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i=1
p
a
i
i
,
where p
i
are primes and a
i
are positive integers.
If there is at least one a
i
> 1 then (n) = 0. Otherwise, i.e. if the prime decomposition of n is
n =
r
i=1
p
i
,
(all the powers are 1) then
(n) = (1)
r
.
Another way: if n is divisible by a perfect square, then (n) = 0. Otherwise, if it has an even
number of prime divisors, it is 1, and if it has n odd number of prime divisors, it is 1.
Porblem 19.1: Find a. (1001) b. (1000) c. (210) d. (1024).
Sol. to 19.1:
a. 1001 = 7 11 13 only has primes raised to the rst power, and there are three of them, so
(1001) = (1)
3
= 1.
b. 1000 = 10
3
= 2
3
5
3
has powers larger than 1 so (1000) = 0.
c. 210 = 2 3 5 7 only has primes raised to the rst power, and there are four of them, so
(210) = (1)
4
= 1.
3. 1024 = 2
10
has a power larger than 1, so (1024) = 0.
Important Property: If n = 1 then
d|n
(n) = 1 (of course!). If n > 1 then
d|n
(d) = 0 .
Proof: If n = p
a
1
p
a
r
r
then the set of divisors of n, Div(n) is
Div(n) = {p
1
1
p
r
r
| 0
1
a
1
, . . . , 0
r
a
r
} .
1
Since whenever any exponent is larger than 1 the contribution is 0, we can consider
n
= p
1
p
r
,
so it is enough to prove.
d|n
(d) = 0 .
Case 1: r = 1: n = p
1
. Div(p
1
) = {1, p
1
} and
d|p
1
(d) = (1) + (p
1
) = 1 + (1) = 0 .
Case 2: r = 2: n = p
1
p
2
. Div(p
1
p
2
) = {1, p
1
, p
2
, p
1
p
2
} and
d|p
1
(d) = (1)+(p
1
)+(p
2
)+(p
1
p
2
) = 1+(1)+(1)+(1)
2
= (1+(1))(1+(1)) = 00 = 0 .
Case 3: r = 3: n = p
1
p
2
, p
3
. Div(p
1
p
2
p
3
) = {1, p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, p
1
p
2
, p
1
p
3
, p
2
p
3
, p
1
p
2
p
3
} and
d|p
1
(d) = (1) + (p
1
) + (p
2
) + (p
3
) + (p
1
p
2
) + (p
1
p
3
) + (p
2
p
3
) + (p
1
p
2
p
3
)
= 1+(1)+(1)+(1)+(1)
2
+(1)
2
+(1)
2
+(1)
3
= (1+(1))(1+(1))(1+(1)) = 000 = 0 .
The proof for general r is similar, one gets (1 + (1))
r
= 0.
Problem 19.2: Check empirically that
d|n
(d) = 0 for n = 12.
Solution to 19.2:
Div(12) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} .
(1) = 1, (2) = 1, (3) = 1, (4) = 0, (6) = 1, (12) = 0, so
d|12
(d) = 1 + (1) + (1) + 0 + 1 + 0 = 0 .
Important Formula: ( The Mobius Inversion Formula): Let f(n) be any arithmetical func-
tion (i.e. function dened on the positive integers), and you dene a new function g(n) by
g(n) :=
d|n
f(d) ,
(for every positive integer n) then you can recover f(n) back, using g(n) (and the Mobius function
(n)) via the amazing formula
f(n) =
d|n
(d)g(n/d)
2
(for every positive integer n).
Proof:
d|n
(d)g(n/d) =
d|n
(d)
m|(n/d)
f(m)
=
d|n
m|(n/d)
(d)f(m) =
m|n
f(m)
d|(n/m)
(d)
.
If m = n then the sum is 1, otherwise 0, so the only survivor is when m = n and we get f(n).
QED.
Problem 19.3: Test empirically The Mobius inversion formula for n 6
Solution of 19.3: For arbitrary f(1), f(2), f(3), f(4), f(5), f(6).
g(1) = f(1) ,
g(2) = f(1) + f(2) ,
g(3) = f(1) + f(3) ,
g(4) = f(1) + f(2) + f(4) ,
g(5) = f(1) + f(5) ,
g(6) = f(1) + f(2) + f(3) + f(6) ,
Now
d|1
(d)g(n/d) = g(1) = f(1) .
d|2
(d)g(n/d) = (1) g(2) + (2) g(1) = f(1) + f(2) + (1)(f(1)) = f(2) .
d|3
(d)g(n/d) = (1) g(3) + (3) g(1) = f(1) + f(3) + (1)(f(1)) = f(3) .
d|4
(d)g(n/d) = (1)g(4)+(2)g(2)+(4)g(1) = f(1)+f(2)+f(4)+(1)(f(1)+f(2))+0f(1) = f(4) .
d|5
(d)g(n/d) = (1) g(5) + (5) g(1) = f(1) + f(5) + (1)(f(1)) = f(5) .
d|6
(d)g(n/d) = (1) g(6) + (2) g(3) + (3) g(2) + (6) g(1)
= 1 (f(1) +f(2) +f(3) +f(6)) +(1) (f(1) +f(3)) +(1) (f(1) +f(2)) +(1) f(1) = f(6) .
Dirichlet Series for (n)
n=1
(n)
n
s
=
1
(s)
,
3
where (s) is the famous Riemann zeta function
(s) :=
n=1
1
n
s
.
Proof: By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetics
(s) =
pPrimes
1
1 p
s
.
So
1
(s)
=
pPrimes
(1 p
s
)
= 1
p
1
p
s
1
+
p
1
<p
2
(p
1
p
2
)
s
p
1
<p
2
<p
3
(p
1
p
2
p
3
)
s
+
p
1
<p
2
<p
3
<p
4
(p
1
p
2
p
3
p
4
)
s
+. . .
=
n=1
(n)
n
s
.
4