for those of 8ri Erishna, <ust as he re<ected Anglish and rote his mature or.s
in "engali. 9oming at the end of the /"engal Henaissance,/ 9hatter<ee)s or.s hel!ed
set in motion hat 2uro,indo (hose called /the re*olution of sentiment hich
!romises to ma.e the "engalis a nation./ @f all 9hatter<ee)s ritings, none fired the
imagination of +oung "engalis more than his historical no*el 2nanda 'ath 0The
a,,e+ of ,liss1. "asing his or. on accounts of a re,ellion in the 1&&#s, 9hatter<ee
transformed the ,ands of laless ,rigands that roamed "engal in those +ears into an
Indian *ersion of Ho,in Hood and his 'err+ 'en. The aim of these *irtuous outlas
is to restore the 'other$'otherland to its former glor+ and !ros!erit+, hich under
'uslim misrule has ,een re!laced ,+ !o*ert+ and degradation. 2lthough the ,ands
i!e out the 'uslim !resence in the area, this does not lead to the esta,lishment of a
Hindu .ingdom. In the last cha!ter, the leader of the grou! reali4es that it is (od)s ill
that the "ritish should go*ern the countr+ for a hile. This ma+ ha*e ,een
9hatter<ee)s a+ of ma.ing his or. acce!ta,le to the rulers of the countr+, ,ut it also
reflected an attitude held ,+ man+ nineteenth$centur+ "engalis. The A-tremists and
the terrorists dre from the ,oo. hat ser*ed their !ur!oses.01#1
Police sources and memoirs of !artici!ants attest to the influence of 2nanda 'ath on
"engali re*olutionaries. "arin (hose ac.noledged his de,t to the no*el and
a!!arentl+ tried to model his secret societ+ in 9alcutta, "engal)s ca!ital, on
9hatter<ee)s Hindu re*olutionaries. @ne of (hose)s associates named the ,uilding that
housed the 'idna!ore ,ranch of the secret societ+ /2nanda 'ath./ The rationalist
Hemchandra Cas often ridiculed 9hatter<ee)s influence ,ut had to admit that 2nanda
'ath had made a strong im!ression on him.0111
"engali A-tremists and terrorists ere em!athic toard other !eo!les struggling for
inde!endence or !olitical em!oerment, including Italian re*olutionaries, the "oers
in 8outh 2frica, and 7a!anese and Irish nationalists. 9alcutta as /almost
hone+com,ed/ ith self$st+led secret societies in the late nineteenth centur+ modeled
on Ital+)s 9ar,onari 0charcoal$,urners1, a secret societ+ ith a large mem,ershi!.
'em,ers of these undergraduate clu,s !ro!ounded ne,ulous !olitical ideals ,ut too.
fe ste!s to achie*e them. @ne mem,er recalled that /there as nothing in our
acti*ities for the go*ernment or the !eo!le to orr+ a,out./ These du,s disa!!eared
,efore the end of the centur+, ,ut hen terrorist grou!s ,egan to form around 19#B,
the ,iogra!hies of some leading Italian nationalists ,ecame re?uired reading. "engali
+ouths ere e-hilarated hen "oer farmers harried "ritish regulars and hen the
7a!anese hum,led Hussia ,+ land and sea. The "oer and Husso$7a!anese ars formed
!art of the histor+ curriculum at the school for re*olutionaries set u! ,+ "arin (hose
in a 9alcutta su,ur,, ith teachers !resenting the "oers and 7a!anese as underdogs
ho came out on to!. (hose rote, somehat anachronisticall+, in the 19%#s that his
/cult of *iolence/ as /learnt from the Irish 8einfeinners and Hussian secret
societies./0121
5hen the first terrorist incidents too. !lace in "engal in 19#3 the "ritish !ress
referred to the !er!etrators as /anarchists./ This as a highl+ charged term then
!re*alent in Auro!e. Dord 'into used the ord in 19#3 hen he rote that the ,om,s
thron ,+ "engali terrorists ere /the !roducts of an anarchical cons!irac+
originating in the 5estern orld,/ hich !ermitted him to re<ect the notion that the
,om,s ere /the effects of a !eo!le struggling to relie*e themsel*es from an
o!!ressor./ 'into)s statement re*eals more a,out the a+ the "ritish sa their
im!erial mission than the actual state of affairs in "engal. 2 "ritish !olice official as
more clear$sighted than 'into hen he agreed ith 2uro,indo (hose that
/)anarchical) is not the !ro!er descri!tion of the mo*ements, organi4ations and crimes
hich ha*e ,een trou,ling us./ =!endranath "anner<ee asserted that the rise of secret
societies in "engal had nothing to do ith anarchism ,ut as caused ,+ intolera,le
local conditions that similarl+ dro*e Italians, Poles, and Irishmen to re*olt against
foreign rule. Di.e them the "engalis found /their honor tram!led into the dust/ and
reali4ed that under the Ha< there as /no !ossi,ilit+ of their e*er ,ecoming men./
Therefore the+ undertoo. the /!erilous dut+ of concentrating their fee,le strength
against the colossal "ritish !oer./0131
To !eo!le connected ith the rise of re*olutionar+ acti*it+ in "engal did ha*e some
contact ith Hussian anarchists. 'argaret 6o,le, an Irish disci!le of Vi*e.ananda,
hom he renamed 8ister 6i*edita, corres!onded ith one such anarchist, Peter
Ero!ot.in, and later met him in Dondon. @ne of his ,oo.s, she rote to a friend,
confirmed her /determination toards 2narchism/$$not necessaril+ the !eaceful .ind.
2lthough she as /glad of e*er+ so*ereign destro+ed,/ she ho!ed that India, /the
most ci*ili4ed countr+ in the orld,/ might enter the !romised land ithout *iolence.
6i*edita hel!ed organi4e samitis 0societies1 that !romoted !h+sical and moral
education and social ser*ice among +oung "engalis. 8he !resented one of these
grou!s ith her collection of ,oo.s on Auro!ean re*olutionar+ histor+, ,ut there is no
e*idence that she s!o.e to them of Ero!ot.in)s !hiloso!hical anarchism, much less
the anarchist idea of /!ro!aganda ,+ the deed./ The samitis 6i*edita hel!ed found
e*entuall+ turned to terrorism, ,ut it is difficult to determine her role. 6i*edita once
re?uested mem,ers of the !art+ /not to tell her an+thing of the secret mo*ement,/ +et
she did hel! one +oung man gain access to a la,orator+ so he could e-!eriment ith
e-!losi*es.01%1
The ,om,s of the anarchists, not their ideas, attracted "engali terrorists. Cisgusted
ith the ineffecti*eness and the religious orientation of "engali secret societies,
Hemchandra Cas ent to Auro!e in 19#> to stud+ e-!losi*e chemistr+ and
re*olutionar+ organi4ation. He learned something of ,oth ,ut e*inced no interest in
anarchism, socialism, or other !olitical and economic theories. 2t first he thought
/anarchist/ and /re*olutionar+/ ere s+non+ms, ,ut hen he learned /that anarchism
im!lies a state of things in hich e*er+one)s ill is la,/ he ,ecame disillusioned and
sto!!ed meeting ith anarchists. He considered their ideal as im!ractical as s!iritual
sara<. Cas returned to India at the end of 19#& ith a mass of re*olutionar+ literature
and an u!$to$date ,om, manual. Enoledge of e-!losi*es e*entuall+ ,ecame
ides!read in "engal, so it ma+ ,e said that this as the most im!ortant influence of
Auro!ean anarchism on the "engali terrorists.01B1
Terrorism in India as !receded ,+ an interest in !h+sical culture, !articularl+
restling, drill, and the use of the lathi 0singlestic.1. Indigenous traditions of !h+sical
culture and martial arts had sur*i*ed in man+ !arts of India des!ite "ritish attem!ts to
discourage them. Hoe*er, these traditions had almost entirel+ died out among the
Hindus in "engal. The 9alcutta secret societies of the late nineteenth centur+ anted
to im!ro*e /the national !h+si?ue,/ ,ut nothing much as done in this direction until
a samiti for !h+sical culture as founded around 19##. 8oon other societies ith
similar aims ere esta,lished. 5hen 2uro,indo (hose and his lieutenant,
7atindranath "aner<i, decided to !o!ulari4e the idea of *iolent re*olution, the+ or.ed
through these samitis and !lanned
to esta,lish secretl+ or, as far as *isi,le action could ,e ta.en, under
*arious !rete-ts and co*ers, re*olutionar+ !ro!aganda and recruiting
throughout "engal.... 8ocieties of +oung men ere to ,e esta,lished
ith *arious ostensi,le o,<ects, cultural, intellectual or moral and
those alread+ e-isting ere to ,e on o*er for re*olutionar+ use.
Ioung men ere to ,e trained in acti*ities hich might ,e hel!ful for
ultimate militar+ action.
"aner<i and his associates on o*er a num,er of e-isting samitis. He and (hose
thought that the !rogram the+ had set in motion might ta.e thirt+ +ears to result in an
armed insurrection. 'ost of the recruits thought this too long and could not endure the
militar+ disci!line that "aner<i tried to introduce. 5h+ go to the trou,le of learning
drill and lathi$!la+ hen +ou could ,lo u! a train or a magistrate ith a ,om,G01>1
The lure of ?uic. and im!ressi*e results e-!lains h+ the "engali secret societies
turned from militar+ !re!arations to the terrorist methods that ,ecame their stoc.$in$
trade. The "engalis claimed that this change of strateg+ as im!osed on them ,+
irresisti,le forces. In 5ounded Humanit+, an a!ologetic ,oo. !u,lished in 193>,
"arin (hose rote, /India as still !oliticall+ aslee!.... =nder such circumstances a
small ,and of +oung and ine-!erienced dreamers goaded ,+ ant of resources and
s+m!ath+ and egged m ,+ scheming arm$chair leaders laid the first mine under the
train carr+ing 8ir 2ndre Fraser, the s+m!athetic and !o!ular lieutenant (o*ernor of
"engal./ 8ome of this is hard to acce!t. Fraser as neither s+m!athetic nor !o!ular.
Iet (hose clearl+ as fascinated ,+ ,om,s and had no ?ualms a,out ordering their
use. In "angla+ "i!la, Pracheshta 0The re*olutionar+ effort in "engal1, a more
,elie*a,le ,oo., Hemchandra Cas tells ho "arin (hose used to im!ress !ros!ecti*e
donors ith a !+rotechnic demonstration in*ol*ing chlorate of !otash ta.en from a
,om,shell.01&1
It seems true that the terrorists ere goaded ,+ !o!ular demands for a dramatic re!l+
to !olice ,rutalit+ and official arrogance. In 19#3, "arin (hose confessed to a !olice
officer that /there as a ide and !ersistent demand all o*er India for one successful
!olitical murder in order to stiffen the ,ac. of the !eo!le and satisf+ their s!irit of
*engeance./ =!endranath "anner<ee said much the same thing in his "engali
memoirs. 2fter a series of arrests and sedition trials, !eo!le ,ecame so enraged that
/e*er+one seemed to ,e sa+ing, J6o. This can)t go on. 5e)*e got to ,lo out the ,rains
of one of these ,astards.)/ 2ccording to another memoir ,+ a "engali, there ere to
<ustifications for terrorism: /First, it ,rought a greater courage to the general !u,lic,
e*en though it remained dou,tful hether it hel!ed relie*e the o!!ression. 8econdl+,
it ga*e !eo!le some satisfaction./0131
A*en after the turn to terrorism, ho!es for a militar+ insurrection ere ne*er
a,andoned. 2 distinction continued to ,e made ,eteen the militar+ and terrorist
,ranches of the 9ongress, ,ut from 19#> until 191% onl+ the terrorist ,ranch as
acti*e in "engal. The out,rea. of 5orld 5ar I led re*olutionaries to ho!e that the+
could o,tain militar+ assistance from (erman+. The+ did get some mone+, ,ut the
onl+ significant attem!t to smuggle ea!ons into India ended in disaster.
He*olutionaries contacted the (erman consul in 7a.arta, here arrangements ere
made for arms to ,e sent from the =nited 8tates to the eastern coast of India. 2
(erman agent in 6e Ior. !urchased rifles and ammunition and had them shi!!ed to
8an Ciego, hich ere then to ,e transferred to another *essel ,ound for <a.arta and
India. The arms ere sei4ed ,+ =.8. authorities in 5ashington 8tate, and "ritish
armed !olice tra!!ed "engali re*olutionaries aiting for the shi!ment. The leader of
the "engali grou!, 7atindranath 'u.her<ee, is regarded in India as a national hero and
as e*en !raised ,+ a "ritish officer as /!erha!s the ,oldest and the most acti*el+
dangerous of all "engali re*olutionaries./0191
The first !hase of terrorist acti*it+ in "engal ended in 'a+ 19#3 hen "arin (hose,
Hemchandra Cas, =!endranath "anner<ee, and more than thirt+ others ere arrested
after a failed assassination attem!t. 2 fe months after the assassination attem!t, Dord
'into rote to 7ohn 'orle+, "ritish secretar+ of state for India: /The cons!irac+ is far
,etter organi4ed than I had e*er imagined and though the idea of an+ attem!t at
re*olution seems fantastical, there might, if e had not made the disco*eries e ha*e,
ha*e ,een something in the nature of simultaneous assassinations of Auro!eans
folloed ,+ tremendous !unishment ,+ us. The dangers, hich I ho!e e ha*e
a*oided, are terri,le to thin. of./ The mo*ement sur*i*ed for the ne-t three decades to
!la+ a significant role in the struggle for freedom. Though unsuccessful in !ractical
terms, the earl+ efforts of (hose and his friends ere not ithout results.02#1
5hen the Indian 9ouncils 2ct 0'orle+$'into Heforms1 as !assed in 19#9, !eo!le
in 9alcutta sa them as /the direct result of the :,om,; cons!irac+./ This as an
e-aggeration, ,ut it is certain that the "ritish ,ecame more illing to negotiate ith
the 'oderates once the terrorists had shon the dangers of o,durac+. The A-tremists
reali4ed this: /A*en di!lomac+ must ha*e some com!elling force ,ehind it to attain its
ends,/ declared a "ande 'ataram riter, since /!eaceful means can succeed onl+
hen these im!l+ the ugl+ alternati*e of more trou,lesome and fearful methods,
recourse to hich the failure of !eaceful attem!ts must ine*ita,l+ lead./ The
go*ernment)s ne-t reform !ac.age, the 'ontagu$9helmsford Heforms, as
announced in 1919 after another terrorist out,rea..0211
2fter 5orld 5ar I A-tremists ho had ,een e-!elled from the 9ongress in 19#& ere
alloed to reenter the organi4ation. The national mo*ement thus ,lended the
A-tremists) acti*e a!!roach and demand for freedom ith the 'oderates)
constitutional methods and illingness to com!romise. (andhi as the !rinci!al
9ongress leader from 192#. His method as !assi*e resistance, hat he called
sat+agraha 0holding to truth1. 2t the heart of this as ahimsa 0non*iolence1. To
(andhi, non*iolence did not mean /mee. su,mission to the ill of the e*il$doer,
,ut ... the !itting of one)s hole soul against the ill of the t+rant./ He considered this
the one true means ,+ hich India could attain sara<, as ell as the /onl+ a+ ... to
sto! terrorism./0221
(andhi made this o,ser*ation in a letter to a leading 'oderate, ,ut hen he addressed
the A-tremists he too. a different a!!roach. 2t a !u,lic meeting in 9alcutta late in
192# he declared:
The hole histor+ of "ritish rule in India is a demonstration of the
fact that e ha*e ne*er ,een a,le to offer successful *iolence. 5hilst
therefore I sa+ that rather than ha*e the +o.e of a (o*ernment that
has so emasculated us, I ould elcome *iolence, I ould urge ith
all the em!hasis that I can command that India ill ne*er ,e a,le to
regain her on ,+ methods of *iolence.
5hile affirming that for himself non*iolence as a creed, (andhi offered it to others
as a !olic+. 2fter some initial hesitation, most "engali terrorists or.ed ith (andhi
from 192# to 1922, hen a *iolent incident in "ihar caused him to called off the 6on$
9oo!eration 'o*ement.0231
Curing the ?uarter$centur+ until the attainment of inde!endence in 19%&, the struggle
for freedom as carried forard mainl+ through non*iolent !assi*e resistance.
6e*ertheless, numerous out,rea.s of re*olutionar+ terrorism, !articularl+ in "engal
and northern India, .e!t "ritish securit+ forces constantl+ on the alert. In 193#, the
tem!orar+ occu!ation of the go*ernment armor+ at 9hittagong shoed that "engali
re*olutionaries had !ut their da+s of amateur ,ungling ,ehind them. The ne-t +ear the
9ongress assem,l+ !assed a resolution commending the ,ra*er+ of "hagat 8ingh and
to other terrorists ho had ,een e-ecuted for their !art in the assassination of a
"ritish !olice officer. The ording of the resolution ,ecame a ,one of contention
,eteen (andhi)s grou!, hich insisted on including a !hrase dissociating the
9ongress from /!olitical *iolence in an+ sha!e or form/ and an anti$(andhi faction
that o!!osed this disclaimer. The contro*ers+ threatened to o*ershado the discussion
of the (andhi$Irin 2greement, the !rinci!al item of ,usiness on the 9ongress)
agenda that +ear. 5ides!read su!!ort for "hagat 8ingh and other re*olutionaries led
the official 9ongress historian to admit that /"hagat 8ingh)s name as as idel+
.non all o*er India and as as !o!ular as (andhi)s./02%1
In 193# (andhi rote that the /!art+ of *iolence/ as /as !atriotic as the ,est among
us,/ commending its mem,ers for ha*ing /much sacrifice to its credit./ Enoing that
the+ anted action and not tal., he in*ited them to <oin his ci*il diso,edience
mo*ement. This as the onl+ a+ to attain /com!lete inde!endence,/ the official
9ongress goal, and to /sa*e the countr+ from im!ending lalessness and secret
crime./ 'an+ terrorists ansered his call. Those ho did not added to the momentum
of the mo*ement ,+ ma.ing (andhi)s non*iolent methods a!!ear less ,elligerent than
the+ ere.02B1
2lthough (andhi ne*er com!romised his ideals ,+ coo!erating ith the !art+ of
*iolence, he .ne that much of his strength came from ,eing !ercei*ed ,+ the "ritish
as a lesser e*il than men li.e "hagat 8ingh. 2t Dondon)s Hound Ta,le 9onference of
1931, (andhi made it clear that if the go*ernment refused to or. ith him it ould
ha*e the terrorists to deal ith. Holding /no ,rief for terrorists,/ (andhi made it clear,
/If +ou in or. the 9ongress for all it is orth +ou ill sa+ good$,+e to
terrorism./02>1
(andhi)s onl+ serious ri*al for 9ongress leadershi! during the 193#s as 8u,has
9handra "ose, a "engali ho had ,een influenced ,+ 2uro,indo (hose and "engal)s
re*olutionar+ terrorists during his +outh. 2lthough "ose ne*er ,ecame an acti*e
re*olutionar+, he .ne and s+m!athi4ed ith mem,ers of re*olutionar+ grou!s li.e
2nushilan and 7ugantar. 2s head of the 9alcutta 9or!oration, he ga*e <o,s to men
ith re*olutionar+ connections and /met ith acti*e re*olutionaries and .ne in a
general a+ hat the+ !lanned to do./ "ose as im!risoned se*eral times for his
su!!osed connections ith the terrorists or for acts of ci*il diso,edience. Di.e
(andhi, he emerged from <ail ith his !o!ularit+ enhanced. =nli.e (andhi, hoe*er,
"ose regarded non*iolence as a ea!on to ,e used or discarded as circumstances
dictated.02&1
In 1933 "ose, the ac.noledged leader of the 9ongress) left ing, as elected !art+
!resident. The ne-t +ear he successfull+ challenged (andhi)s candidate and on a
second term, ,ut (andhi)s su!!orters forced "ose to resign in 2!ril 1939. 2s the
leader of the Forard "loc, "ose continued his !olitical or. until his im!risonment
in 19%# under the artime Cefence of India 2ct. Heleased after fi*e months and .e!t
under house arrest, "ose esca!ed from India and ent first to (erman+ and then to
7a!an, meeting ith 2-is leaders in ,oth countries. In 19%3 he too. u! the leadershi!
of the Indian 6ational 2rm+ 0I621, organi4ed the !re*ious +ear ,+ another "engali
re*olutionar+. The I62, consisting mainl+ of Indian soldiers ho had ,een ca!tured
in 8outheast 2sia, !la+ed a su,ordinate role in the unsuccessful 7a!anese siege of
Eohima and Im!hal in 19%%. 'ilitaril+ insignificant, the I62 as thrust into
!rominence in 6o*em,er 19%B hen some of its officers ere court$martialed. The
!u,lic outcr+ against these !roceedings together ith a locali4ed re*olt of the Ho+al
Indian 6a*+ con*inced the "ritish that the armed ser*ices could no longer ,e
de!ended on to !rotect "ritish interests in India. 9lement 2ttlee, the "ritish !rime
minister from 19%B to 19B1 ho !resided o*er the final transfer of !oer, told a
former "engali <udge that "ose)s I62 did much more than (andhi)s sat+agraha to
!ersuade him that it as time for "ritain to !ull out of India.0231
In 19#9 the <udge in the cons!irac+ trial of "arin (hose and his associates s!o.e
!ro!heticall+: /The danger of a cons!irac+ such as this lies not so much in its !ros!ect
of success as in its fruition. 5hen once the !oison had entered into the s+stem it is
im!ossi,le to sa+ here it ill ,rea. out or ho far$reaching ill ,e its effects./
Curing the first to decades of India)s inde!endence there as little organi4ed
terrorism in the countr+, ,ut during the late 19>#s left$ing "engali insurgents ,egan
using terrorist methods to achie*e their re*olutionar+ aims. The 193#s sa the rise of
se!aratist terrorism in Pun<a,, Eashmir, and 2ssam as ell as among ethnic Indian
Tamils in 8ri Dan.a. 2s I rite 0late 19911 2ssamese and Eashmiri terrorists hold
hostages in their res!ecti*e *alle+s, Pun<a,i terrorists account for a do4en or so
.illings e*er+ ee., and a 8ri Dan.an Tamil grou! is ,eing in*estigated in connection
ith the assassination of Ha<i* (andhi. In the 199#s tensions ,eteen Hindus and
'uslims ha*e ,een orsened ,+ e-tremist acti*ists.
2n immense gulf se!arates contem!orar+ terrorists throughout the orld from
Auro!e)s terrorists of the nineteenth centur+ ho targeted !articular rulers and
officials. 9ontem!orar+ terrorists ha*e ,een associated ith random .idna!ings, mass
murders, and aims that are often more criminal than !olitical. The terrorists in India
toda+ ha*e more in common ith the terrorists of contem!orar+ Auro!e than ith
their more idealistic !redecessors of the nineteenth centur+ ho, des!ite their man+
failures, contri,uted to India)s di*ided freedom.0291 011 '. E. (andhi, /To the Indian
9ritics,/ 23 7anuar+ 193#, in The 9ollected 5or.s of 'ahatma (andhi 06e Celhi,
*arious dates1, %2:%23. 021 '.2. "uch, Hise and (roth of Indian 'ilitant
6ationalism 0"aroda, 19%#1; H. 9. 'a<umdar, /The (enesis of A-tremism,/ in 2.
(u!ta, ed. 8tudies in the "engal Henaissance 09alcutta, 19B31; "iman,ehari
'a<umdar, 'ilitant 6ationalism in India 09alcutta, 19>>1; (o!al Haldar,
/He*olutionar+ Terrorism,/ in 8tudies in the "engal Henaissance, 8umit 8ar.ar, The
8adeshi 'o*ement in "engal 09alcutta, 19&31, %>B$92; "i!an 9handra, India)s
8truggle for Inde!endence 06e Celhi, 19391. 031 Camodar 9ha!e.ar,
/2uto,iogra!h+/ 0official translation from 'arathi1, in 8ource 'aterial for a Histor+
of the Freedom 'o*ement in India 0"om,a+, 19B31, 2:1#1%; 8. 2. T. Holatt et al.,
He!ort of 9ommittee 2!!ointed to In*estigate He*olutionar+ 9ons!iracies in India
0Dondon, 19131 0hereafter cited as Holatt He!ort1, !aras. 3, 2#. This re!ort is
generall+ considered relia,le and is cited ,+ the terrorists in their on ritings. 0%1
Holatt He!ort, !ara. 1>3; (o*ernment of "engal, Political Ce!artment,
'emorandum on the Histor+ of Terrorism in "engal, 19#B$1933 09alcutta, 19331,
5est "engal 8tate 2rchi*es, 9alcutta 0hereafter cited as 5"821, a!!endi- II. 0B1
Translated e-tracts from 7ugantar and 8andh+a in He!ort on 6ati*e 6es!a!er in
"engal, ee.l+ !olice intelligence re!ort, 5"82; selections from 7ugantar in Haridas
'u.her<ee and =ma 'u.her<ee, "harater 8adhinata 2ndolane /7ugantar/ Patri.ar
Can 0The contri,ution of 7ugantar to the Indian freedom mo*ement1 09alcutta, 19&21;
'. (. Hanade, Hise of the 'aratha Poer 0"om,a+, 19##1, 2B; 8ri 2uro,indo
:(hose;, @n Himself 0Pondicherr+, 19&21,1Bn, 2B. 0>1 (. 2. 6atesan, ed., 9ongress
Presidential 2ddresses 0'adras, 193B1, &2%; 8ri 2uro,indo, "ande 'ataram: Aarl+
Political 5ritings 0Pondicherr+, 19&21, 92; 'into 0*icero+1 to 'orle+ 0secretar+ of
state for India1, 13 'a+ 19#9, in 'ar+, 9ountess of 'into, India: 'into and 'orle+.
19#B$191# 0Dondon, 193%1, 3#B; (. E. (o.hale, s!eech of 7ul+ 19#9, in Earma+ogin
% 01& 7ul+ 19#91: 1%; ". 9. Tila., inter*ie of 19#&, in H. 5. 6e*inson, The 6e
8!irit in India 0Celhi, 19&B1, &2. 0&1 "arindra Eumar (hose, 2gni<ug 0Ca+s of fire1
09alcutta, n.d.1; =!endranath "anner<ee, 6ir,asiter 2tma.atha 02uto,iogra!h+ of an
e-ile1 09alcutta, 19&>1; Hemchandra Eanungo :Cas;, "angla+ "i!la, Pracheshta
09alcutta, 19231; 'u.her<ee and 'u.her<ee, eds., /7ugantar/ Patri.a, &%, 9B, 93; 2run
9handra (uha, First 8!ar. of He*olution 06e Celhi, 19&11,33; tal. of 12 Cecem,er
19%#, 8ri 2uro,indo !a!ers, 8ri 2uro,indo 2shram 2rchi*es, Pondicherr+; 8ri
2uro,indo, "ande 'ataram, 3>. 031 (o*ernment of "engal, !olitical confidential file
2% of 19#9, 5"82; Holatt He!ort, a!!endi- 2. 091 8!eech of 2uro,indo (hose, 19
7anuar+ 19#3, in 8ri 2uro,indo, "ande 'ataram, >B9$>#; 7. 9. Eer, Political Trou,le
in India 09alcutta, 191&1, %3$B1; 8ami Vi*e.ananda, 9om!lete 5or.s 09alcutta,
19391, 3:22#$22; '. 6. Ho+, 8elected 5or.s of '. 6. Ho+, ed. 8i,nara+an Ha+
0Celhi, 193&1,1:332$33. 01#1 8ri 2uro,indo, The Harmon+ of Virtue 0Pondicherr+,
19&21, 9B$93; "an.im 9handra 9hatter<ee, 2nanda 'ath 013321; 5illiam 5ilson
Hunter, 2nnals of Hural "engal 0Dondon, 139&; re!rint, Dondon, 19&#1, &1. 0111 Eer
Political Trou,le, 31$33; ". (hose, 2gni<ug, 23; (o*ernment of "engal, 6ote on the
'idna!ore He*olutionar+ 9ons!irac+, 5"82, 3; Eanungo :Cas;, "angla+ "i!la,
Pracheshta, 1, B9,1B3. 0121 "i!in 9handra Pal, 'emories of '+ Dife and Times
09alcutta, 19321, 2%>$%3; Ha,indranath Tagore, 7i,ansmriti 0Heminiscences1
09alcutta, 193&1, 3>$91; "hu!endranath Catta, 8ami Vi*e.ananda Patriot$Pro!het:
2 8tud+ 09alcutta, 19B%1, 1>&; ". (hose, /8ri 2uro,indo as I =nderstand Him/
0un!u,lished manuscri!t, 8ri 2uro,indo 2shram 2rchi*es, Pondicherr+1, %9. 0131
'into to 'orle+, 2& 'a+ 19#3, 'into !a!ers, 6ational Di,rar+ of 8cotland; cf. 'into
to 'orle+, > 'a+ 19#3, i,id.; 9le*eland note, 1B 'arch 191#, in (o*ernment of
India, Home Ce!artment Proceedings, series 2 0hereafter cited as (@I HC21,
6ational 2rchi*es of India, 2!ril 191#, nos. B9$>2; "anner<ee, 6ir,asiter 2tma.atha,
i. 01%1 8ister 6i*edita :'argaret 6o,le;, Detters of 8ister 6i*edita, ed. 8an.ari Prasad
"ose 9alcutta, 19321, 331; Catta, Patriot$Pro!het, 113; 6olini Eanta (u!ta, 8mritir
Pata 0Dea*es of memor+1 09alcutta, 13&#, "engali era :19>3;1, 31. 01B1 Eanungo
:Cas;, "angla+ "i!la, Pracheshta, cha!. 12. 01>1 Pal, '+ Dife and Times, 313; 8ri
2uro,indo, @n Himself, 23. 01&1 "arindra Eumar 9hose, 5ounded Humanit+
09alcutta, n.d. :193>;1, %3%9; Eanungo :Cas;, "angla+ "i!la, Pracheshta, 113. 0131
". (hose, confession ,efore de!ut+ su!erintendent of !olice, 3 'a+ 19#3, (@I HC2,
'a+ 19#3, nos. 112$B#, 2&; "anner<ee, 6ir,asiter 2tma.atha, 1&; (u!ta, 8mritir Pata,
3B. 0191 (u!ta, 8mritir Pata, 3B; India @ffice Hecords 0Dondon1 '88 A=H C &#9,
/6angla Cacoit+ 9ase A-hi,its,/ 2; Holett He!ort, !aras. 111$12; (uha, First 8!ar.,
339$9%. 02#1 'into to 'orle+, 1& Cecem,er 19#3, 'orle+ Pa!ers, India @ffice
Di,rar+ '88 A=H B&3; (@I HC2, 7ul+ 19#9, nos. 3,%#$%1. 0211 "ande 'ataram, 2%
2!ril 19#3, cited in Haridas 'u.her<ee and =ma 'u.her<ee, 8ri 2uro,indo and the
6e Thought in Indian Politics 09alcutta, 19>%1, 3&>. 0221 '. E. (andhi, cited in
H.E. 'a<umdar, 8truggle for Freedom 0"om,a+, 193&1, 29&$3; (andhi to C. 5achha,
2B Fe,ruar+ 1919, 9ollected 5or.s, 1B:1#&. 0231 '. E. (andhi, s!eech at Eumartoli
Par., 9alcutta, 13 Cecem,er 192#, 9ollected 5or.s, 19,1#2$#3. 02%1 ". Patta,hi
8itarama++a, The Histor+ of the Indian 6ational 9ongress 0"om,a+, 193B1, 1:%B>$&.
02B1 (andhi, /To the Indian 9ritics,/ %23. 02>1 '. E. (andhi, /8!eech at Plenar+
8ession of Hound Ta,le 9onference,/ 1 Cecem,er 1931, 9ollected 5or.s,
%3:3B3,3>B. 02&1 Deonard 2. (ordon, "rothers against the Ha<: 2 "iogra!h+ of 8arat
and 8u,has 9handra "ose 06e Celhi, 199#1,1#2,11B. 0231 P. ". 9ha.ra*art+, 3#
'arch 19&>, in Anglish translation in 6imai Pramani., (andhi and the Indian
6ational He*olutionaries 09alcutta, 193%1, 9. 0291 7udgment in 2li!ore "om, 9ase, >
'a+ 19#9, in The 2li!ore "om, Trial, ed. "i<o+ Erishna "ose 09alcutta, 19221, 13%;
5alter Da?ueur, &he 2ge of Terrorism 0"oston, 193&1, %, Ca*id 9. Ha!o!ort and
Ionah 2le-ander, The 'oralit+ of Terrorism 06e Ior., 19321, 22#.
Peter Heehs li*es in Pondicherr+, India, and is connected ith the 8ri 2uro,indo
2shram 2rchi*es and Hesearch Di,rar+. His latest ,oo., The "om, in "engal: The
@rigins of He*olutionar+ Terrorism in India, 19##$191#, has <ust ,een !u,lished ,+
@-ford =ni*ersit+ Press.