M

i
c
h
a
l

S
z
y
p
e
r
.

"
I
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
.
"
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t

2
0
0
0

C
R
C

P
r
e
s
s

L
L
C
.

<
h
t
t
p
:
/
/
w
w
w
.
e
n
g
n
e
t
b
a
s
e
.
c
o
m
>
.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
InducIunco
ousuromonI
50.1 Dclnitions ol Inouctancc
50.2 Fquivalcnt Circuits ano Inouctivc Flcmcnt
Moocls
50.3 Mcasurcmcnt Mcthoos
CurrcntVoltagc Mcthoos riogc Mcthoos Dillcrcntial
Mcthoos Pcsonancc Mcthoos
50.1 Instrumcntation
InJuciance is an clcctrical paramctcr that charactcrizcs clcctric circuit clcmcnts (two or lourtcrminal
nctworks) that bccomc magnctic lclo sourccs whcn currcnt lows through thcm. Thcy arc callco inouc
tors, although inouctancc is not a uniquc propcrty ol thcm. Flcctric currcnt I (A) ano magnctic lux d
(Wb) arc intcrocpcnocnt, that is, thcy arc couplco. Inouctancc is a mcasurablc paramctcr, thcrclorc, it
has a physical oimcnsion, a mcasurcmcnt unit (thc hcnry), as wcll as rclcrcncc stanoaros. Inouctancc is
a propcrty ol all clcctrical conouctors. It is louno as seIIInJuciance I ol a singlc conouctor ano as nuiuaI
InJuciance M in thc casc ol two or morc conouctors. Inouctors can vary in construction, but winoings
in thc lorm ol coils arc thc most lrcqucnt. In this casc, thcy havc charactcristic gcomctrical oimcnsions.
surlacc A, lcngth I, ano N numbcr ol turns ol winoings. Thc path ol magnctic lux can bc spccially shapco
by magnctic corcs. Iigurc 50.1 shows cxamplcs ol oillcrcnt inouctivc clcmcnts ol clcctric circuits.
Iigurcs 50.1a ano | prcscnt winoings with scllinouctancc maoc as a corclcss coil (a), ano wouno on
a lcrromagnctic corc that is thc conccntrator ol thc magnctic lclo (|). A translormcr loaoco by impcoancc
Z
I
ano an clcctromagnct loaoco by impcoancc ol cooy currcnts in thc mctal boaro, shown in Iigurcs 50.1c
ano J, will havc not only scllinouctancc ol winoings, but also mutual inouctancc bctwccn winoings (c)
or bctwccn winoing ano cooy currcnts (J). Scllinouctanccs ano mutual inouctanccs can bc octcctco in
busbars ol clcctric powcr stations as shown in Iigurc 50.1e, ano also on tracks on printco circuit boaros
as in Iigurc 50.1I. Couplings bctwccn currcnts ano clcctromagnctic lclos can bc maoc oclibcratcly but
can also bc harmlul, c.g., ouc to cncrgy losscs causco by cooy currcnts, or ouc to clcctromagnctic
oisturbanccs inoucco in thc tracks ol printco circuit boaros. Inouctors maoc as winoings on lcrromagnctic
corcs havc numcrous othcr applications.
Thc prcscncc ol a lcrromagnctic corc changcs thc shapc ol a magnctic lclo ano incrcascs inouctancc,
but in thc casc ol closco corcs, it also causcs nonlincar rclations bctwccn inouctancc ano currcnt as wcll
as currcnt lrcqucncy. Closco magnctic corcs thcn havc a nonlincar ano ambiguous magnctization char
actcristic d (I) bccausc ol magnctic saturation ano hystcrcsis. Inouctanccs ol opcn magnctic corcs with
an air gap arc mainly ocpcnocnt on thc lcngth ol thc magnctic path in thc air. Pcal coils maoc ol mctal
(c.g., coppcr) wirc also show rcsistancc I. Howcvcr, il rcsistancc is mcasurco at thc coil tcrminals with
ac currcnt, it ocpcnos not only on thc crossscction, lcngth, ano rcsistivity ol thc wirc, but also on losscs
IchuI Szypor
!n!\crs!y oI A!n!ng and Aca!!urgy
1999 by CRC Press LLC
ol activc powcr in thc magnctic corc. Thcsc losscs ocpcno on both thc currcnt valuc ano lrcqucncy.
Pcsistanccs ol inouctivc clcmcnts can also ocpcno on thc skin cllcct. This phcnomcnon consists ol thc
low ol clcctric currcnt through a laycr ol thc conouctor, ncar its outcr surlacc, as thc rcsult ol thc cllccts
ol thc conouctor`s own magnctic lclo gcncratco by thc currcnt lowing insioc thc conouctor. Noticc that
thc coils havc also intcrturns ano stray (to Farth) capacitanccs C. Irom its tcrminals, thc inouctivc
clcmcnts can thcn bc ocscribco by impcoanccs (twotcrminal nctworks) or transmittanccs (lourtcrminal
nctworks), valucs that arc cxpcrimcntally cvaluatco by currcnt ano voltagc mcasurcmcnts, or by com
parison thcm with rclcrcncc impcoanccs. Thc mcasurco valucs ano thc cquivalcnt circuit moocls ol
inouctivc clcmcnts arc usco lor cvaluation ol moocl paramctcrs. scllinouctanccs, mutual inouctanccs,
rcsistanccs, ano capacitanccs.
50.1 DchnItIons of Inductancc
SeIIInJuciance is oclnco as thc rclation bctwccn currcnt I lowing through thc coil ano voltagc \ mcasurco
at its tcrminals {1].
(50.1)
Using Fquation 50.1, thc unit ol inouctancc, i.c., thc hcnry, can bc oclnco as lollows.
Onc hcnry (1 H) is thc inouctancc ol a circuit in which an clcctromotivc lorcc ol onc volt (1 V) is
inoucco, whcn thc currcnt in thc circuit changcs unilormly by onc ampcrc (1 A) pcr sccono (1 s).
Thc oclnition ol thc unit implics thc usc ol unilormramp currcnt cxcitation (thc ocrivativc is
constant), in practicc, howcvcr, mainly sinusoioal currcnt cxcitation is usco in inouctancc mcasurcmcnt.
Mutual inouctancc M ol winoings couplco by magnctic lux d is a paramctcr that ocpcnos on thc
coupling cocllcicnt. Thc coupling cocllcicnt is oclnco as erIeci couIIng in thc casc in which thc total
lux ol onc winoing links thc sccono onc, ariIaI couIIng is thc casc in which only a lraction ol lux links
thc sccono onc, ano zero couIIng is thc casc in which no part ol thc lux ol onc winoing links thc sccono
onc. Assuming that, as in Iigurc 50.1c, thc sccono N
s
winoing is not loaoco (i.c., I
s
0) ano thc lux d
is a part ol thc total lux prooucco by currcnt I
p
, thcn voltagc \
s
is ocscribco by.
I!CURE 50.1 Fxamplcs ol oillcrcnt inouctivc clcmcnts. corclcss coil (a), coil with lcrromagnctic conccntrating corc
(|), translormcr (c), clcctromagnct (J), clcmcnt ol clcctrical powcr station busbars (e), ano printco circuit boaro
with conouctivc tracks (I).
\ I
I
i

o
o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(50.2)
whcrc | is thc coupling cocllcicnt ol thc primary (p) ano scconoary (s) winoings. Its sign ocpcnos on
thc oircction ol thc winoings. ccausc ol thc similarity bctwccn Fquations 50.1 ano 50.2, mutual inouc
tancc is oclnco similarly to scllinouctancc. Thc oclnitions ol scllinouctancc ano mutual inouctancc
ocscribco abovc arc corrcct whcn I ano M can bc assumco constant, i.c., not ocpcnoing on currcnt,
lrcqucncy, or timc.
50.2 EquIvalcnt CIrcuIts and InductIvc Elcmcnt Modcls
Fquivalcnt circuits ol inouctivc clcmcnts ano thcir mathcmatical moocls arc built on thc basis ol analysis
ol cncrgy proccsscs in thc clcmcnts. Thcy arc as lollows. cncrgy storagc in thc parts ol thc circuits
rcprcscntco by lumpco inouctanccs (I) ano capacitanccs (C), ano oissipation ol cncrgy in thc parts ol
thc circuits rcprcscntco by lumpco rcsistanccs (I). Fsscntially, thc abovcmcntionco cncrgy proccsscs arc
ncvcr lumpco, so thc cquivalcnt circuits ano mathcmatical moocls ol inouctivc clcmcnts only approximatc
rcality. Choosing an cquivalcnt circuit (moocl), onc can inlucncc thc quality ol thc approximation. In
Iigurc 50.2, thc basic moocls ol typical corclcss inouctivc clcmcnts ol clcctric circuits arc prcscntco, using
thc typc ol inouctancc (scllinouctancc I, mutual inouctancc M) ano lrcqucncy bano (low II, high HI)
as critcria. Moocls ol inouctivc clcmcnts with lcrromagnctic corcs ano problcms conccrning moocl
paramctcr cvaluation arc bcyono thc scopc ol this chaptcr. Thc cquivalcnt circuits ol corclcss inouctivc
clcmcnts at low lrcqucncics contain only inouctanccs ano scrics rcsistanccs. At high lrcqucncics, parallcl
ano coupling cquivalcnt capacitanccs arc incluoco. Calculations ol ICI valucs ol complicatco cquivalcnt
circuits (with many ICI clcmcnts) arc vcry tcoious, so oltcn lor that purposc a spccial ocoicatco proccssor
with appropriatc soltwarc is provioco in thc mcasuring ocvicc.
In mctrology, complcx notation {1] is lrcqucntly usco to ocscribc lincar moocls ol inouctivc clcmcnts.
In complcx notation, thc impcoanccs ano transmittanccs arc as lollows.
I!CURE 50.2 asic cquivalcnt circuits ol inouctivc clcmcnts with scllinouctancc I, mutual inouctancc M lor low
(II) ano high (HI) lrcqucncics.
\ N
i
| I I
I
M
I
i
s s p s
p p
o
o
o
ot
o
o

d
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(50.3)
(50.1)
Thc componcnts ol impcoanccs ano transmittanccs can bc ocscribco as algcbraic lunctions ol thc ICI
clcmcnts octcrminco lor thc cquivalcnt circuit. In cach casc, thc lorms ol thc lunctions ocpcno on thc
assumco cquivalcnt circuit. y mcasuring thc rcal ano imaginary componcnts or mooulcs ano phasc
anglcs ol impcoanccs or transmittanccs ano comparing thcm to corrcsponoing quantitics octcrminco
lor thc cquivalcnt circuit, ano thcn solving thc obtainco algcbraic cquations, thc ICI valucs ol thc
cquivalcnt circuit can bc octcrminco.
An cxamplc lor thc II cquivalcnt circuit in Iigurc 50.2 can bc obtainco.
(50.5)
(50.o)
Ior thc HI cquivalcnt circuits shown in Iigurc 50.2, thc moocls arc morc complcx. Morc particularly,
moocls ol circuits with mutual inouctancc can rcprcscnt.
Iocal translormcrs, with only thcir scllinouctanccs ano mutual inouctanccs ol thc coils
Pcrlcct translormcrs, without losscs in thc corc
Pcal translormcrs, having a spccilc inouctancc, rcsistancc, ano capacity ol thc coils, ano also a
ccrtain lcvcl ol losscs in thc corc
Thc quality lactor ano oissipation lactor D arc oclnco lor thc cquivalcnt circuits ol inouctivc
clcmcnts. In thc casc ol a circuit with inouctancc ano rcsistancc only, thcy can bc oclnco as lollows.
(50.7)
whcrc paramctcr t is a timc constant.
Thc prcscntco moocls with lumpco inouctancc arc not always a sullcicntly gooo approximation ol
thc rcal propcrtics ol clcctric circuits. This particularly applics to circuits maoc with gcomctrically largc
wircs (i.c., ol a signilcant lcngth, surlacc arca, or volumc). In such cascs, thc moocls applico usc an
aocquatcly oistributco inouctancc (lincarly, ovcr thc surlacc, or throughout thc volumc). Inouctanccs
octcrminco to bc thc cocllcicnts ol such moocls ocpcno on thc gcomctrical oimcnsions ano, in thc casc
ol surlacc conouctivity or conouction by thc surlacc or volumc, by thc lrcqucncics ol thc currcnts lowing
in thc conouctor lincs.
A complcx lormulation is usco to rcprcscnt ano analyzc circuits with lumpco ano lincar inouctanccs.
Somctimcs thc samc thing can bc oonc using simplc lincar oillcrcntial cquations or thc corrcsponoing
intcgral opcrators.
Thc analytical mcthooology lor such circuits is ocscribco in {1]. In thc casc ol nonlincar inouctanccs,
thc most lrcqucntly usco mcthoo is thc lincarizco cquivalcnt circuit, also rcprcscntco in a simplilco lorm
using a complcx lormulation. Circuits with oistributco inouctancc arc rcprcscntco by partial oillcrcntial
cquations.
Z I j X Z j Z I X
X
I
+
,
+
z z m z m z z z
z
z
cxp , , arctan o o
2 2
T I j X T j T I X
X
I
+
,
+
T T m T m T T T
T
T
cxp , , arctan o o
2 2
Z I j I I j X I I I X + + u u
z z z z
,
T j M I j X I M X + u u
T T T T
0,

D
I
I

1 u
tu
1999 by CRC Press LLC
50.3 Mcasurcmcnt Mcthods
Impcoancc (or transmittancc) mcasurcmcnt mcthoos lor inouctors arc oivioco into thrcc basic groups.
1. Currcnt ano voltagc mcthoos basco on impcoancc/transmittancc octcrmination.
2. riogc ano oillcrcntial mcthoos basco on comparison ol thc voltagcs ano currcnts ol thc mcasurco
ano rclcrcncc impcoanccs until a statc ol balancc is rcachco.
3. Pcsonancc mcthoos basco on physical conncction ol thc mcasurco inouctor ano a capacitor to
crcatc a rcsonant systcm.
CurrcntVoltagc Mcthods
Currcntvoltagc mcasurcmcnt mcthoos arc usco lor all typcs ol inouctors. A currcntvoltagc mcthoo
using vcctor voltmctcrs is shown in Iigurc 50.3. It is basco on cvaluation ol thc mooulcs ano phasc anglcs
ol impcoanccs (in thc casc ol scllinouctancc) or transmittanccs (in thc casc ol mutual inouctancc) using
Fquations 50.8 ano 50.9
(50.8)
(50.9)
whcrc I
r
Sampling rcsistor usco lor mcasurcmcnt ol currcnt
\
1
Voltagc proportional to thc currcnt
\
2
Voltagc across thc mcasurco impcoancc
\
pr
Voltagc proportional to primary currcnt
\
s
Voltagc ol thc scconoary winoing ol thc circuit with mutual inouctancc
A block oiagram illustrating thc principlc ol thc vcctor voltmctcr is shown in Iigurc 50.1a. Thc systcm
consists ol thc multiplicr or gatco synchronous phascscnsitivc octcctor (PSD) {3, 1] ol thc mcasurco
I!CURE 50.3 Circuit oiagram lor impcoancc mcasurcmcnt by currcnt ano voltagc mcthoo.
Z
\
I
I
\
\
I
V j
V j
I
V
V
j Z j
,
,

,

,
2 2
1
2
1
2 1 r r
m 2
m 1
r
m 2
m 1
m z
cxp
cxp
cxp cxp
o
o
o o o
T
\
I
I
\
\
I
V j
V j
I
V
V
j T j
,
,

,

,
s
p
r
s
pr
r
ms s
mpr pr
r
ms
mpr
s pr m T
cxp
cxp
cxp cxp
o
o
o o o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
voltagc \ with thc switching systcm ol thc phasc ol thc rclcrcncc voltagc \
on
, intcgrator, oigital voltmctcr,
ano proccssor. Thc principlc ol vcctor voltmctcr opcration is basco on octcrmination ol thc magnituoc
V
m
ano phasc anglc o ol thc mcasurco voltagc \ in rclcrcncc to voltagc \
1
, which is proportional to thc
currcnt I. Assumc that voltagcs \ ano \
on
arc in thc lollowing lorms.
(50.10)
(50.11)
Phasc anglc nr/2 ol voltagc \
on
can takc valucs lrom thc sct {0, r/2, r, 3/2 r] by choosing thc numbcr n
that givcs thc possibility ol octccting thc phasc anglc o in all lour quaorants ol thc Cartcsian cooroinatc
systcm, as is shown in Iigurc 50.1|. A multiplying synchronous phasc octcctor multiplics voltagcs \ ano
\
on
ano bilincarly, ano thc intcgrator avcragcs thc multiplication rcsult ouring timc T
i
.
(50.12)
Avcraging timc T
i
| T, | 1, 2, 3. is a multiplc ol thc pcrioo T ol thc mcasurco voltagc. Irom
Fquations 50.10 through 50.12, an cxamplc lor 0 s o s r/2 (c.g., n 0 ano n 1), a pair ol numbcrs is
obtainco.
(50.13)
which arc thc valucs ol thc Cartcsian cooroinatcs ol thc mcasurco voltagc \. Thc mooulc ano phasc anglc
ol voltagc arc calculatco lrom.
(50.11)
oth cooroinatcs ol thc mcasurco voltagc \ can bc calculatco in a similar way in thc rcmaining
quaorants ol thc Cartcsian cooroinatc systcm. A vcctor voltmctcr octcrmincs thc mcasurco voltagc as
vcctor (phasor) by mcasurcmcnt ol its magnituoc ano anglc as shown in Iigurc 50.1.
I!CURE 50.4 lock oiagram (a) ano phasor oiagram (|) illustrating thc principlc ol opcration ol a vcctor voltmctcr.
lock abbrcviations. "Dct` phascscnsitivc amplituoc octcctor, "Int` intcgrator, "Volt` voltmctcr, "Proc`
proccssor, "Ph. mult` controllco phasc multiplcxcr.
\ V i V i i +
,
+
, m m
sin sin cos cos sin u o u o u o
\ V i n n
on m o
+
r
j
(
,
\

(
sin , , , , u
2
0 1 2 3
V
T
\\ i
T
in
i
on
i
o
[
1
0
V V V V V V
i m mo i m mo 0 1
0 5 0 5 . cos , . sin o o
V
V
V V
V
V
m
mo
i i
i
i
+
2
0
2
1
2 1
0
, arctan o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc currcnt ano voltagc mcthoo ol impcoancc or transmittancc mcasurcmcnt is basco on mcasurcmcnt
ol voltagcs \
1
I I
r
ano \
2
or \
pr
I I
r
ano \
s
, ano thc usc ol Fquations 50.8 or 50.9. Calculation ol thc
voltagc mcasurcmcnt rcsults ano control ol numbcr n is pcrlormco by a proccssor. Pclcrcnccs {1113]
contain cxamplcs ol PSD ano vcctor voltmctcr applications. Frrors ol mooulc ano phasc anglc mcasurc
mcnt ol impcoancc whcn using vcctor voltmctcrs arc ocscribco in {11] as bcing within thc rangc ol 1%
to 10% ano bctwccn 10
5
rao ano 10
3
rao, rcspcctivcly, lor a lrcqucncy cqual to 1.8 CHz. Publications
{9] ano {10] contain ocscriptions ol applications ol comparativc mcthoos which havc hao an important
inlucncc on thc ocvclopmcnt ol thc mcthoos.
Anothcr mcthoo ol comparativc currcnt/voltagc typc is a moocrnizco vcrsion ol thc"thrccvoltmctcr`
mcthoo {7]. A oiagram ol a mcasurcmcnt systcm illustrating thc principlc ol thc mcthoo is shown in
Iigurc 50.5a ano |.
Thc mcthoo is basco on thc propcrtics ol an opcrational amplilcr (OA), in which output voltagc \
2
is proportional to input voltagc \
1
ano to thc ratio ol thc rclcrcncc rcsistancc I
r
to mcasurco impcoancc Z.
Thc phasor oillcrcncc \
3
ol voltagcs \
1
ano \
2
can bc obtainco using thc oillcrcntial amplilcr (DA). Thc
thrcc voltagcs (as in Iigurc 50.5|) can bc usco lor thc mooulc Z
m
ano phasc calculation using rclations.
(50.15)
(50.1o)
whcrc V
1
, V
2
, V
3
arc thc rcsults ol rms voltagc mcasurcmcnts in thc circuit. Thc aovantagc ol thc mcthoo
lics in limiting thc inlucncc ol stray capacitanccs as a rcsult ol attaching onc ol thc tcrminals ol thc
mcasurco impcoancc to a point ol "virtual grouno.` Howcvcr, to obtain small mcasurcmcnt crrors,
cspccially at high lrcqucncics, amplilcrs with vcry gooo oynamic propcrtics must bc usco.
]oint crrors ol inouctancc mcasurcmcnt, obtainco by currcnt ano voltagc mcthoos, ocpcno on thc
lollowing lactors. voltmctcr crrors, crrors in calculating rcsistancc I
r
, systcm lactors (rcsioual ano lcakagc
inouctanccs, rcsistanccs ano capacitanccs), ano thc quality ol approximation ol thc mcasurco impcoanccs
by thc cquivalcnt circuit.
I!CURE 50.5 lock oiagram (a) ano phasor oiagram (|) ol thc "thrccvoltmctcr` mcthoo. Opcrational ano oillcr
cntial amplilcrs arc rcprcscntco by blocks "OA` ano "DA.`
\ I I
I
Z
Z
V
V
I
2 1
1
2

r
r
m r
u
\ \ \
V V V
V V
3 1 2
1
2
2
2
3
2
1 2
2

+
o arccos
1999 by CRC Press LLC
BrIdgc Mcthods
Thcrc arc a varicty ol briogc mcthoos lor mcasuring inouctanccs. riogc principlcs ol opcration ano
thcir circuit oiagrams arc ocscribco in {25] ano {7]. Thc most common ac briogcs lor inouctancc
mcasurcmcnts ano thc lormulac lor calculating mcasurcmcnt rcsults arc shown in Iigurc 50.o.
Thc proccourc rclcrrco to as |rIJge |aIancIng is basco on a propcr sclcction ol thc rclcrcncc valucs ol
thc briogc so as to rcoucc thc oillcrcntial voltagc to zcro (as rclcrrco to thc output signal ol thc balancc
inoicator). It can bc oonc manually or automatically.
I!CURE 50. riogc circuits usco lor inouctancc mcasurcmcnts. MaxwcllWicn briogc (a), Hay briogc (|), Carcy
Iostcr briogc (c), ano ac briogc with Wagncr branch (J). lock abbrcviations. "Osc` oscillator, "Amp` amplilcr,
"Dct` amplituoc octcctor.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc conoition ol thc balancco briogc \
0
0 lcaos to thc lollowing rclation bctwccn thc impcoanccs
ol thc briogc branchcs, onc ol thcm (c.g., Z
l
) is thc mcasurco impcoancc.
(50.17)
Putting Fquation 50.17 into complcx lorm ano using cxprcssions lor thc impcoanccs ol cach branch,
two algcbraic cquations arc obtainco by comparing thc rcal ano imaginary componcnts. Thcy arc usco
to octcrminc thc valucs ol thc cquivalcnt circuit clcmcnts ol thc mcasurco impcoancc. In thc most simplc
casc, thcy arc I ano I clcmcnts conncctco in scrics. Morc complicatco cquivalcnt circuits ncco morc
cquations to octcrminc thc cquivalcnt circuit paramctcrs. Aooitional cquations can bc obtainco lrom
mcasurcmcnts maoc at oillcrcnt lrcqucncics.
In scllbalancing briogcs, vcctor voltmctcrs prcccoco by an amplilcr ol thc outolbalancc voltagc \
0
arc usco as "zcro` octcctors. Thc octcctor output is couplco with variablc stanoaro briogc componcnts.
Thc MaxwcllWicn briogc shown in Iigurc 50.oa is onc ol thc most popular ac briogcs. Its rangc ol
mcasurcmcnt valucs is largc ano thc rclativc crror ol mcasurcmcnt is about 0.1% ol thc mcasurco valuc.
It is usco in thc wioclrcqucncy bano 20 Hz to 1 MHz. Thc briogc is balancco by varying thc I
2
ano I
3
rcsistors or by varying I
3
ano capacitor C
3
. Somc oillcultics can bc cxpcctco whcn balancing a briogc
with inouctors with high timc constants.
Thc Hay briogc prcscntco in Iigurc 50.o| is also usco lor mcasurcmcnt ol inouctors, particularly thosc
with high timc constants. Thc balancc conoitions ol thc briogc ocpcno on thc lrcqucncy valuc, so thc
lrcqucncy shoulo bc kcpt constant ouring thc mcasurcmcnts, ano thc briogc supply voltagc shoulo bc
lrcc lrom highcr harmonic oistortions. Thc ocpcnocncc ol briogc balancc conoitions on lrcqucncy also
limits thc mcasurcmcnt rangcs. Thc briogc is balancco by varying I
3
ano I
1
rcsistors ano by switching
capacitor C
3
.
Mutual inouctancc M ol two winoings with scllinouctanccs I
p
ano I
s
can bc octcrminco by Maxwcll
Wicn or Hay briogcs. Ior this, two inouctancc mcasurcmcnts havc to bc maoc lor two possiblc combi
nations ol thc scrics conncction ol both couplco winoings. onc ol thcm lor thc corrcsponoing oircctions
ol thc winoings, ano onc lor thc oppositc oircctions. Two valucs ol inouctanccs I
1
ano I
2
arc obtainco
as thc rcsult ol thc mcasurcmcnts.
(50.18)
Mutual inouctancc is calculatco lrom.
(50.19)
Thc CarcyIostcr briogc ocscribco in Iigurc 50.oc is usco lor mutual inouctancc mcasurcmcnt. Thc
scllinouctanccs ol thc primary ano scconoary winoings can bc octcrminco by two consccutivc mcasurc
mcnts. Thc cxprcssions prcscntco in Iigurc 50.oc yiclo thc magnctic coupling cocllcicnt |. Thc briogc
can bc usco in a wioc lrcqucncy rangc. Thc briogc can bc balancco by varying I
1
ano I
1
rcsistanccs ano
switching thc rcmaining clcmcnts.
Ior corrcct mcasurcmcnts whcn using ac briogcs, it is csscntial to minimizc thc inlucncc ol harmlul
couplings among thc briogc clcmcnts ano conncction wircs, bctwccn cach othcr ano thc cnvironmcnt.
Flimination ol parallcl (common) ano scrics (normal) voltagc oistortions is ncccssary lor high mcasurc
mcnt rcsolution. Thcsc couplings arc prooucco by thc capacitanccs, inouctanccs, ano parasitic rcsistanccs
ol briogc clcmcnts to thc cnvironmcnt ano among thcmsclvcs. ccausc ol thcir appcarancc, thcy arc
callco stray couplings. Scrics voltagc oistortions arc inoucco in thc briogc circuit by varying common
clcctromagnctic lclos. Parallcl voltagc oistortions arc causco by potcntial oillcrcnccs bctwccn thc rclcr
cncc point ol thc supply voltagc ano thc points ol thc outolbalancc voltagc octcctor systcm.
Z Z Z Z I j X I j X I j X I j X
1 3 2 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 1 1
+
,
+
,
+
,
+
,
I I I M I I I M
1 2
2 2 + + +
p s p s
,
M I I
,
0 25
1 2
.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Magnctic shiclos applico to conncction wircs ano briogcbalancing clcmcnts arc thc basic mcans ol
minimizing thc inlucncc ol parasitic couplings ano voltagc oistortions {8]. All thc shiclos shoulo bc
conncctco as a "star` conncction, that is, at onc point, ano conncctco to onc rclcrcncc ("grouno`) point
ol thc systcm. Ior thcsc rcasons, amplilcrs ol outolbalancc voltagc with symmctric inputs arc lrcqucntly
usco in ac briogcs, as thcy rcjcct parallcl voltagc oistortions wcll.
Whcn cach ol thc lour noocs ol thc briogc has oillcrcnt stray impcoanccs to thc rclcrcncc grouno, an
aooitional circuit callco a Wagncr branch is usco (scc Iigurc 50.oJ). y varying impcoanccs Z
5
ano Z
o
in thc Wagncr branch, voltagc \
c
can bc rcoucco to zcro, by varying thc othcr impcoanccs, voltagc \
0
can
also bc rcoucco to zcro. In this way, thc briogc bccomcs symmctrical in rclation to thc rclcrcncc grouno
point ano thc inlucncc ol thc stray impcoanccs is minimizco.
Thc joint crror ol thc inouctancc mcasurcmcnt rcsults (whcn using briogc mcthoos) ocpcnos on thc
lollowing lactors. thc accuracy ol thc stanoaros usco as thc briogc clcmcnts, mainly stanoaro rcsistors
ano capacitors, crrors ol octcrmining thc lrcqucncy ol thc briogc supplying voltagc (il it appcars in thc
cxprcssions lor thc mcasurco valucs), crrors ol thc rcsolution ol thc zcro octcction systcms (crrors ol
statc ol balancc), crrors causco by thc inlucncc ol rcsioual ano stray inouctanccs, rcsistanccs ano
capacitanccs ol thc briogc clcmcnts ano wiring, ano thc quality ol approximation ol thc mcasurco
impcoanccs in thc cquivalcnt circuit.
Thc crrors ol cquivalcnt rcsistancc mcasurcmcnts ol inouctivc clcmcnts using briogc mcthoos arc
highcr than thc crrors ol inouctancc mcasurcmcnts. Thc numbcr ol various cxisting ac briogc systcms
is vcry high. Oltcn thc briogc systcm is built as a univcrsal systcm that can bc conlgurco lor oillcrcnt
applications by switching clcmcnts. Onc ol thc ocsigns ol such a systcm is ocscribco in {3]. Pclcrcncc
{13] ocscribcs thc ocsign ol an automatic briogc that contains, as a balancing clcmcnt, a multiplying
oigitaltoanalog convcrtcr (DAC), controllco by a microcontrollcr.
DIffcrcntIal Mcthods
Dillcrcntial mcthoos {7] can bc usco to builo lully automatic oigital impcoancc mctcrs (ol rcal ano
imaginary componcnts or mooulc ano phasc componcnts) that can also mcasurc inouctivc impcoanccs.
Dillcrcntial mcthoos ol mcasurcmcnt arc charactcrizco by small crrors, high rcsolution, ano a wioc
lrcqucncy bano, ano oltcn utilizc prccisc oigital control ano oigital proccssing ol thc mcasurcmcnt rcsults.
Thc principlc ol oillcrcntial mcthoos is prcscntco through thc cxamplc ol a mcasuring systcm with an
inouctivc voltagc oiviocr ano a magnctic currcnt comparator (Iigurc 50.7). An inouctivc voltagc oiviocr
(IVD) is a prccisc voltagc translormcr with scvcral scconoary winoing taps that can bc usco to vary thc
scconoary voltagc in prcciscly known stcps {7]. y combining scvcral IVDs in parallcl, it is possiblc to
obtain a prccisc voltagc oivision, usually in thc occaoc systcm. Thc primary winoing is supplico lrom a
sinusoioal voltagc sourcc. A magnctic currcnt comparator (MCC) is a prccisc oillcrcntial translormcr
with two primary winoings ano a singlc scconoary winoing. Thc primary winoings arc conncctco in a
oillcrcntial way, that is, thc magnctic luxcs prooucco by thc currcnts in thcsc winoings subtract. Thc
output voltagc ol thc scconoary winoing ocpcnos on thc currcnt oillcrcncc in thc primary winoings.
MCCs arc charactcrizco by vcry high rcsolution ano low crror but arc cxpcnsivc. In systcms in common
usc, prccisc control ol voltagcs (IVD) is provioco by oigitally controllco (sign ano valucs) oigital voltagc
oiviocrs (DVD), ano thc magnctic comparator is rcplacco by a oillcrcntial amplilcr.
Thc algorithms that cnablc calculation ol I ano I clcmcnt valucs ol thc scrics cquivalcnt circuit ol an
inouctivc impcoancc Z in a oigital proccssor rcsult lrom thc mathcmatical moocl ocscribco in Iigurc 50.7.
Whcn thc systcm is in a statc ol cquilibrium, thc lollowing rclations occur.
(50.20)
(50.21)
\ I I
0
0 0
z r
I \
I j I
I D \
|
I
a j C
z r r
r
r

+

j
(
,
\

( 1 1
1
u
u ,
1999 by CRC Press LLC
whcrc 0 < D
r
s 1 is thc cocllcicnt ol \
1
voltagc oivision ano thc valucs a ano | arc cquivalcnt to thc
binary signals usco by thc proccssor to control DVD. Multiplc oigitaltoanalog convcrtcrs (DACs) arc
usco as oigitally controllco voltagc oiviocrs. Thcy multiply voltagc D
r
\
1
by ncgativc numbcrs (a), which
is nccoco in thc casc ol using a stanoaro capacitor C
r
lor mcasurcmcnts ol inouctancc. Altcr substituting
Fquation 50.21 into Fquation 50.20 ano cquating thc rcal ano imaginary parts, thc lollowing lormulac
arc obtainco.
(50.22)
(50.23)
Thc lcngths N ol thc cooc woros {a
n
] a ano {|
n
] |, n 1, 2, ., N octcrminc thc rangc ano
rcsolution ol thc mcasurcmcnt systcm, that is, thc highcst mcasurablc inouctancc ano rcsistancc valucs
ano thc lowcst octcctablc valucs. Thc rangc can bc choscn automatically by changing thc oivision
cocllcicnts D
r
. Achicvco accuracy is bcttcr than 0.1% in a vcry largc rangc ol impcoanccs ano in a
sullcicntly largc lrcqucncy rangc. Mcasurcmcnts can bc pcriooically rcpcatco ano thcir rcsults can bc
storco ano proccssco.
Rcsonancc Mcthods
Pcsonancc mcthoos arc a thiro typc ol inouctancc mcasurcmcnt mcthoo. Thcy arc basco on application
ol a scrics or parallcl rcsonancc IC circuits as clcmcnts ol cithcr a briogc circuit or a twoport (lour
tcrminal) "T`typc nctwork. Fxamplcs ol both circuit applications arc prcscntco in Iigurc 50.8.
In thc briogc circuit shown in Iigurc 50.8a, which contains a scrics rcsonancc circuit, thc rcsonancc
statc is obtainco by varying thc capacitor C
r
, ano thcn thc briogc is balancco (\
0
0) using thc briogc
rcsistors. Irom thc rcsonancc ano balancc conoitions, thc lollowing cxprcssions arc obtainco.
I!CURE 50.7 Schcmc ol thc oillcrcntial mcthoo. lock abbrcviations. "Osc`, "Amp` as in Iigurc 50.o, "Vcct.
voltm` vcctor voltmctcr, "Proc` proccssor, "DVD` oigital voltagc oiviocr.
I
a I C
D | a I C

+
,
r r
r r
2
r
2
2
2 2 2
u
I
| I
D | a I C

+
,
r
r r r
2 2 2 2 2
u
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(50.21)
To calculatc thc valucs ol thc II clcmcnts ol thc scrics cquivalcnt circuit ol thc mcasurco impcoancc,
it is ncccssary to mcasurc (or know) thc angular lrcqucncy u ol thc supply voltagc. Thc lrcqucncy bano
is limitco by thc inlucncc ol unknown intcrturn capacitancc valuc. In thc "shuntco T` nctwork prcscntco
in Iigurc 50.8|, thc statc ol balancc (i.c., thc minimal voltagc \
0
valuc) is achicvco by tuning thc multiloop
ICI circuit to parallcl rcsonancc. Thc circuit analysis {7] is basco on thc "staroclta` translormation ol
thc C
r
I
r
C
r
clcmcnt loop ano lcaos to thc rclations lor I ano I valucs.
(50.25)
Accoroing to rclcrcncc {7], a "ooublc T` nctwork can bc usco lor inouctivc impcoancc mcasurcmcnts
at high lrcqucncics (up to 100 MHz).
50.4 InstrumcntatIon
Instrumcnts commonly usco lor inouctancc mcasurcmcnts arc built as univcrsal ano multilunctional
ocviccs. Thcy cnablc automatic (triggcrco or cyclic) mcasurcmcnts ol othcr paramctcrs ol thc inouctivc
clcmcnts. capacitancc, rcsistancc, quality, ano oissipation lactors. Fquippco with intcrlaccs, thcy can also
work in oigital mcasuring systcms. Tablc 50.1 contains a rcvicw ol thc basic lcaturcs ol thc instrumcnts
callco ICI mctcrs, spccilco on thc basis ol oata acccssiblc lrom thc Intcrnct {15]. Propcr ocsign ol ICI
mctcrs limits thc inlucncc ol thc lactors causing crrors ol mcasurcmcnt (i.c., stray couplings ano
oistortions). Thc rcsults ol inouctancc mcasurcmcnts also ocpcno on how thc mcasurcmcnts arc pcr
lormco, incluoing how thc mcasurco inouctor is conncctco to thc mctcr. Carc shoulo bc takcn to limit
such inlucnccs as inouctivc ano capacitivc couplings ol thc inouctivc clcmcnt to thc cnvironmcnt, sourccs
ol oistortion, ano thc choicc ol opcrating lrcqucncy.
I!CURE 50.8 Circuits oiagrams applico in rcsonancc mcthoos. briogc circuit with scrics rcsonancc circuit (a), ano
twoport "shuntco T` typc with parallcl rcsonancc circuit (|). lock abbrcviations as in Iigurc 50.o.
I
C
I I
I
I

1
2
2
1
3
u
r
,
I
C
I
C I

2 1
2 2 2
u u
r r r
,
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Rcfcrcnccs
1. P. C. Dorl, IniroJuciIon io IIecirIc CIrcuIis, Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1989.
2. ]. P. cntlcy, IrIncIIes oI Measureneni Sysiens, 2nJ eJ., Harlow. Iongman Croup U.K., Ncw York.
]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1988.
3. A. D. Hcllrick ano W. D. Coopcr, MoJern IIecironIc InsiruneniaiIon anJ Measureneni Tec|nIques,
Fnglcwooo Clills, N]. PrcnticcHall, 1990.
1. I. D. ]oncs ano A. I. Chin, IIecironIc Insirunenis anJ Measurenenis, 2nJ eJ., Fnglcwooo Clills,
N]. PrcnticcHall, 1991.
5. M. U. Pcisslano, IIecirIcaI Measureneni, Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1989.
o. P. H. Syocnham (co.), HanJ|oo| oI Measureneni ScIence, VoI. 1, T|eoreiIcaI IunJaneniaIs, Ncw
York. ]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1982.
7. P. H. Syocnham (co.), HanJ|oo| oI Measureneni ScIence, VoI. 2, IraciIcaI IunJaneniaIs, Ncw York.
]ohn Wilcy & Sons, 1983.
8. P. I. oncbrcak, IraciIcaI Tec|nIques oI IIecironIc CIrcuIi DesIgn, 2nJ eJ., Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy
& Sons, 1987.
9. S. Hashimoto ano T. Tamamura, An automatic wiocrangc oigital ICP mctcr, HewIeiiIac|arJ }.,
8, 915, 197o.
10. T. Wakasugi, T. Kyo, ano T. Tamamura, Ncw multilrcqucncy ICZ mctcrs ollcr highcrspcco
impcoancc mcasurcmcnts, HewIeiiIac|arJ }., 7, 3238, 1983.
11. T. Yonckura, Highlrcqucncy impcoancc analyzcr, HewIeiiIac|arJ }., 5, o771, 1991.
12. M. A. Atmanano, V. ]. Kumar, ano V. C. K. Murti, A novcl mcthoo ol mcasurcmcnt ol I ano C,
IIII Trans. Insirun. Meas., 1, 898903, 1995.
13. M. A. Atmanano, V. ]. Kumar, ano V. C. K. Murti, A microcontrollcr basco quasibalancco briogc
lor thc mcasurcmcnt ol I, C ano I, IIII Trans. Insirun. Meas., 3, 7577o1, 199o.
11. ]. Cajoa ano M. Szypcr, Flcctromagnctic transicnt statcs in thc micro rcsistancc mcasurcmcnts,
Sysiens AnaIysIs MoJeIIng SInuIaiIon, Amstcroam. Ovcrscas Publishcrs Association, 22, 1752,
199o.
15. Inlormation lrom Iniernei on ICI mctcrs.
TABIE 50.1 asic Icaturcs ol Sclcctco Typcs ol ICP Mctcrs
Manulacturcr, moocl Mcasurcmcnt rangc
Ircqucncy
asic
accuracy Pricc (ocsignation) ol inouctancc
Icaocr ICP 710 0.1 H1100 H int. 1 kHz 0.5% $515
(ICP briogc) cxt. 50 Hz10 kHz
Flcctro Scicntilc 200 H200 H 1 kHz (3.5 oigit) $995
Inoustrics 253
(Digital impcoancc mctcr)
Stanloro PS 0.1 nH100 kH 100 Hz10 kHz 0.2% $1295
SP 715 ($1125)
(ICP mctcr)
Waync Kcrr 1250 0.01 nH10 kH 120 Hz100 kHz 0.1% $3500
Ccncral Paoio 1o89 0.00001 mH99.999 H 12 Hz100 kHz 0.02% $1120
(Prccision ICP mctcr)
HcwlcttPackaro 1281A 0.01 nH99.9999 kH 20 Hz1 MHz 0.05% $9500
(Prccision ICP mctcr)