INDEX

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION.2
Introduction to Routing..2
Metrics3
Routing Protocol.4
CHAPTER 2 ITERATURE RE!IE"..6
I#$ort%nce o& Routing Protocols6
C'%r%cteristics o& Routing Protocols...6
Cl%ssi&ic%tion o& Routing Protocols.7
Interior (%te)%* Protocols +I(P,..7
E-terior (%te)%* Protocols +E(P,...................................................................21
CHAPTER . /0/TEM 1O"CHART AND O(ICA DIA(RAM/....................28
CHAPTER 2 RE/UT/ AND DI/CU//ION/..........................................................29
/i#ul%tion..............................................................................................................29
/i#ul%tor...............................................................................................................29
/tructure o& t'e OPNET........................................................................................29
/i#ul%tion /tud*....................................................................................................30
Results...................................................................................................................30
CHAPTER 3 /COPE O1 THE "OR4.....................................................................39
CHAPTER 5 CONCU/ION....................................................................................40
CHAPTER 6 7I7IO(RAPH0................................................................................41

I/T O1 1I(URE/
Figure 1: Classification of Routing Protocols7
Figure 2: OSPF Packet Header.10
Figure3: !P "essage Header For#at2$
Figure$: Ste%s to de&elo% and anal'(e %rotocols..2)
Figure*: +o%olog' considered for OSPF. 30
Figure,: OSPF %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.31
Figure7: OSPF %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic recei&ed..31
Figure): s-o.ing t-e s-ortest %at- follo.ed /' OSPF31
Figure0: s-o.ing t-e s-ortest %at- follo.ed /' OSPF. ..31
Figure10: 1et.ork considered for 2!RP..32
Figure11: +o%olog' considered inside 2!RP net.ork.32
Figure12: 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic sent ...32
Figure13: 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic sent ...32
Figure1$: 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing traffic sent &3s recei&ed.33
Figure1*: 1et.ork considered for 42!RP...33
Figure1,: +o%olog' considered inside 42!RP net.ork..33
Figure17: 42!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic sent 3$
Figure1): 42!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.3$
Figure10: 42!RP s-o.ing traffic sent &3s traffic recei&ed..3$
Figure20: +o%olog' considered for !P.3*
Figure21: !P %rotocol s-o.ing traffic sent. 3*
Figure22: !P %rotocol s-o.ing traffic recei&ed3*
Figure23: !P %rotocol s-o.ing traffic sent &3s recei&ed...3,
Figure2$: Si#ulation infor#ation of 2!RP and 42!RP...37
Figure2*: Si#ulation result of 42!RP..37
Figure2,: Si#ulation result of 2!RP...37
Figure27: Co#%arison /et.een 2!RP and 42!RP...3)
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
+-is %ro5ect ai#s to i#%le#ent %rotocols de%ending on t-eir to%olog' in t-e net.ork.
Protocols considered in t-is %ro5ect are 2!RP6 42!RP6 OSPF and !P. +-e %rotocols
are co#%ared /' e7ecuting si#ulation on &arious scenarios using OP14+ si#ulator.
Introduction to Routing
Routing can /e defined as selecting a %at- in a net.ork o&er .-ic- .e can send
so#e net.ork traffic. Routing is used for &arious t'%es of net.orks like circuit
s.itc- net.ork6 or %acket s.itc- net.ork. Here .e are discussing a/out routing t-at
is used to route %ackets o&er a net.ork .-ic- uses t-e %acket s.itc- tec-nolog'.
8-en sing %acket s.itc- net.orks6 t-e %ackets are for.arded fro# t-e sender side to
t-e recei&er side using &arious inter#ediate nodes. +-ese %ackets are %ro&ided t-e
logical addresses of t-e destination. +-ere are &arious inter#ediate nodes like
routers6 s.itc-es6 gate.a's6 -u/6 /ridges6 etc. 2n routing6 &arious %ackets are
for.arded /ased on t-e routing ta/les t-at are #aintained in eac- router #e#or' to
record t-e different destinations %resent in t-e net.ork. +-ese ta/les are %resent in
t-e router9s #e#or' and %la' an i#%ortant role to %ro&ide effecti&e routing. +-ere
are different t'%es of algorit-#s a&aila/le t-at are used for routing. "ost of t-e
algorit-#s use single %at- /ut so#e also use #ulti%at- routing. "ulti%at- routing is
done t-roug- #ulti%le alternati&e %at-s.
8-en t-ere is an o&erla%%ing or an e:ual route6 t-e follo.ing ele#ents are taken into
account so as to decide .-ic- route .ill /e %ut in t-e routing ta/le ;%riorities of t-e
ele#ents are c-ecked<:
1. Ad#inistr%ti8e dist%nce9 Routes t-at -a&e less distance is %referred.
2. Pre&i-:engt'9 Routes .it- longer su/net #asks %referred.
3. Metric9 Routes -a&ing t-e lo.est #etric3cost .ill /e %referred.
+-e goal of routing is to select a /est %at- fro# t-e source node using #ini#al
nu#/er of inter#ediar' nodes to deli&er t-e data %ackets to t-e destination nodes.
Routing is done /' t-e 1et.ork la'er.
2
+.o t'%es of Routing a%%roac-es are defined /elo..
1. Connectionless #ode: +-e %at- finding algorit-# is e7ecuted e&er' ti#e a
%acket needs to /e deli&ered.
2. Connection oriented #ode: = %at- is set u% once fro# t-e source node to t-e
destination node /efore a data trans#ission /egins.
>ifferent #odes of co##unication are used.
1. ?nicast: One sender node send infor#ation to one recei&er node.
2. "ulticast: One sender node sends t-e infor#ation to a grou% of recei&er nodes
si#ultaneousl'.
3. roadcast: One sender node sends t-e infor#ation to all t-e recei&er nodes o&er
t-e net.ork.
Metrics
+-e #easure#ent of %at- cost usuall' de%ends on t-e #etric %ara#eters. "etrics are
used in a routing %rotocol to decide .-ic- %at- to use to trans#it a %acket t-roug- an
internet.ork.
Routing %rotocols consider &arious #etric %ara#eters to decide an a%%ro%riate %at- to
route a %acket o&er a net.ork. +-e %at- cost is esti#ated for eac- route .-en #ulti%le
%at-s are %resent for t-e sa#e destination and t-e /est one i.e. s#allest6 is c-osen.
>ifferent routing %rotocols use different #etric %ara#eters to c-oose a route to rank
t-e# .it- %riorities. +-e &arious #etric %ara#eters are discussed /elo.:
1. Ho$ Count: 2t is t-e nu#/er of -o%s ;routers< a %acket tra&els t-roug- to reac-
t-e destination.
2. 7%nd)idt': +-e /and.idt- s%eed is #easured for t-e %at-s and t-e one -a&ing
t-e -ig-est /and.idt- s%eed is c-osen.
3. Del%*: >ela' is t-e ti#e taken /' t-e %ackets to get t-roug- t-e %at-. +-ere are
&arious factors on .-ic- >ela' de%ends like t-e distance tra&elled6 t-e link
/and.idt-6 t-e %ort :ueues %resent in t-e net.ork6 etc.
3
$. Cost: = cost of t-e %at- is esti#ated to get t-e /est route. = single #etric or a
co#/ination of #etrics can /e used to esti#ate t-e cost.
*. o%d: 2t is t-e traffic utili(ation of a %at-. @oad is used to get t-e /est %at- /'
t-e routing %rotocol.
,. Reli%;ilit*: +-e relia/ilit' of t-e %at- is #easured fro# failures and interface
error count.
Routing Protocol
= routing %rotocol is used to deli&er t-e %ackets fro# t-e sender node to t-e recei&er
node &ia different inter#ediar' nodes if re:uired o&er a net.ork. +-e inter#ediar'
routes. = routing %rotocol descri/e t-e co##unication of t-e routers .it- eac- ot-er
and ena/le t-e# to c-oose a route o&er a net.ork. Routing algorit-#s deter#ine t-e
s%ecific c-oice of route. 4ac- router -as a %riori kno.ledge onl' of net.orks
attac-ed to it directl'. = routing %rotocol s-ares t-is infor#ation first a#ong
inter#ediate neig-/ors6 and t-en t-roug-out t-e net.ork. +-is .a'6 routers gain
kno.ledge of t-e to%olog' of t-e net.ork.
1. 2nterior !ate.a' Protocols
2. 47terior !ate.a' Protocols
= routing %rotocol is .ork /ase on algorit-#. Routing algorit-# also /ased on #etrics
to find t-e %at- to trans#it data across t.o net.orks. "etrics also include cost
/and.idt-6 "a7i#u# +rans#it ?nit6 dela'6 nu#/er of -o% counts. +-ese #etrics also
sa&e or store in routing ta/le. Routing %rotocol -as t.o t'%es: First one is interior
gate.a' %rotocol. OSPF is also interior gate.a' %rotocol6 ot-er interior gate.a'
%rotocols are 2!RP6 R2P and 42!RP. !P and !P$ is e7terior gate.a' %rotocols.
+-e d'na#ic routing %rotocols kee% t-e routing ta/les u%dated. +-is %ro5ect is
s%ecification of t-e O%en S-ortest Pat- First ;OSPF<6 2nterior !ate.a' Routing
Protocol ;2!RP<6 roadcast !ate.a' Protocol ;!P< and 4n-anced 2nterior
!ate.a' Routing Protocol ;42!RP<. +-e net.ork /ased on +CP32+ %rotocol %er#its
t-e efficient routing of data %ackets /ased on t-eir 2P addresses. Routers are used in
t-e net.ork to control and for.ard data.
4
2n t-e %acketi(ed co##unication of infor#ation6 t-e function of routing is #o&ing
traffic across net.orks and t-e routers s-ould /e a.are of .-ere t-e' s-ould for.ard
t-e traffic ne7t in order to reac- t-e final destination. 2n order for routers effecti&el'
and efficientl' distri/ute data6 t-e c-oice of t-e routing %rotocol /eco#es &er'
critical factor to define t-e success of t-e net.ork o&er ti#e. Factors t-at
differentiate one routing %rotocol fro# anot-er include t-e s%eed t-at it ada%ts to
to%olog' c-anges called as con&ergence6 t-e a/ilit' to c-oose t-e /est route a#ong
#ulti%le routes and t-e a#ount of net.ork traffic t-at t-e routing %rotocol creates.
"ost of t-e routing %rotocols are %ossi/le to /e classified like one of t-e /asic
algorit-#s: >istance Aector and @ink State:
1. Dist%nce !ector C'%r%cteristics
1. +-e routing /' distance &ector collects data of t-e infor#ation of t-e routing
ta/le to its neig-/ors.
2. +-e routing /' distance &ector deter#ines t-e /est route adding t-e #etric &alue
t-at recei&es as t-e routing infor#ation -a%%ening fro# one router to anot-er.
3. 8it- #ost of t-e %rotocols of distance &ector6 t-e u%dates for t-e c-anges of
to%olog' consist of %eriodic u%dates of t-e ta/les. +-e infor#ation -a%%ens fro#
one router to anot-er6 gi&ing generall' like result one #ore a slo.er con&ergence.
2!RP and 42!RP are e7a#%les of distance &ector %rotocols.
2. in< /t%te C'%r%cteristics
1. +-e link state routing o/tains a great &ision of t-e to%olog' of co#%lete
internet.ork accu#ulating all necessar' @S=.
2. 2n t-is6 eac- router .orks inde%endentl' to calculate its o.n s-orter route
to.ards t-e net.orks destin'.
3. +-e u%dates are caused generall' /' c-anges in t-e to%olog'. +-e relati&el'
s#all @S= t-at -a&e gone to all t-e ot-er routers generall' gi&e result faster
ti#es con&ergence .it- an' c-ange of to%olog' of t-e internet.ork.
47a#%le of linkBstate routing %rotocol is O%en S-ortest Pat- First ;OSPF<.
5
CHAPTER 2 ITERATURE RE!IE"
+-is c-a%ter re&ie.s t-e literature a/out routing %rotocols and also e7%lains in /rief
a/out t-e routing %rotocols used for i#%le#entation and co#%arison.
I#$ort%nce o& Routing Protocols
= routing %rotocol usuall' carries %ackets /' transferring t-e# /et.een different
nodes. 8-en considering a net.ork6 routing takes %lace -o% /' -o%. Routing
%rotocols -a&e t-e follo.ing o/5ecti&es:
1. +o co##unicate /et.een routers.
2. +o construct routing ta/les.
3. +o #ake routing decisions.
$. +o learn e7isting routes.
*. +o s-are infor#ation a#ongst neig-/or routers.
Routing %rotocols are used /' routers to figure out t-e net.ork to%olog'6 find %at-s
to all t-e net.orks in an internet.ork6 deter#ine t-e /est %art to a net.ork6 and fill
t-e routing ta/les .it- t-e routing infor#ation. 47: 2!RP6 OSPF and 42!RP. +-e
%rotocols define and assign logical addresses on %-'sical interfaces6 enca%sulate data
into %ackets6 and liaise .it- t-e data link la'er to deli&er %ackets t-roug- an
internet.ork. +-ese %rotocols allo. %ackets to /e for.arded /' routing %rotocols.
+-e #ain idea for routing %rotocols is to esta/lis- t-e /est %at- fro# t-e source to t-e
destination. = routing algorit-# e#%lo's se&eral #etrics6 .-ic- are used to resol&e
t-e /est #et-od of reac-ing to a gi&en net.ork.
C'%r%cteristics o& Routing Protocols
1. Con8ergence: t-e ti#e needed for all routers in t-e net.ork s-ould /e s#all so
t-at t-e routing s%ecific infor#ation can /e easil' kno.n.
2. oo$ 1ree: t-e routing %rotocol s-ould ensure a loo% free route. +-e ad&antage
of using suc- routes is to efficientl' o/tain t-e a&aila/le /and.idt-.
3. 7est Routes: t-e routing %rotocol selects t-e /est %at- to t-e destination net.ork.
6
$. /ecurit*: t-e %rotocol ensures a secured trans#ission of t-e data to a gi&en
destination.
Cl%ssi&ic%tion o& Routing Protocols
+-ere are different t'%es of routing %rotocols in t-e net.ork. +-e' are classified as
s-o.n in figure 1 descri/ed as follo.s:
1. 2nterior gate.a' routing o&er link state routing %rotocols suc- as 2SB2S and
OSPF. 2nterior gate.a' routing o&er distance &ector %rotocols suc- as R2P6
2!RP and 42!RP.
2. 47terior gate.a' routing %rotocols suc- as !P.
Figure 1: Classification of Routing Protocols
Interior (%te)%* Protocols +I(P,
2nterior gate.a' %rotocols ;2!Ps< -andle routing .it-in an autono#ous s'ste# ;one
routing do#ain<. 2!P9s figure out -o. to get fro# %lace to %lace /et.een t-e routers
'ou o.n. +-ese %rotocols kee% track of %at-s used to #o&e data fro# one end s'ste#
to anot-er inside a net.ork or set of net.orks t-at 'ou ad#inistrate ;all of t-e
net.orks .e #anage co#/ined are usuall' 5ust one =utono#ous S'ste#<. 2!Ps are
-o. all t-e net.orks are co##unicating .it- eac- ot-er.
7
Autono#ous /*ste# +A/,9 +-is is a collection of net.orks t-at is .it-in t-e
ad#inistration control of an organi(ation or co#%an' t-at s-ares a co##on routing
strateg'.
2!Ps fall into t.o categories:
1. in< /t%te Protocols
2. Dist%nce !ector Protocols
in< /t%te Routing Protocol
2n link state routing %rotocols6 eac- router %ossesses infor#ation a/out t-e co#%lete
net.ork to%olog'. 4ac- router t-en inde%endentl' calculates t-e /est ne7t -o% fro#
it for e&er' %ossi/le destination in t-e net.ork using local infor#ation of t-e
to%olog'. +-e collection of /estB ne7tB-o%s for#s t-e routing ta/le. +-is contrasts
.it- distanceB&ector routing %rotocols6 .-ic- .ork /' -a&ing eac- node s-are its
routing ta/le .it- its neig-/ors. 2n a link state %rotocol6 t-e onl' infor#ation %assed
/et.een t-e nodes is infor#ation used to construct t-e connecti&it' #a%s.
1. @ink State Routing ;@SR< deter#ine t-e s-ortest %at- a#ong t-e net.ork. 4ac-
router #aintains a data/ase called link state data/ase. 2t is #ainl' used to
descri/e t-e to%olog' of t-e =S.
2. +-e @ink State =d&ertise#ents ;@S=< is res%onsi/le for e7c-anging t-e routing
infor#ation a#ong t-e nodes. +-e infor#ation of t-e neig-/ors is found in eac-
@S= of a node and an' c-ange in link infor#ation of a neig-/or9s node is
co##unicated t-roug- @S=s / flooding. ?suall' t-e nodes o/ser&e t-e c-ange
.-en t-e @S=s are recei&ed. +-en t-e routes are calculated again and resent to
t-eir neig-/ors. =s a result6 all nodes can #aintain an identical data/ase .-ere
t-e' descri/e t-e to%olog' of t-e net.orks.
47a#%le of linkBstate routing %rotocol is O%en S-ortest Pat- First ;OSPF<.
8
O$en /'ortest P%t' 1irst +O/P1,
O%en s-ortest Pat- First ;OSPF< is a link state routing %rotocol6 o%erating .it-in a
single =utono#ous S'ste# ;=S<.
2n large enter%rise net.orks6 OSPF is #ost .idel' used. OSPF .as designed to su%%ort
&aria/le lengt- su/net #asking ;A@S"< or classless inter do#ain routing ;C2>R<
addressing #odels. @ink failures are detected /' OSPF &er' :uickl' and ne. loo% free
rote is con&erged. >i5kstra9s algorit-# is used to calculate t-e s-ortest %at- tree. = link
state data/ase ;@S>< stores all t-e infor#ation of link state for eac- router. @S>
%ossess a tree like structure of t-e net.ork to%olog'. @S> is u%dated %eriodicall' /'
flooding all t-e routers. OSPF re:uires -ig- #e#or' and is a little difficult to.
/'ortest P%t' 1irst +/P1, Algorit'#
1. = link state ad&ertise#ent is generated /' a router .-ene&er t-ere is a c-ange in t-e
routing infor#ation. @ink state is %ro&ided to t-e router /' t-is ad&ertise#ent.
2. Flooding is done for routers to e7c-ange @S=s. 4ac- router recei&es a link state
u%date .-ic- is also %reser&ed in link state data/ase. +-is u%date is %ro%agated
to ot-er routers.
3. Routers after creation of t-ere data/ase6 calculate t-e s-ortest %at- tree to t-e
destinations for .-ic- t-e >i5kstra9s algorit-# is used.
$. 1e. net.ork .ill /e added or deleted .-ene&er an' t-ere occurs a c-ange in
t-e net.ork ;e.g. link cost<. =gain t-e >i5stra9s algorit-# is calculated to get t-e
least &alue of cost %at-.
O/P1 Metrics
OSPF uses t-e follo.ing #etrics:
1. Ho$ count9 +-e count of t-e nu#/er of routers t-roug- .-ic- t-e %acket tra&els
to reac- t-e destination.
2. 7%nd)idt'9 +-e /and.idt- s%eed is c-ecked.
9
O/P1 P%c<et He%der
OSPF %ackets are co#%osed of eig-t fields as s-o.n in figure 2.2:
Aersion +'%e
Router 2>
=rea 2>
C-ecksu# =u+'%e
=ut-entication
=ut-entication
Figure 2: OSPF Packet Header
4ac- field is defined as follo.s:
1. !ersion9 +-e &ersions t'%es are defined.
2. T*$e9 +-e %acket t'%e is defined.
1. Hello
2. >ata/ase descri%tion;>><
3. @ink state re:uest;@SR<
$. @ink state u%date;@S?<
*. @ink state ackno.ledge#ent;@S=ck<
3. Router ID9 Source router 2> is defined.
$. Are% ID9 =rea 2> of %acket is defined.
*. C'ec<su#9 >a#aged %ackets are c-ecked.
,. Au T*$e9 =ut-entication t'%e is defined. +-ree t'%e of aut-entications e7ist:
1. 1ull aut-entication: 1o aut-entication is done.
2. Clear te7t aut-entication: Pass.ords are e7c-anged in clear te7t o&er t-e
net.ork.
3. Cr'%togra%-ic aut-entication: "essage >igest * encr'%tion #et-od is used
for t-e aut-entication.
7. Aut'entic%tion9 2ntegrit' of routing %acket is defined.
10
O/P1 P%c<et T*$es
1. Hello9 1eig-/ors are disco&ered and ad5acenc' is esta/lis-ed .it- ot-er OSPF
routers /' sending t-is %acket.
2. D%t%;%se Descri$tion9 @ink state data/ase descri%tion is e7c-anged /et.een
ad5acent routers after a connection is #ade /' sending t-e Hello %acket.
3. in< st%te Re=uest P%c<et9 @ink state re:uest %acket is used /' recei&ing
routers to get t-e infor#ation a/out an' entr' in t-e >> after t-e data/ase
descri%tion is e7c-anged.
$. in< /t%te U$d%te9 Flooding is done using t-is %acket in t-e link state
ad&ertise#ent to @SR.
*. in< /t%te Ac<no)ledge#ent P%c<et9 Routers send a link state
ackno.ledge#ent to confir# t-e senders as @S? is recei&ed relia/l'.
O/P1 P%t' Cost
+-e %at- cost in OSPF is calculated /ased on t-e /and.idt-. Cost is in&ersel'
%ro%ortional to t-e /and.idt-. Hig-er /and.idt- is attained .it- a lo.er cost.
Cost >1?
5
@ 7%nd)idt' +;$s, [eq. 1]
Ad8%nt%ges o& O/P1
OSPF -as follo.ing ad&antages:
1. +-e routes of OSPF are al.a's loo% free. OSPF :uickl' u%dates all t-e routers
o&er large co#%le7 net.orks .-ene&er a c-ange occurs in t-e net.ork.
2. OSPF su%%ort #ulti%le routes.
3. OSPF configures t-e area and reduces t-e si(e and -ence6 #ini#i(ing t-e routes.
$. Reconfiguration for net.ork to%olog' c-anges is faster.
*. Aaria/le lengt- su/net #asking is su%%orted.
,. 2t is suita/le for large net.ork.
11
Dis%d8%nt%ges o& O/P1
1. OSPF re:uires #ore co#%uting %o.er in a router as it -andles large co#%le7
net.orks .-ic- /eco#es difficult for t-e net.ork #anager to set u% and
configure t-e %rotocol.
2. = %ro%er understanding and calculation /' t-e #anager is re:uired for t-e %at-
cost used /' t-e router for data e7c-anges .it- ot-er routers.
Dist%nce:8ector routing $rotocol
ell#anBFord algorit-# is used in >istance Aector Routing Protocol. +-is %rotocol
do not s-o. t-e .-ole net.ork to%olog' infor#ation. +-e ot-er routers calculate t-e
distance &alue and t-e %rotocol ad&ertises t-at &alue and fro# ot-er routers6 recei&e
t-e si#ilar ad&ertise#ents in t-e net.ork. 8-ile ad&ertising t-e routes6 t-e routing
ta/le is %o%ulated /' eac- router. =n u%dated infor#ation is ad&ertised /' t-e router
in t-e ne7t routing ta/le. ?ntil sta/le &alues of routing ta/les of eac- router are
con&erged6 t-e %rocess continues. Slo. con&ergence is a disad&antage occurring in
so#e %rotocols.
47a#%le of distance &ector routing %rotocols:
1. 2nterior !ate.a' Routing Protocol;2!RP<
2. 4n-anced 2nterior !ate.a' Routing Protocol;42!RP<
12
1. Interior (%te)%* Routing Protocol +I(RP,
2nterior !ate.a' Routing Protocol is a routing %rotocol to %ro&ide routing .it-in an
=utono#ous S'ste# ;=S<. >istance &ector routing %rotocols calls for eac- router to
send all or a %ortion of its routing ta/le in a routing u%date #essage at regular
inter&als to eac- of its neig-/oring routers. 2!RP is considered as an 2!P6 /ut it can
also /e considered as an 4!P .-en interBdo#ain routing -a%%ens. >istances to all
nodes inside an internet.ork can /e calculated /' t-e routers as t-e routing
infor#ation flouris-es t-roug- t-e net.ork. 2!RP is a classful routing %rotocol
re:uiring an =utono#ous S'ste# ;=S< nu#/er in its configuration and uses onl' t-e
2P routing. 4&er' 00 seconds 2!RP sends %eriodic routing u%dates along .it- t-e full
u%dated routing ta/le of eac-. +-e #etric used /' t-e %rotocol is t-e >istance #etric.
' default6 t-is #etric is calculated /' t-e and.idt-6 and >ela' of @ine #etrics.
2!RP %ro&ides so#e o%tional attri/utes t-at can also /e used to calculate t-e distance
#etric like relia/ilit'6 load6 and "+?. ' >efault6 2!RP su%%orts a #a7i#u# of 100
-o%s /ut it can /e #ade to 2** -o%s. Routers in t-e sa#e =utono#ous s'ste# .ill
send u%dates to eac- ot-er.
I(RP C'%r%cteristics
1. 2t is a distance &ector routing %rotocol.
2. 4&er' 00 seconds6 a routing u%date is /roadcasted.
3. ' default su%%orts 100 -o%s.
$. and.idt-6 @oad6 Relia/ilit' and >ela' are used to create a co#%osite #etric.
*. 8-ile configuration6 sa#e autono#ous nu#/er is used /' all routers.
I(RP #etrics
Priorities of t-e #etrics are considered.
1. 7%nd)idt'9 @o.est /and.idt- in a route is %referred.
2. Del%*9 +i#e taken /' %ackets to %ass t-roug- t-e net.ork.
3. Reli%;ilit*9 Relia/ilit' to.ards t-e destination node on t-e
link. $. o%d9 4ffecti&e /and.idt- o&er t-e %at-.
13
I(RP Ti#ers
1. U$d%te Ti#ers9 fre:uenc' to send routing u%date #essages is defined. '
default6 it is 00 seconds.
2. In8%lid Ti#ers9 >uration to .ait is defined for a router /efore it is declared
in&alid if no u%date is recei&ed for it. ' default6 it is 3C00B270 seconds.
3. Holddo)n Ti#ers9 s%ecifies t-e -olddo.n %eriod. +-e default is t-ree ti#es
t-e u%date ti#er %eriod %lus 10 seconds. ;i.e. 270D10E2)0<
$. 1lus' Ti#ers9 efore flus-ing t-e router fro# a routing ta/le6 t-is s%ecifies t-e
a#ount of ti#e to %ass. ' default6 it is se&en ti#es t-e routing u%date %eriod. 2f t-e
u%date ti#er is 00 seconds /' default6 t-en 7C00E,30 seconds ela%se /efore a route
.ill /e flus-ed fro# t-e route ta/le. ;igr%B2)7)0$7,Ffro#Gsearc-E16 n.d.<
I(RP (o%ls
+-e 2!RP %rotocol allo.s a nu#/er of gate.a's to coordinate t-eir routing. +-e goals
of 2!RP are as follo.s:
1. 8-en c-anges occur6 2!RP s-ould res%onse fast in net.ork to%olog'.
2. +aking into account error rates and le&el of traffic on different %at-s.
3. S%litting traffic a#ong se&eral %arallel routes .-en t-e' are of roug-l' e:ual
desira/ilit'.
$. Sta/le routing e&en in &er' large or co#%le7 net.orks. 1o routing loo%s s-ould
occur6 e&en as transients.
*. @o. o&er-ead. +-at is6 2!RP itself s-ould not use #ore /and.idt- t-at .-at is
actuall' needed for its task. ;=n 2ntroduction to 2!RP6 n.d.<
2!RP is an 2nternal !ate.a' Protocol ;2!P<. 2!Ps are intended for use .it-in single set
of net.orks6 eit-er under a single #anage#ent or closel' coordinated #anage#ents.
Suc- sets of net.orks are connected /' He7ternal gate.a' %rotocols9 ;4!P<. =n 2!P is
designed to kee% track of a good deal of detail a/out net.ork to%olog'. Priorit' in
designing an 2!P is %laced on %roducing o%ti#al routes and res%onding :uickl' to
c-anges. =n 4!P is intended to %rotect one s'ste# of net.orks against errors or
intentional #isre%resentation /' ot-er s'ste#s6 !P one suc- 4!P. Priorit' in designing
an 4!P is on sta/ilit' and ad#inistrati&e controls. Often it is
14
sufficient for an 4!P to %roduce a reasona/le route6 rat-er t-an t-e o%ti#al route.
;=n 2ntroduction to 2!RP6 n.d.<
T'e Routing Pro;le#
2!RP is intended for use in gate.a's connecting se&eral net.orks. +-e gate.a' act
as %acket s.itc-es. 8-en a s'ste# connected to one net.ork .ants to send s %acket
to a s'ste# on a different net.ork6 it addresses t-e %acket to a gate.a'. 2f t-e
destination is on one of t-e net.orks connected to t-e gate.a'6 t-e gate.a' .ill
for.ard t-e %acket to anot-er gate.a' t-at is closer to t-e destination. !ate.a's are
routing ta/les to -el% t-e# decide .-at to do .it- %ackets. ;=n 2ntroduction to
2!RP6 n.d.<
I(RP "or<ing
= %at- is c-aracteri(ed /' t-e ne7t gate.a' to .-ic- %ackets s-ould /e sent6 t-e
net.ork interface t-at s-ould /e used6 and #etric infor#ation. "etric infor#ation is
a set of nu#/ers t-at c-aracteri(e -o. good t-e %at- is. +-is allo.s t-e gate.a' to
co#%are %at-s t-at it -as -eard fro# &arious gate.a's and decide .-ic- one to use.
+-ere are often cases .-ere it #akes sense to s%lit traffic /et.een t.o or #ore %at-s.
2!RP .ill do t-is .-ene&er t.o or #ore %at-s are e:uall' good. +-e user user can
also configure it to s%lit traffic .-en %at-s are al#ost e:uall' good. 2n t-is case #ore
traffic .ill /e sent along t-e %at- .it- t-e /etter #etric. +-e intent is t-at traffic can
/e s%lit /et.een a 0,00 /%s line and a 10200 /%s line6 and 10200 line .ill get
roug-l' t.ice as #uc- as traffic as 0,00 /%s line. +-e #etrics used /' 2!RP include:
1. +o%ological dela' ti#e
2. and.idt- of t-e narro.est /and.idt- seg#ent of t-e %at-
3. C-annel occu%anc' of t-e %at-
$. Relia/ilit' of t-e %at-
+o%ological dela' ti#e is t-e a#ount of ti#e it .ould take to get to t-e destination
along t-e %at-6 assu#ing an unloaded net.ork. +-e %at- /and.idt- is si#%l' t-e
/and.idt- in /its %er second of t-e lo.est link in t-e %at-. C-annel occu%anc'
indicates -o. #uc- of t-e /and.idt- is currentl' in use. 2t is #easured6 and .ill
15
c-ange .it- load. Relia/ilit' indicates t-e current error rate. 2t is t-e fraction of
%ackets t-at arri&e at t-e destination unda#aged. 2t is #easured.
=lt-oug- t-e' are not used as %art of t-e #etric6 t.o addition %ieces of infor#ation
are %assed .it- it: -o% count and "+?.
1. +-e -o% count is si#%l' t-e nu#/er of gate.a's t-at a %acket .ill -a&e to go
t-roug- to get to t-e destination.
2. "+? is t-e #a7i#u# %acket si(e t-at can /e sent along t-e entire %at- along
.it-out frag#entation. ;it is t-e #ini#u# of t-e "+?s of all t-e net.orks
in&ol&ed in t-e %at-<
ased on t-e #etric infor#ation6 a single Hco#%osite #etric9 is calculated for t-e %at-.
+-e co#%osite #etric co#/ines t-e effect of t-e &arious #etric co#%onents into a
single nu#/er re%resenting t-e goodness of t-e %at-.
+-ere are t.o ad&antages of using a &ector of #etric infor#ation.
1. +-e first is t-at it %ro&ides t-e a/ilit' to su%%ort #ulti%le t'%es of ser&ice fro#
t-e sa#e set of dataI
2. +-e second is i#%ro&ed accurac'. ;=n 2ntroduction to 2!RP6 n.d.<
+-e follo.ing e:uation calculates t-e #etric.
1. >ela' E dela' fro# %acket D interface to%ological dela'.
2. and.idt- E #a7;/and.idt- fro# %acket6 interface /and.idt-<.
3. Relia/ilit' E #in;relia/ilit' fro# %acket6 interface relia/ilit'<.
$. C-annel Occu%anc' E #a7;c-annel occu%anc' fro# %acket6interface c-annel
occu%anc'<. ;=n 2ntroduction to 2!RP6 n.d.<
16
1. En'%nced Interior (%te)%* Protocol +EI(RP,
42!RP is an en-anced &ersion of 2!RP. +-e sa#e distance &ector tec-nolog' is used in
42!RP as is in 2!RP. +-e con&ergence %ro%erties and t-e underl'ing distance
infor#ation re#ain unc-anged. +-is %rotocol %erfor#s #ore efficient t-an t-e 2!RP.
Su/net #ask infor#ation is carried /' 42!RP. 42!RP su%%orts classless route looku%s
and Aaria/le @engt- Su/net "asks ;A@S"<. =r/itrar' /it /ound /oundaries can /e
su##ari(ed /' 42!RP. +-e >iffusing ?%date =lgorit-# ;>?=@< is used to get loo%
free routes t-roug-out a root co#%utation at e&er' instant. +-is allo.s all routers
in&ol&ed in a to%olog' c-ange to s'nc-roni(e at t-e sa#e ti#e. Routers t-at are not
affected /' to%olog' c-anges are not in&ol&ed in t-e reco#%utaion. 42!RP re:uires
ackno.ledge#ents fro# routing u%dates. >?=@ allo.s ra%id con&ergence. 42!RP
%erfor#s route su##ari(ation auto#aticall' /' default.
P%c<et t*$es o& EI(RP
1. Hello9 1eig-/ors are disco&ered and ad5acenc' is esta/lis-ed .it- ot-er 42!RP
routers /' sending t-is %acket.
2. U$d%te9 8-ene&er a c-ange occurs in t-e net.ork6 t-is %acket is sent to t-e
routers
3. Ac<9 =ckno.ledges recei%t of an u%date using a unicast address.
$. Auer*@Re$l*9 +-ese are sent .-en destinations go into acti&e state. Jueries are
al.a's #ulticast unless t-e' are sent in res%onse to a recei&ed :uer'. Re%lies
are unicast. =lso .-en a router loses its successor and -as no feasi/le successor
it :ueries all re#aining neig-/or for a ne. route :ueries are recursi&e and .ill
/e for.arded to t-e neig-/ors until a ne. route is found.
*. Re=uest9 +-ese are used to get s%ecific infor#ation fro# one or #ore
neig-/ors. +-ese are trans#itted unrelia/l'. ;42!RP6 n.d.<
EI(RP "or<ing
2nitial Route >isco&er'.
1. Router sends -ello.
2. 1eig-/or router re%lies .it- an ?%date.
3. +-e router sends an =ck %acket.
17
$. Fro# t-e o%%osite direction6 ?%date re%lies are gi&en.
42!RP -as four /asic co#%onents6 t-ese are as follo.s:
1. Neig';or Disco8er*@Reco8er*9 +-is is t-e %rocess t-at routers use to
d'na#icall' learn of ot-er routers on t-eir directl' attac-ed net.orks. Routers
#ust also disco&er .-en t-eir neig-/ors /eco#e unreac-a/le or ino%erati&e.
+-is %rocess is ac-ie&ed .it- lo. o&er-ead /' %eriodicall' sending s#all -ello
%ackets. =s long as -ello %ackets are recei&ed6 a router can deter#ine t-at a
neig-/or is ali&e and functioning. Once t-is is deter#ined6 t-e neig-/oring
routers can e7c-ange routing infor#ation.
2. Reli%;le Tr%ns$ort Protocol9 +-is is res%onsi/le for guaranteed6 ordered deli&er'
of 42!RP %ackets to all neig-/ors. 2t su%%orts inter#i7ed trans#ission of #ulticast
or unicast %ackets. So#e 42!RP %ackets #ust /e trans#itted relia/l' and ot-ers
need not. For efficienc'6 relia/ilit' is %ro&ided onl' necessar'. For e7a#%les6 on a
#ultiBaccess net.ork t-at -as #ulticast ca%a/ilities6 suc- as 4t-ernet6 it is not
necessar' to send -ellos relia/l' to all neig-/ors indi&iduall'. So 42!RP sends a
single #ulticast -ello .it- an indication in t-e %acket infor#ing t-e recei&ers t-at
t-e %acket need not /e ackno.ledged. Ot-er t'%es of %ackets6 suc- as u%dates6
re:uire ackno.ledge#ent and t-is is indicated in t-e %acket. +-e relia/le trans%ort
-as a %ro&ision to send #ulticast %ackets :uickl' .-en t-ere are unackno.ledged
%ackets %ending.
3. DUA 1inite /t%te M%c'ine9 +-is e#/odies t-e decision %rocess for all route
co#%utations. 2t tracks all routes ad&ertised /' all neig-/ors. = #etric is used /'
>?=@ to select efficient loo% free %at-s. >?=@ selects routes to /e inserted into a
routing ta/le /ased on feasi/le successors. = successor is a neig-/oring router used
for %acket for.arding t-at -as a least cost %at- to destination t-at is guaranteed not
to /e %art of a routing loo%. 8-en t-ere are no feasi/le successors /ut t-ere are
neig-/ors ad&ertising t-e destination6 a reco#%utation #ust occur. +-is is t-e
%rocess .-ere a ne. successor is deter#ined. +-e a#ount of ti#e it takes to
reco#%ute t-e route affects t-e con&ergence ti#e. 8-en a to%olog'
18
c-ange occurs6 >?=@ .ill test for feasi/le successors. 2f %resent6 it .ill use an'
successor in order to a&oid an' unnecessar' reco#%utation.
$. Protocol De$endent Modules9 t-ese are res%onsi/le for net.ork la'er6
%rotocolBs%ecific re:uire#ents. +-e 2PG42!RP #odule is res%onsi/le for
sending and recei&ing 42!RP %ackets t-at are enca%sulated in 2P. 2t %arses t-e
%ackets and infor#s >?=@ of t-e ne. infor#ation recei&ed. 2t asks >?=@ to
#ake routing decisions and results of t-is are stored in t-e 2P routing ta/le. 2t is
also res%onsi/le for redistri/uting routes learned /' ot-er 2P routing %rotocols.
;tec-nologiesGtec-Gnote001),a00)0003f07.s-t#l6 n.d.<
+-ere are so#e %ara#eters t-at #ust #atc- for t-e routers to /eco#e ad5acent:
1. =ut-entication
2. =S nu#/er
3. "ust /elie&e t-at t-e source 2P address of t-e -ello %acket is t-e %ri#ar' 2P
address of t-e source interface6 secondar' 2P address .ill not allo. t-e
ad5acenc' to for#.
$. K &alues.
Metric c%lcul%tion
[eq.2]
1. 7%nd)idt'+;),9 defined as 107 di&ided /' t-e s%eed of t-e slo.est link in t-e
%at-6 in K/%s.
2. o%d9 )B/it &alue6 not considered /' default.
3. Reli%;ilit*9 )B/it &alue6 not considered /' default.
$. Del%*9 constant &alue associated .it- interface t'%eI 42!RP uses t-e su# of all
dela's in t-e %at-.
4 8%lues
K &alues are constants used to distri/ute .eig-t to different %at- as%ects.
K defaults:
19
1. K1: 1
2. K2: 0
3. K3: 1
$. K$: 0
*. K*: 0
K &alues can /e #ani%ulated /' an ad#inistrator6 /ut routers #ust -a&e #atc-ing K
&alues to /eco#e neig-/ors. 1eig-/or reset after retr' li#it of 1, is reac-ed. Slo.
neig-/ors are sent unicast %ackets. ;42!RP6 n.d.<
EI(RP T%;les
+-e 42!RP ta/les are:
1. Neig';or T%;les: 2nfor#ation a/out t-e neig-/or 42!RP routers t-e %resent in
t-is ta/le.
1. 1et.ork =ddress ;2P<.
2. Connected interface.
3. Holdti#e of t-e neig-/or.
$. ?%date.
*. Se:uence nu#/ers.
,. Retrans#ission +i#eout ;R+O<: Calculated /' SR++6 t-is tells t-e .aiting
duration of t-e router for an =ck.
7. S#oot- Round +ri% +i#e ;SR++<: Once a %acket -as /een trans#itted6 t-is
tells t-e ti#e it taken to recei&e an =ck.
). Jueue Count: >escri/es t-e nu#/er of routers %resent in t-e :ueue.
Congestion is sensed if t-ere is a long :ueue.
2. To$olog* T%;le9 =ll t-e routes recei&ed fro# t-e neig-/ors are %resent in t-is
ta/le. >?=@ is used to calculate t-e#. +o construct t-e 42!RP routing ta/le6
to%olog' ta/le /ears t-e re:uired infor#ation. ;42!RP6 n.d.<
Ad8%nt%ges o& EI(RP
1. 2t is #ore efficient t-an 2!RP.
2. Aer' fast ra%id con&ergence ti#es for c-anges in t-e net.ork to%olog'.
20
3. 8-en a c-ange occurs6 t-ere is c-ange onl' in t-e routing ta/le.
$. Su%%ort aggregation and &aria/le lengt- su/net #asks.
E-terior (%te)%* Protocols +E(P,
4!P is used on t-e 2nternet to go fro# one net.ork to anot-er. Routing outside an
=S is -andled /' 4!P. Aia t-e 2nternet Ser&ice Pro&ider9s ;2SP< net.ork6 4!P get
us to different net.orks. !P is used /' co#%anies .it- #ore t-an one 2SP to allo.
t-e# to -a&e redundanc' and load /alancing of t-eir data transferred to and fro# t-e
net.ork.
1. 7ro%dc%st (%te)%* Protocol +7(P,
order !ate.a' Protocol is an e7terior gate.a' routing %rotocol ;4!P< t-at is used
to /' an =utono#ous S'ste# ;=S< to s-are t-e route infor#ation to get t-e /est
routes .-ic- are loo% free. +-e 2nternet Ser&ice Pro&iders ;2SPs< use !P internall'.
Classless 2nter >o#ain Routing ;C2>R< is su%%orted /' t-e #ec-anis#s set %ro&ided
/' !P. +-e #ec-anis#s are %ro&iding su%%ort to ad&ertise t-e destinations set as
an 2P %refi7 and re#o&ing t-e conce%t of classes in !P. 2t allo.s aggregation of
routes of =S %at-s. 8-en routing infor#ation is e7c-anged using !P6 onl' t-e
destination /ased for.arding %aradig# is su%%orted /' t-e %rotocol. 2n for.arding
%aradig# it is considered t-at for.arding of a %acket /' a router /ase on destination
address as s%ecified in t-e %acket 2P -eader. !P is a %at- &ector routing %rotocol. 2t
is successor of t-e 47terior !ate.a' Protocol ;4!P< and allo.s full' decentrali(ed
routing. Aersion $ of !P is t-e current &ersion /eing used.
!P s%eaker infor# t-e %eers a/out t-e nonBa&aila/ilit' of t-e route ad&ertised
%re&iousl' /' t-e follo.ing #et-ods %ro&ided /' !P. +-e #et-ods for t-is are as
follo.ing:
1. +-e 2P %refi7 t-at e7%resses t-e destination for a %re&iousl' ad&ertised route can
/e ad&ertised in t-e 8it-dra.n Routes field in t-e ?%date #essage6 t-us6
#arking t-e associated root as /eing no longer a&aila/le for use.
2. = re%lace#ent route .it- t-e sa#e 1et.ork @a'er Reac-a/ilit' 2nfor#ation
;1@R2< can /e ad&ertised.
21
3. +-e !P s%eaker connection can /e closed6 .-ic- i#%licitl' re#o&es all routes
t-e %air of s%eaker -ad ad&ertised to eac- ot-er fro# ser&ice. ;RFC$2716 n.d.<
7(P Attri;utes
Routes learned &ia !P -a&e associated %ro%erties t-at are used to deter#ine t-e /est
route to a destination .-en #ulti%le %at-s e7ist to a %articular destination. +-ese
%ro%erties are referred to as !P attri/utes6 and an understanding of -o. !P
attri/utes influence route selection is re:uired for t-e design of ro/ust net.orks. +-e
attri/utes are:
1. 8eig-t
2. @ocal Preference
3. "ultiBe7it discri#inator
$. Origin
*. =SG%at-
,. 1e7t Ho%
"eig't Attri;ute
8eig-t attri/ute is local to a router. 2t is not ad&ertised to neig-/oring routers. 2f t-e
router learns a/out #ore t-an one route to t-e sa#e destination6 t-e route .it- t-e
-ig-est .eig-t .ill /e %referred. +-e route .it- t-e -ig-est .eig-t .ill /e installed
in t-e 2P routing ta/le.
oc%l Pre&erence Attri;ute
+-e local %reference attri/ute is used to %refer an e7it %oint fro# t-e local
autono#ous s'ste# ;=S<. ?nlike6 t-e .eig-t attri/ute6 t-is attri/ute is %ro%agated
t-roug-out t-e local =S. 2f t-ere are #ulti%le e7it %oints fro# t-e =S6 t-e local
%reference attri/ute is used to select t-e e7it %oint for a s%ecific route.
Multi E-it Discri#in%tor Attri;ute
+-e #ultiBe7it discri#inator ;"4>< or #etric attri/ute is used as a suggestion to an
e7ternal =S regarding t-e %referred route into t-e =S t-at is ad&ertising t-e #etric.
+-e ter# suggestion is used /ecause t-e e7ternal =S t-at is recei&ing t-e "4>9s
#a' /e using ot-er !P attri/utes for route selection.
22
Origin Attri;ute
+-e origin attri/ute indicates -o. !P learned a/out a %articular route. +-e origin
attri/ute can -a&e t-ree %ossi/le &alues:
1. I(P9 +-e route is interior to t-e originating =S. +-is &alue is set .-en t-e
net.ork router configuration is used to in5ect route into !P.
2. E(P9 +-e route is learned &ia t-e 4!P.
3. Inco#$lete9 +-e origin of t-e route is unkno.n or learned in so#e ot-er .a'. =n
origin of inco#%lete occurs .-en a route is redistri/uted into !P.
+-e origin attri/ute is used for route selection.
A/:$%t' Attri;ute
8-en a route ad&ertise#ent %asses t-roug- an =S6 t-e =S nu#/er is added to an
ordered list of =S nu#/ers t-at t-e ad&ertise#ent -as tra&ersed.
Ne-t Ho$ Attri;ute
+-e ne7t -o% attri/ute is t-e 2P address t-at is used to reac- t-e ad&ertising router.
For 4!P %eers6 t-e ne7tB-o% address is t-e 2P address of t-e connection /et.een
t-e t-e %eers. For 2!P6 t-e 4!P ne7tB-o% address is carried into t-e local =S.
Co##unit* Attri;ute
+-e co##unit' attri/ute %ro&ides a .a' of grou%ing destinations6 called
co##unities6 to .-ic- routing decisions ;suc- as acce%tance6 %reference6 and
redistri/ution< can /e a%%lied. Route #a%s are used to set t-e co##unit' attri/ute.
Predefined co##unit' attri/utes are:
1. No:e-$ort9 do not ad&ertise t-is route to 4!P %eers.
2. No:%d8ertise9 do not ad&ertise t-is route to an' %eer.
3. Internet9 ad&ertise t-is route to t-e internet co##unit'I all routers in t-e
net.ork /elong to it.
7(P P%t' /election
!P could %ossi/l' recei&e #ulti%le ad&ertise#ents for t-e sa#e route fro# #ulti%le
sources. !P selects onl' one %at- as t-e /est %at-. 8-en t-e %at- is selected !P %uts
t-e selected %at- in t-e 2P routing ta/le and %ro%agates t-e %at- to its neig-/ors. !P
uses t-e follo.ing criteria6 in t-e order resented. +o select a %at- for a destination:
23
1. 2f t-e %at- s%ecifies a ne7t -o% t-at is inaccessi/le6 dro% t-e u%date.
2. Prefer t-e %at- .it- t-e largest .eig-t.
3. 2f t-e .eig-ts are sa#e6 %refer t-e %at- .it- t-e largest local %reference.
$. 2f t-e local %references are t-e sa#e6 %refer t-e %at- t-at .as originated /' !P
running on t-is router.
*. 2f no route .as originated6 %refer t-e route t-at -as t-e s-ortest =SG%at-.
,. 2f all %at-s -a&e t-e sa#e =SG%at-6 lengt-6 %refer t-e %at- .it- t-e lo.est origin
t'%e ;.-ere origin is lo.er t-an 4!P6 and 4!P is lo.er t-an inco#%lete<.
7. 2f t-e origin codes are t-e sa#e6 %refer t-e %at- .it- t-e lo.est "4> attri/ute.
). 2f t-e %at-s -a&e t-e sa#e "4>6 %refer t-e e7ternal %at- o&er t-e internal %at-.
0. 2f t-e %at-s are still t-e sa#e6 %refer t-e %at- t-roug- t-e closest 2!P neig-/or.
10. Prefer t-e %at- .it- t-e lo.est 2P address6 as s%ecified /' t-e !P router 2>.
;orderG!ate.a'GProtocolL!PG=ttri/utes6 n.d.<
Mess%ge He%der 1or#%t
Follo.ing is t-e #essage -eader for#at:
Figure 3: "essage -eader for#at
1. M%r<er9 included for co#%ati/ilit'6 #ust /e set to all ones.
2. engt'9 total lengt- of t-e #essage in octets6 including t-e -eader.
3. T*$e9 +'%e of !P #essage. +-e follo.ing are defined:
1. O%en;1<
2. ?%date;2<
3. 1otification;3<
$. Kee%=li&e;$<
24
O$er%tion o& 7(P
!P neig-/ors6 called %eers6 are esta/lis-ed /' #anual configuration /et.een
routers to create a +CP session %ort 170. = !P s%eaker sends 10B/'te kee%Bali&e
#essages e&er' 30 seconds to #aintain t-e connection. =#ong routing %rotocols6
!P is uni:ue in using +CP as its trans%ort %rotocol. ;!P6 n.d.<
!P running in t-e sa#e =utono#ous S'ste# ;=S< is called Intern%l 7(P ;i!P<I
and running in different =S is called E-tern%l 7(P ;e!P<. Routers t-at e7c-ange
infor#ation o&er t-e /oundar' of an =S .it- anot-er =S are called ;order routers
or e7(P $eers connect directl'. i!P %eers are connected to eac- ot-er &ia
inter#ediate routers. +-e #ain difference /et.een i!P and e!P %eering is in t-e
.a' routes t-at .ere recei&ed fro# one %eer are %ro%agated to ot-er %eers. 1e.
routes learnt fo# e!P are t'%icall' redistri/uted to all ot-e i!P %eers as .ell as
all e!P %eers6 .-ile6 ne. routes learnt on an i!P %eering6 t-e' are reBad&ertised
onl' to all ot-er e!P %eers.
E-tension negoti%tion
>uring t-e %eering -ands-ake6 .-en OP41 #essages are e7c-anged6 !P s%eakers
can negotiate o%tional ca%a/ilities of t-e session6 including #ulti%rotocol e7tensions
and &arious reco&er' #odes. 2f t-e #ulti%rotocol e7tensions to !P are negotiated at
t-e ti#e of creation6 t-e !P s%eaker can %refi7 t-e 1et.ork @a'er Rec-a/ilit'
2nfor#ation ;1@R2< it ad&ertises .it- an address fa#il' %refi7. +-ese fa#ilies
include t-e 2P&$ ;default<6 2P&,6 2P&$32P&, AP1 and #ulticast !P.
1inite /t%te M%c'ine +1/M,
8-en #aking decisions .it- %eers6 a !P %eer uses a si#%le FS" t-at consists of
si7 states: 2dleI ConnectI =cti&eI O%enSentI O%enConfir#I and 4sta/lis-ed.
1. Idle /t%te9
1. Refuses all inco#ing !P connections
2. Start t-e initiali(ation of e&ent triggers.
3. 2nitiates a +CP connection .it- its configured %eer.
$. @istens for a +CP connection fro# its %eer.
*. C-anges its state to connect.
,. 2f an error occurs at an' state FS" %rocess6 t-e !P session is ter#inated
i##ediatel' and returned to t-e idle state. So#e of t-e reasons .-' a router
does not %rogress fro# t-e 2dle Sate are:
25
1. +CP %ort 170 is not o%en.
2. = rando# +CP %ort o&er 1023 is not o%en.
3. Peer address configured incorrectl' on eit-er router.
$. =S nu#/er configured incorrectl' on eit-er router.
2. Connect /t%te
1. 8aits for successful +CP negotiation .it- %eer.
2. Sends O%en #essage to %eer and c-anges state to O%enSent.
3. 2f an error occurs6 !P #o&es to t-e =cti&e state. Reasons for t-is are sa#e
as are for t-e 2dle Sate.
.. Acti8e /t%te
1. 2f t-e router .as una/le to esta/lis- a successful +CP session6 t-en it ends u%
in t-e =cti&e State.
2. !P FS" tries to restart anot-er +CP session .it- t-e %eer and6 if
successful6 sends an O%en #essage to t-e %eer.
3. 2f unsuccessful again6 t-e FS" is reset to t-e 2dle State.
$. Re%eated failures #a' result in a router c'cling /et.een t-e 2dle and =cti&e
state. So#e reasons are:
1. +CP %ort 170 is not o%en.
2. = rando# +CP %ort o&er 1023 is not o%en. !P configuration error.
3. 1et.ork congestion.
2. O$en/ent /t%te
1. !P FS" listens for an O%en #essage fro# its %eer.
2. Once t-e #essage -as /een recei&ed6 t-e router c-ecks t-e &alidit' of t-e
O%en #essage.
3. 2f t-ere is an error it is /ecause of t-e fields in t-e O%en #essage does not
#atc- /et.een t-e %eers. +-e router sends a 1otification #essage to t-e %eer
indicating .-' t-e error occurred.
$. 2f t-ere is no error6 a Kee%=li&e #essage is sent6 &arious ti#ers are set and
t-e state is c-anged to O%enConfir#.
3. O$enCon&ir# /t%te
1. +-e %eer is listening for a Kee%=li&e #essage fro# its %eer.
2. 2f a Kee%=li&e #essage is recei&ed and no ti#er -as e7%ired /efore rece%tion
of t-e Kee%=li&e6 !P transitions to t-e 4sta/lis-ed state.
26
3. 2f a ti#er e7%ires /efore a Kee%=li&e #essage is recei&ed6 or if an error
condition occurs6 t-e router transitions /ack to t-e 2dle state.
5. Est%;lis'ed /t%te
1. +-e %eers send ?%date #essages to e7c-ange infor#ation anout eac- route
/eing ad&ertised to t-e !P %eer.
2. 2f t-ere is an' error in t-e ?%date #essage t-en a 1otification #essage is sent
to t-e %eer6 and !P transitions /ack to t-e 2dle state.
3. 2f a ti#er e7%ires /efore a Kee%=li&e #essage is recei&ed6 or if an error
condition occurs6 t-e router transitions /ack to t-e 2dle state. ;!P6 n.d.<
Uses o& 7(P
1. Aer' large %ri&ate 2P net.orks use !P internall'. =n6 e7a#%le .ould /e t-e
5oining of a nu#/er of large OSPF net.orks .-ere OSPF /' itself .ould not
scale to si(e. ;!PB/order gate.a' %rotocol6 n.d.<
2. !P is also used for #ulti-o#ing a net.ork for /etter redundanc'6 eit-er to
#ulti%le access %oints of a single 2SP or to #ulti%le 2SPs. ;!P6 n.d.<
27
CHAPTER . /0/TEM 1O"CHART AND O(ICA
DIA(RAM/
+-e &arious ste%s in&ol&ed in si#ulation are descri/ed in figure $ s-o.n as /elo..
Figure $: Ste%s to de&elo% and anal'(e %rotocols
=s de#onstrated in figure $6 t-e ste%s are defined /elo..
1. >e&elo% Scenarios: 2n t-is ste% different scenarios are de&elo%ed to configure
.it- t-e different routing %rotocols.
2. C-oose statistics: Second ste% after de&elo%ing t-e scenarios is to select t-e
&arious statistics for t-e different scenarios according to t-e configured %rotocol.
3. Run Si#ulation: 2n t-is6 co#%arison of &arious %ara#eters and t-e results of
t-e scenarios are collected.
$. =nal'(e Result: =fter collecting t-e results6 t-ese results are anal'(ed in t-is
final ste% for co#%arison a#ong t-e !P6 2!RP6 OSPF and 42!RP.
28
CHAPTER 2 RE/UT/ AND DI/CU//ION/
/i#ul%tion
Si#ulation can /e defined to s-o. t-e e&entual real /e-a&ior of a selected s'ste#
#odel. On t-e /asis of s'ste#6 it is used to o%ti#i(e %erfor#ance so t-at an insig-t
of t-e functioning of s'ste# is o/tained. Si#ulation results are can /e used to get an
esti#ation and assu#%tion of t-e real s'ste#.
/i#ul%tor
2n t-is %ro5ect6 net.ork si#ulator6 O%ti#i(ed 1et.ork 4ngineering +ools ;OP14+<
#odeler 0.1 -as /een used as a si#ulation en&iron#ent. OP14+ is a si#ulator /uilt
on to% of discrete e&en s'ste# ;>4S< and /' #odeling eac- e&ent in t-e s'ste#6 it
si#ulates t-e s'ste# /e-a&ior and user defined %rocesses are used to %rocess it.
OP14+ is &er' %o.erful soft.are to sti#ulate -eterogeneous net.ork .it- &arious
%rotocols.
/tructure o& t'e OPNET
OP14+ is a -ig- le&el user interface t-at is /uilt as of C and CDD source code .it-
-uge li/rar' of OP14+ function.
2...1 Hier%rc'ic%l /tructure
OP14+ #odel is di&ided into t-ree do#ains:
1. Net)or< Do#%in9 1et.ork do#ain can include P-'sical connection6
interconnection and configuration. O&erall s'ste# is re%resented6 e.g. a
net.ork on a geogra%-ical #a% to /e si#ulated.
2. Node Do#%in9 +-is is %resent in t-e 1et.ork do#ain as an internal
infrastructure. 4.g. routers6 -u/s6 .orkstations6 etc.
3. Process Do#%in9 +-is do#ain tells t-e attri/utes of t-e %rocessor and :ueue
#odel inside t-e node #odels /' using source code C and CDD.
29
/i#ul%tion /tud*
+-e %rotocols used -ere are !P6 2!RP6 42!RP6 and OSPF. +-e %ro%osed routing
%rotocols are i#%le#ented and e&aluated. +-ese %rotocols are intended to use to get
/etter %erfor#ance of one o&er t-e ot-er for real ti#e traffic.
Results
To$olog* considered %nd t'e resulting gr%$'s &or O/P1
Figure *: +o%olog' considered for OSPF.
Con&iguring t'e lin< cost
Cost considered using e:.1 for all t-e links configured .it- OSPF.
30
Figure ,: OSPF %rotocol
s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.
Figure 7: OSPF %rotocol s-o.ing
t-e traffic recei&ed.
Figure ) Figure 0
Figure ) M 0: Hig-lig-ted link s-o.ing t-e s-ortest %at- follo.ed /' OSPF.
31
To$olog* considered %nd t'e resulting gr%$'s &or I(RP
Figure 10: 1et.ork considered for Figure 11: +o%olog' considered inside
2!RP. t-e net.ork.
Figure 12: 2!RP %rotocol
s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.
32
Figure 13: 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic
recei&ed.
Figure 1$: 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic send AS traffic recei&ed.
To$olog* considered %nd t'e resulting gr%$'s &or EI(RP
Figure 1*: 1et.ork considered for Figure 1,: +o%olog' considered inside
42!RP. t-e net.ork.
33
Figure 17: 42!RP %rotocol
s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.
Figure 1): 2!RP %rotocol s-o.ing
t-e traffic recei&ed.
Figure 10: 42!RP %rotocol s-o.ing t-e traffic send AS traffic recei&ed.
34
To$olog* considered %nd t'e resulting gr%$'s &or 7(P
Figure 20: +o%olog' considered for !P.
Figure 21: !P %rotocol
s-o.ing t-e traffic sent.
35
Figure 22: !P %rotocol s-o.ing t-e
traffic recei&ed.
Figure 23: !P %rotocol s-o.ing t-e glo/al traffic recei&ed AS traffic recei&ed
on Router 1$.
36
(r%$' s'o)ing co#$%rison ;et)een I(RP %nd EI(RP
Figure 2$: Si#ulation 2nfor#ation of 2!RP M 42!RP.
Figure 2*: Si#ulation Result of 42!RP Figure 2,: Si#ulation Result of 2!RP
37
Figure 27: Co#%arison /et.een 2!RP ;traffic sent M recei&ed< and 42!RP ;traffic
sent M recei&ed<.
38
CHAPTER 3 /COPE O1 THE "OR4
+-e #ain ai# to conduct t-is %ro5ect is to learn a/out t-e /e-a&ior of t-e 2!RP6
OSPF6 !P and 42!RP. +-e dri&ing factor is t-e uni:ueness %resent in t-e %ro5ect
.it- res%ect to %ara#eters /eing e&aluated. Aarious %ara#eters and constraints -a&e
/een studied.
+-e e&aluation of t-e %rotocol /' considering a set of %ara#eters and co#%aring t-e
results .it- t-e ot-er %rotocol9s outco#e 'ields a /etter understanding to.ards t-e
/e-a&ior of t-e %rotocol. = /etter understanding of t-e routing %rotocol -el%s in
/etter i#%le#entation in t-e real ti#e net.orks6 .-ic- -el%s in o/taining o%ti#u#
out%ut and efficient .orking of t-e s'ste#. +-is in turn6 -el%s in i#%ro&e#ent of t-e
o&erall net.ork /e-a&ior. +-is %ro5ect %resents t-e si#ulation #odel .-ic- is
created for t-e anal'sis of t-e routing %rotocols: 2!RP6 !P6 OSPF and 42!RP.
OSPF .as designed for t-e s%ecific net.orks and -ad a &er' loose relation .it- t-e
ot-er %rotocols6 .as /it co#%le7 to a%%l' and o&er-ead /et.een t-e# .as #ini#al.
+-ere are fe. considera/le differences /et.een t-ese suc- as t-eories in electing t-e
designed router ;>R<6 %assing o&er t-e u%%er la'er infor#ation to ot-er areas and
%ara#eter s'nc-roni(ation.
39
CHAPTER 5 CONCU/ION
1. +-e 2+ !uru soft.are allo.s for ra%id creation of large nets. +-ese nets can /e
configured using t-e gra%-ical user interface ;!?2<6 .-ic- si#%lif' usage.
2. 2nterior routing %rotocols like 2!RP6 42!RP and OSPF are .idel' /eing used in
co#%uter net.orking.
3. 47terior routing %rotocols like !P and !P$ are also used in co#%uter
net.orking.
$. 2n t-is %ro5ect6 .e -a&e i#%le#ented selected routing %rotocols suc- as 2!RP6
42!RP6 OSPF and !P.
*. On i#%le#enting t-ese %rotocols6 .e -a&e #easured t-e %erfor#ance #etrics
for real ti#e a%%lications .-ic- #easures t-e differences /et.een t-e dela's of
%ackets.
,. On co#%aring 2!RP and 42!RP6 .e -a&e found 42!RP %erfor#ing /etter t-an
2!RP.
40
CHAPTER 6 7I7IO(RAPH0
1. Md. Nazrul Islam and Md. Ahsan Ullah Ashique, imula!i"n #ased $I%&'
"(er )'* 'er+"rman,e Anal-sis, 2010. .n.d./.
2. M"hsen $mami, 'er+"rman,e 0"m1aris"n "+ #%' in Mul!i2A Ne!3"r4
3i!h )1ne! imula!"r. .n.d./.
3. An Introduction to IGRP. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m h!!1566333.,is,".,"m65
h!!1566333.,is,".,"m6en6U6!e,h6!43656!e,hn"l"7ies83hi!e81a1er09186a0080
0 ,8ae1.sh!ml9de!ails
4. BGP. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m 333.3i4i1edia."r75 h!!1566en.3i4i1edia."r763i4i6#%'
5. BGP-border gateway protocol. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m
333.ne!3"r47uruz.,"m5
h!!1566333.ne!3"r47uruz.,"m61r"!","ls6:712:"rder27a!e3a-2
1r"!","l6
6. Border_Gateway_Protocol#BGP_Attributes. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m
h!!1566333.d",3i4i.,is,".,"m65
h!!1566d",3i4i.,is,".,"m63i4i6#"rder8%a!e3a-8'r"!","l9#%'8A!!ri:
u!es
7. EIGRP. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m h!!15661a,4e!li+e.ne!65 h!!15661a,4e!li+e.ne!63i4i6ei7r16
8. igrp-2878!7"#$ro%_searc&'(. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m
h!!1566333.slideshare.ne!65
h!!1566333.slideshare.ne!6m"hammed+arisma;eed6i7r1228789476<
+r"m8sear,h=1
9. R)*!27(. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m
h!!1566333.!""ls.ie!+."r75
h!!1566!""ls.ie!+."r76h!ml6r+,4271
10. tec&nologies_tec&_note+(8"a++8++,$+7-s&t%l. .n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m
h!!1566333.,is,".,"m65
h!!1566333.,is,".,"m6en6U6!e,h6!43656!e,hn"l"7ies8!e,h8n"!e09186a008009
3 +07.sh!ml
11. >"n- ?"n7lian7 *en7, Im1lemen!a!i"n "+ #%' in a ne!3"r4 simula!"r, 1997.
.n.d./. &e!rie(ed +r"m h!!1s566333.7""7le.,".in6url<
sa=!@r,!=;@q=@esr,=s@s"ur,e=3e:@,d=2@,ad=r;a
@(ed=00?IA*;A#@url=h!!1B3AB2*B2*333.ens,.s+u.,aB2*Cl;il;aB2*,nl
B2*1d+B 2*!"n-.1d+@ei=Dh07Ur>M*Ee*rAeah4030A@us
41