ELECTROMAGNETISM

Four kinds of fundamental forces or interactions:

-gravitational interaction
-electromagnetic interaction
-strong interaction
-weak interaction
Evolution of knowledge on electromagnetism
Magnetic phenomena , 2000 BC, China.
Electric and magnetic phenomena , 700 BC, Greece.
Electricity and magnetism are related phenomena, early part of 19
th
century: Oersted
experiment (1819) and Faraday experiment (1831); Maxwell's theory of
electromagnetism (1873).
The role of electromagnetism
The laws of electricity and magnetism play a central role in the operation of such
devices as MP3 players, mobile phone, televisions, electric motors, computers, high-
energy accelerators, and other electronic devices.
More fundamentally, the interatomic and intermolecular forces responsible for the
formation of materials, solids and liquids, are electric in origin.
1
1. Young and Freedman,
Sears and Zemansky's UNIVERSITY PHYSICS
with Modern Physics
12
th
Edition, Pearson-Addison Wesley.
2. Serway and Jewett,
PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics
7
th
Edition, Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
3. Halliday and Resnick,
Fundamentals of PHYSICS
9
th
Edition, Jearl Walker.
2
3
1. Electric charge and electric field
2. Electric potential and electric energy
3. Electric current; DC circuits
4. Magnetism
5. Electromagnetic induction
6. Maxwells equations.
Chapter 1 Electric charge and electric field
1.1 Electric charge
Plastic rod rubbed on fur, glass rod rubbed with silk are charged.
Charged glass rods repel each other. Charged glass rod attracts charged plastic rod.
Charged plastic rod and fur attract each other.
Two types of electric charge: positive and negative.
Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other. A positive charge
and a negative charge attract each other.
1.1
4
Young p. 710
The structure of an atom can be
described in terms of electrons,
protons, neutrons. Negatively
charged electrons are held within
the atom by attractive electric
forces exerted on them by the
positively charged nucleus. The
protons and neutrons are held
within the stable atomic nuclei by
an attractive interaction, called the
strong nuclear force, that
overcomes the electric repulsion of
the protons.
5
Electric charge
and the structure of matter
The magnitude of the charge is the same in electrons and protons.
A neutral atom has as many electrons as protons. The number of protons is called the
atomic number of the element. An atom which gains or loses electron becomes an ion.
Normally, a macroscopic body is neutral and has net charge equal to zero. In most
cases, in order to give an excess charge to a body, we add or remove negatively
charged and highly mobile electrons.
1.3
6
Electric charge is conserved
The principle of conservation of charge:
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed systemis constant.
7
Conservation of charge is thought to be a universal conservation law. No experimental
evidence for any violation of this principle has ever been observed.
The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge
Electric charge is quantized.
The charge of a proton or an electron is called the elementarycharge. The charge on
any macroscopic body is always either zero or an integer multiple (negative or
positive) of the elementary charge .
1.2 Conductors, insulators and
induced charges
Materials that permit electric charge to move easily
from one region of the material to another are
conductors.
Materials that do not permit electric charge to move
from one region of the material to another are
insulators.
Most metals are good conductors, while most
nonmetals are insulators.
8
Charging by induction
9
Electric Forces on Uncharged Objects
10
11
1.7
Applications of the electric force
-Electrostatic painting
-Laser printer
Young p.716
1.3 Coulomb's law
12
Young p. 716
Coulomb experiment: ;
Coulomb's law:
The magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
13
2
1
F
r

1 2
F q q
1 2
2
q q
F k
r
=
1 2
2
q q
k
r
r

=
r
F
Fundamental electric constants
k = 8.987551787 10
9
N.m
2
/C
2
~ 8.988 10
9
N.m
2
/C
2
or k = (10
7
N. s
2
/C
2
)c
2
with c = 2.99792458 10
8
m/s.
k=1/4tc
0
where c
0
= 8.854 10
-12
C
2
/Nm
2
9
0
1
8 988 10
4
. k
tc
= =
Nm
2
/C
2
1 2
2
0
1
4
q q
r
r
tc

=
r
F
e= 1.60217653(14)10
-19
C
Principle of superposition of forces
Experiments show that when two charges exert forces simultaneously on a third
charge, the total force acting on that charge is the vector sum of the forces that the
two charges would exert individually.
14
Example Two equal positive point charges q
1
= q
2
= 2.0 C are located at x = 0, y =
0.30 m and x = 0, y = - 0.30 m, respectively. What are the magnitude and direction of the
total (net) electric force that these charges exert on a third point charge Q = 4.0 C at
x = 0.40m, y = 0?
Young p. 721
1.4 Electric field and electric forces
15
Electric field
We define the electric field at a point as
the electric force experienced by a test
charge q
0
at the point, divided by the charge
q
0
E
0
F
0
0
q
=
F
E
If the field at a certain point is known,
then the force experienced by a point
charge q
0
placed at that point is
E
0
F
0 0
q = F E
The electric force on a charged body is
exerted by the electric field created by other
charged bodies.
Young 721
+Action-at- a-distance
+Charge on A modifies the space. Charge on
B senses how space has been modified.
Electric field of a point charge
16
0
0
2
0
1
4
qq
r
r
tc
=
r
F
0
2
0 0
1
4
q
q r
r
tc
= =
F r
E
17
In many cases, especially when studying the electric field in dielectrics, we use the
electric displacement vector or the electric induction vector .
In vacuum,
D
0
c = D E
1.5 Electric field calculations
The superposition of electric fields
18
The superposition of electric forces
0 1 2 3 0 1 0 2 0 3
... ... q q q = + + + = + + F F F F E E E
The superposition of electric fields
0
1 2 3
0
...
q
= = + +
F
E E E E
Theprincipleof superpositionof electricfields.
The total electric field at P is the vector sum of the fields at P due to each point
charge in the charge distribution.
Different charge distributions:
linear charge density (C/m)
surface charge density o (C/m
2
)
volume charge density (C/m
3
)
Young p.727
Example 1 Point charges q
1
and q
2
of +12 nC
and -12 nC, respectively, are placed 0.10 m
apart. This combination of two charges with
equal magnitude and opposite sign is called
an electric dipole.
Compute the electric field caused by q
1
, the
field caused by q
2
, and the total field (a) at
point a; (b) at point b; and (c) at point c.
Young 728
19
Example 2 A ring-shaped conductor with
radius a carries a total charge Q uniformly
distributed around it. Find the electric field
at a point P that lies on the axis of the ring at
a distance x from its center.
Linear charge density =Q/2ta
( )
3 2
2 2
0
1
4
/

Qx
x a
tc
=
+
E i
Symmetry argument.
If x point charge
Example 3 Find the electric field caused by
a disk of radius R with a uniform positive
surface charge density o, at a point along the
axis of the disk a distance x from its center.
Assume that x is positive.
In the limit that R>>x, . This is the case of an infinite plane sheet of charge.
20
( )
2 2
0
1
1
2
1 /
x
E
R x
o
c
(
(
=
(
+
(

0
2
E
o
c
=
Example 4 Two infinite plane sheets are
placed parallel to each other, separated by a
distance d. The lower sheet has a uniform
positive surface charge density o, and the
upper sheet has a uniform negative surface
charge density -o with the same magnitude.
Find the electric field between the two
sheets, above the upper sheet, and below the
lower sheet.
The electric field between the sheets is a uniform field.
Young p.732
1.6 Electric field lines
Electric field lines can be a big help for visualizing
electric fields and making them seem more real. An
electric field lineis an imaginary line or curve drawn
through a region of space so that its tangent at any
point is in the direction of the electric-field vector at
that point.
21
The rules for drawing electric field lines:
-The lines must begin on a positive charge and termi-
nate on a negative charge. Some lines may begin or end
infinitely far away.
-No two field lines can cross.
-The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the magni-
tude of the electric field in that region. Therefore, the
field lines are close together where the electric field is
strong and far apart where the field is weak.
22
Young p. 734
23
1.7 Gauss's law
The total number of electric field lines
penetrating a surface is called the electric
flux. For a surface that is perpendicular to
the field lines of a uniform field, the electric
flux is .
24
1.20
E
EA u =
1.21
In the case where the normal to the surface of
area A is at an angle u to the uniform electric
field, .
Depending on u , the flux may be positive or
negative.
cos
E
EA EA u

u = =
Serway 673
Electric flux
In more general situations, the electric field may
vary over a large surface. We divide the surface
into a large number of small elements, each of
area AA
i
and define a vector . Then
Summing the contributions of all elements gives an
approximation to the total flux through the surface:
25
1.22
i i
A A = A A n
cos
E i i i i i i i
E A A u Au = A = A = A E n E A
E i i
i
u = A

E A
If the area of each element approaches zero, the
number of elements approaches infinity and the
sum is replaced by an integral.
surface
E
d u =
}
E A
For a closed surface, the normal to the surface, by convention, always point outward.
The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the
surface, where the net number means the number of lines leaving the surface minus
the number of lines entering the surface. We can write
26
A closed surface in
an electric field.
The area vectors are,
by convention,
normal to the surface
and point outward.
The flux through an
area element can be
positive (element 1),
zero (element 2), or
negative (element 3).
E n
d E dA u = =
} }
E A
Gauss's law
The gaussian surface in the shape of a sphere
with a charge q at its center:
27
E
d EdA E dA u = = =
} } }
E A
2
2
0 0
1
4
4
E
q q
r
r
t
tc c
u = =
1.25
The gaussian surfaces with different shape but
surrounding the charge, also:
0
E
q
c
u =
Therefore, the net flux through any closed
surface surrounding a point charge q is
given by q/c
0
and is independent of the
shape of that surface.
For a point charge located outside the closed surface,
the net flux through the surface is zero.
Therefore, the net electric flux through a closed
surface that surrounds no charge is zero.
In the general cases, where there are many point
charges or there is a continuous distribution of
charge, we use the superposition principle.
28
1.26
Gauss's law The net flux through a closed surface
equals the algebraic sum of the charges inside the
surface divided by c
0
in
0
E
q
d
c
u = =
}
E A
Gausss law is an alternative to Coulombs law. It provides a different way to express
the relationship between electric charge and electric field.
Applications of Gauss's law
29
Gausss law is useful for determining electric fields when the charge distribution is highly
symmetric. In choosing the gaussian surface, always take advantage of the symmetry of the
charge distribution so that E can be removed from the integral.
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to be constant over the portion
of the surface.
2. The dot product can be expressed as a simple algebraic product E dA because and
are parallel.
3. The dot product is zero because and are perpendicular.
4. The electric field is zero over the portion of the surface.
E
dA
Example 1 An insulating solid sphere of radius a
has a uniform volume charge density and carries
a total positive charge Q
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a
point outside the sphere.
(b) Find the magnitude of the electric field at a
point inside the sphere.
E dA
2
0
4
Q
E
r tc
=
for r>a
0
3
E r

c
=
for r<a
Example 2 Find the electric field a distance r
from a line of positive charge of infinite length
and constant charge per unit length .
Example 3 Find the electric field due to an
infinite plane of positive charge with uniform
surface charge density o.
30
0
2
E
r

tc
=
0
2
E
o
c
=
1.8 Charges on conductors
Young p.761, 767
31
If there is an electric field within a conductor,
the field exerts a force on every charge in the
conductor, giving the free charges a net motion.
By definition, an electrostatic situation is one in
which the charges have no net motion. We
conclude that in electrostatics the electric field
at every point within the material of a
conductor must be zero.
Example 1 Two large plane parallel conducting plates are given charges of
equal magnitude and opposite sign; the charge per unit area is +o for one and -o for the
other. Find the electric field in the region between the plates.
Young p. 765, 768
32
Example 2 A solid conductor with a cavity carries a total
charge of +7 nC. Within the cavity, insulated from the
conductor, is a point charge of -5 nC. How much charge
is on each surface (inner and outer) of the conductor?
Testing Gauss's law experimentally
Faraday's ice pail experiment.
The result confirms the validity of Gauss's law and therefore of Coulomb's law.
33
Van de Graaff electrostatic generator
Electric shielding
34
Field at the surface of a conductor
35
0
E
o
c
=
Example The earth (a conductor) has a net electric charge. The resulting electric field
near the surface can be measured with sensitive electronic instruments; its average value
is about 150 V/m directed toward the center of the earth. (a) What is the corresponding
surface charge density? (b) What is the total surface charge of the earth?
Given the radius of the earth: R = 6.3810
6
m.
(a) o = c
0
E

= -1.33 nC/m
2
(b) Q = 4tR
2
= - 680 kC = 4.210
24
(-e)
This is compensated by an equal deficiency of electrons in the
earth's upper atmosphere, so the combination of the earth and
its atmosphere is electrically neutral.
36
Problems
Young p. 742 Electric charge and electric field
21.2; 21.17; 21.28; 21.30; 21.33; 21.42; 21.53; 21.55; 21.61; 21.66; 21.67; 21.69;
21.73; 21.74; 21.88; 21.90; 21.93; 21.104;
37
Young p. 773 Gauss's law
22.4; 22.9; 22.11; 22.12; 22.14; 22.17; 22.21; 22.23; 22.25; 22.30; 22.37; 22.38; 22.42;
22.45; 22.52; 22.56; 22.57; 22.58; 22.61; 22.63; 22.66;
38