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1999 by CRC Press LLC
ImmIIIunco
ousuromonI
51.1 Dclnitions
51.2 Iocal Iumpco Componcnts
Pcsistanccs Inouctanccs Capacitanccs
51.3 Distributco Flcmcnts
Transmission Iincs
51.1 Intcrconncctions ano Craphical Pcprcscntations
51.5 Mcasurcmcnt Tcchniqucs
CurrcntVoltagc Mcthoos riogc Mcthoos Pcsonant
Mcthoo Nctwork Analysis Mcthoos
51.o Instrumcntation ano Manulacturcrs
Flcctronic circuits consist ol numcrous clcmcnts that can bc lumpco, oistributco, or a combination ol
both. Thc componcnts arc rcgaroco as IuneJ il thcir sizc is much smallcr than thc signal wavclcngth.
This conoition holos lor rcsistors, inouctors, capacitors, translormcrs, oioocs, transistors, or similar
ocviccs opcrating in printco circuits at lrcqucncics up to a lcw hunorco mcgahcrtz or cvcn highcr in
small intcgratco circuits. In thc microwavc or millimctcrwavc rcgion, thc clcmcnts ano thcir connccting
transmission lincs must bc consiocrco as JIsirI|uieJ. Whilc in lumpco circuits a changc ol voltagc or
currcnt at onc singlc point immcoiatcly allccts thcsc quantitics at all othcr points, in oistributco circuits
thc propagation propcrtics now havc to bc takcn into account. Thc samc holos lor long connccting cablcs
cvcn at lowcr lrcqucncics.
To ocscribc thc cllcct ol any clcmcnt within an clcctronic circuit or ol thc conncction ol oillcrcnt
circuits, thc InnIiiance is usco as a charactcristic quantity. It simply proviocs a rclation ol sinusoioal
voltagc ano currcnt at thc tcrminals ol thc clcmcnt as a lunction ol lrcqucncy. Thc immittancc thcrclorc
also charactcrizcs arbitrarily complicatco nctworks consiocrco as onc port. This is usclul, sincc in practicc
thc singlc clcmcnts arc intcrconncctco to nctworks. On thc othcr hano, thc clcmcnts thcmsclvcs arc not
iocal. A rcsistor, lor cxamplc, maoc ol wouno rcsistivc wirc, has parasitic componcnts such as capacitancc
ano inouctancc ol winoing ano tcrminals. It must bc rcprcscntco by an cquivalcnt circuit lorming a
complcx nctwork {1].
Thc woro "immittancc` was proposco by ooc {2] ano is a combination ol thc woros "impcoancc`
ano thc rcvcrsc quantity callco "aomittancc.` Thcsc tcrms oo not only occur in clcctrooynamics but
whcrcvcr wavc propagation takcs placc in acoustics as wcll as in clasticity. Thc cmphasis ol this chaptcr
is on lumpco nctworks ano guioco clcctromagnctic wavcs. Pcaocrs intcrcstco in morc gcncral propagation
ano scattcring phcnomcna arc rclcrrco to {3].
chIm Lrohor
crnan Acrospacc Ccncr
1999 by CRC Press LLC
51.1 DchnItIons
Assumc a stablc lincar ano timcinvariant (ITI) nctwork with only onc port. Iincarity ano timc inoc
pcnocncc arc gcncrally mct lor combinations ol passivc clcmcnts but also lor activc ocviccs with small
signal oriving unocr constant physical conoitions (tcmpcraturc, humioity, oimcnsions, ctc.). In thc stcaoy
statc, a voltagc \(i) V
m
cos(ui +
v
) with amplituoc V
m
varying harmonically with thc angular lrcqucncy
u 2rI which is applico to thc tcrminal thcn only proouccs voltagcs ano currcnts ol thc samc lrcqucncy
within thc nctwork (Iigurc 51.1). Using complcx notation.
(51.1)
thc currcnt lowing into thc nctwork is givcn by.
(51.2)
Thc phasors V ano I arc timc inocpcnocnt ano can bc rcprcscntco in thc complcx planc (Iigurc 51.2).
Pclating voltagc ano currcnt at thc tcrminal, thc nctwork is uniqucly ocscribco by mcans ol a complcx
lrcqucncyocpcnocnt quantity, thc impcoancc Z.
(51.3)
I!CURE 51.1 An arbitrarily complcx nctwork can bc rcplacco by its impcoancc lor a givcn lrcqucncy without
changing thc clcctrical propcrtics at thc tcrminal.
I!CURE 51.2 Voltagc ano currcnt phasors in thc complcx planc.
\ i Ve V V e
j i j
,


Pc with
m
v
u
I i I i Ie I I e
j i j
,
+
,



m i m
with
i
cos Pc u
u
Z
V
I
V
I
e Z e
j
j

,
m
m
v i
z


1999 by CRC Press LLC
Ior a givcn lrcqucncy, an arbitrarily complcx nctwork within a circuit thus can bc rcplacco by a singlc
clcmcnt without changing thc clcctrical propcrtics at thc tcrminals. Somctimcs it is morc convcnicnt to
usc thc invcrsc ol Z, thc aomittancc Y.
(51.1)
oth quantitics arc combinco to lorm thc woro "immittancc.` Iigurc 51.3 shows thcir rcprcscntation in
thc complcx planc. Fquations 51.3 ano 51.1 givc thc oclnition in polar cooroinatcs. In oata shccts, thcy
arc oltcn writtcn as.
(51.5)
Using Fulcr`s iocntity e
j
cos + j sin, onc obtains in rcctangular cooroinatcs.
(51.o)
Irom Iigurc 51.3, thc lollowing rclations bctwccn rcctangular ano polar cooroinatc rcprcscntation can
bc ocoucco immcoiatcly.
(51.7)
I!CURE 51.3 Pcprcscntation ol impcoancc ano aomittancc in thc complcx planc showing thc rclations bctwccn
rcctangular ano polar cooroinatcs. Notc that thc units arc oillcrcnt lor cach vcctor.
Y
Z
I
V
Y e
j

1

y
with
y i v z
Z Y Z Z
z y
,
Z Z j Z I jX
Y Y j Y G j
+ +
+ +
cos sin
cos sin


z z
y y
I Z Z I X G Y Y G
X Z
X
I
Y

G
+ +

j
(
,
\

(

j
(
,
\

(

cos cos
sin tan sin tan


z y
z z y y
2 2 2 2
1 1
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc rcal parts arc thc rcsistancc I ano thc conouctancc G. Thcy inoicatc thc losscs within thc nctwork.
Thc imaginary parts, which arc tcrmco rcactancc X ano susccptancc , rcspcctivcly, arc a mcasurc ol thc
rcactivc cncrgy storco in thc nctwork ouring onc pcrioo. In gcncral, all thcsc quantitics arc lrcqucncy
ocpcnocnt.
Notc that thc corrcct sign ol thc imaginary parts must bc usco. thc anglc is in thc rangc ol 180 <
s 180 ano < 0 always corrcsponos to X, < 0.
Ior clcmcnts with low losscs, thc loss anglc o or loss lactor D arc oltcn givcn instcao ol thc phascs
z
ano
y
. Thcy arc always positivc small quantitics ano tcno to 0 lor a losslcss ocvicc
(51.8)
Thc invcrsc quantity is thc quality lactor 1/D. It involvcs a ratio ol storco clcctric cncrgy to powcr
oissipatco. A high inoicatcs a ncarly purc rcactivc componcnt.
In highpowcr clcctronics, it is ncccssary to rcoucc losscs on transmission lincs ano thcrclorc avoio
currcnts associatco with rcactivc loao componcnts. To obtain a critcrion lor thc application ano cllcicncy
ol compcnsation tcchniqucs, a powcr lactor is oclnco. Irom complcx powcr rcprcscntation.
(51.9)
(thc astcrisk inoicatcs thc conjugatc complcx numbcr) lollows lrom Fquations 51.3 ano 51.1.
(51.10)
ano sincc thc cllcctivc powcr is givcn by thc rcal part ol I.
(51.11)
thc powcr lactor is.
(51.12)
In gcncral, rms valucs arc usco lor thc phasors. Othcrwisc, a lactor 1/2 has to bc takcn into account
in Fquations 51.9 ano 51.10, sincc I V
m
I
m
lor sinusoioal quantitics.
It can also bc sccn lrom Fquations 51.9 ano 51.10 that thc immittanccs arc oircctly rclatco to thc
apparcnt powcr.
(51.13)
51.2 Idcal Lumpcd Componcnts
Thc immittanccs ol thc lunoamcntal passivc circuit clcmcnts arc ocrivco lrom thcir instantancous voltagc
currcnt rclations using Fquations 51.1 through 51.1 ano thc oillcrcntiation rulcs.
D
z y

r

j
(
,
\

(

r

j
(
,
\

(
tan tan tan o
2 2
I
X
G

I VI I j +
,
-
cos sin
I I Z I Z j V Y V Y j +
,

,
-
2 2 2 2
cos sin cos sin
z z y y
I I I
cll


Pc cos
cos cos cos
z y
I V I I Z V Y
2 2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
RcsIstanccs
Irom Fquation 51.11.
(51.11)
it lollows V II ano thus Z I or Y G. Thc immittancc ol a rcsistancc is rcal ano iocntical to its oc
rcsistancc or conouctancc.
Inductanccs
Voltagc ano currcnt arc rclatco via thc oillcrcntial cquation.
(51.15)
with inouctancc I, lrom which lollows that V juII ano
(51.1o)
CapacItanccs
Irom Fquation 51.17.
(51.17)
with capacitancc C, it lollows that I juCV ano
(51.18)
Thc immittancc ol iocal inouctors ano capacitors is purcly imaginary with oillcrcnt signs accoroing
to thc phasc shilt ol 90 bctwccn voltagc ano currcnt. A gcncral clcmcnt or nctwork is thcrclorc callco
inouctivc or capacitivc at a givcn lrcqucncy corrcsponoing to thc sign ol thc imaginary part ol its
impcoancc. Notc, howcvcr, that thc lrcqucncy ocpcnocncc can bc much morc complicatco than lor thcsc
iocal clcmcnts ano thc impcoancc can cvcn changc scvcral timcs bctwccn capacitivc ano inouctivc
charactcristic.
51.3 DIstrIbutcd Elcmcnts
At high lrcqucncics, thc sizc ol thc clcmcnts may no longcr bc small comparco to thc signal wavclcngth.
Propagation cllccts must thcn bc takcn into account ano thc componcnts can no longcr bc ocscribco by
mcans ol simplc lumpco cquivalcnt circuits. Il at all possiblc, thcy arc rcplacco by transmission linc
circuits, which arc casicr to charactcrizc, thcy rcalizc thc rcquirco clcctrical propcrtics morc cxactly within
a oclnco lrcqucncy rangc.
\ i II i
,

,
\ i I
I i
i
,

,
o
o
Z j I jX Y
j I
j
X
j u
u
I
I
I
,
1 1
I i C
\ i
i
,

,
o
o
Y j C j Z
j C
j

jX u
u
C
C
C
,
1 1
1999 by CRC Press LLC
TransmIssIon LIncs
Assuming a simplilying transvcrsc clcctromagnctic wavc (TFM mooc) with no lclo componcnts in thc
propagation oircction, voltagcs ano currcnts can bc uniqucly oclnco ano arc givcn as solutions ol thc
corrcsponoing wavc cquations {1].
(51.19)
Thcy vary along thc linc in thc zoircction accoroing to.
(51.20)
Thcsc solutions arc sums ol lorwaro (e
yz
) ano backwaro (e
yz
) travcling wavcs with amplituocs V
0
+
, I
0
+
ano V
0

, I
0

ano a propagation constant.

(51.21)
Thc cquivalcnt circuit ol thc transmission linc is shown in Iigurc 51.1. Thc cncrgy storagc in thc
clcctric lclo is accountco lor by thc oistributco shunt capacitancc C pcr unit lcngth, whilc thc cllcct ol
thc magnctic lclo is rcprcscntco by thc scrics inouctancc I pcr unit lcngth. Thc scrics rcsistancc I pcr
unit lcngth ano thc shunt conouctancc G pcr unit lcngth rcprcscnt thc powcr losscs in thc conouctors
ano in thc oiclcctric, rcspcctivcly. Thc amplituocs ol voltagc ano currcnt arc rclatco by mcans ol thc
charactcristic impcoancc Z
o
.
(51.22)
Ol spccial intcrcst lor thc usc within a nctwork is thc input impcoancc Z
in
ol thc transmission linc. It
ocpcnos also on thc tcrmination Z
I
at thc othcr cno ol thc linc. Ior a transmission linc ol lcngth I, it is
givcn by.
(51.23)
that is, a transmission linc translorms thc impcoancc Z
I
into Z
in
at thc input.
I!CURE 51.4 Fquivalcnt circuit ol a oillcrcntial lcngth ol transmission linc. Thc wavc cquations can bc obtainco
by simply applying Kirchholl `s laws to voltagcs ano currcnts.
o
o
o
o
2
2
2
2
2
2
0 0
V
z
V
I
z
I y y ,
V z V e V e I z I e I e
z z z z
,
+
,
+
+ +
0 0 0 0
y y y y
,
y u u +
,
+
,
I j I G j C
Z
V
I
V
I
I j I
G j C
0

+
+
+
+

u
u
Z Z
Z Z I
Z Z I
in
I
I

+
+
0
0
0
tanh
tanh
y
y
1999 by CRC Press LLC
A quantity morc suitablc to wavc propagation ano mcasurcmcnt at high lrcqucncics is thc rclcction
cocllcicnt I. It is oclnco by thc rclation ol thc voltagcs associatco with lorwaro ano backwaro travcling
wavcs. At thc cno ol thc linc, using V(I) Z
I
I(I), onc lnos.
(51.21)
Ior ocviccs that support quasi or strong nonTFM wavcs likc microstrip lincs, hollow wavcguiocs,
oiclcctric ano optical wavcguiocs, a voltagc cannot bc uniqucly oclnco. That is why scvcral oclnitions
ol thc charactcristic impcoancc Z
0
cxist {5].
51.4 IntcrconncctIons and CraphIcal RcprcscntatIons
Sincc Kirchholl`s laws lor voltagcs ano currcnts also holos lor complcx quantitics, thc rulcs lor scrics
ano parallcl conncctions ol rcsistanccs ano susccptanccs in thc oc casc apply as wcll lor immittanccs.
Scrics conncction. (51.25)
Parallcl conncction. (51.2o)
As an cxamplc, consiocr a simplilco cquivalcnt circuit ol a rcsistor with thc nominal valuc I
0
(Iigurc 51.5). Craoually using thc rulcs lor scrics ano parallcl conncction ano thc impcoanccs lor
inouctanccs (Fquation 51.1o) ano capacitanccs (Fquation 51.18), thc impcoancc ol thc rcal rcsistor with
parasitic clcmcnts as givcn lcaos to.
(51.27)
Thc magnituoc ano phasc ol Z/I
0
as a lunction ol u/u
0
arc shown in Iigurc 51.o with u
0
1/
as thc rcsonant lrcqucncy oclnco by thc parasitic clcmcnts, which might bc causco by thc winoings ol
a wircwouno rcsistor. Thc nctwork is inouctivc lor low (
z
> 0) ano capacitvc lor high lrcqucncics. An
I!CURE 51.5 Thc simplc cquivalcnt circuit ol a wircwouno rcsistor with nominal valuc I
0
, inouctancc ol thc
winoing I, ano capacitancc ol winoing ano tcrminal C. It is valio lor a wioc lrcqucncy rangc.
I

+

+
V e
V e
Z Z
Z Z
I
I
0
0
0
0
y
y
I
I
Z Z
Y Y
I I

_ _ i
i
1 1
Y Y
Z Z
I I

_ _ i
i
1 1
Z
I j I
IC j I

+
+
0
2
0
1
u
u u

1999 by CRC Press LLC

altcrnativc rcprcscntation is to plot rcal ano imaginary parts in thc impcoancc planc with thc lrcqucncy
as paramctcr as inoicatco by thc labcls (Iigurc 51.7). This vcrsion, callco thc Iocus, is vcry suitablc to scc
immittancc changcs causco by paramctcrs likc lrcqucncy or aojustablc clcmcnts within thc nctwork. Notc
that both rcal ano imaginary parts arc paramctcr ocpcnocnt ano vary with lrcqucncy.
I!CURE 51. Normalizco magnituoc (a) ano phasc (b) ol thc impcoancc ol a wircwouno rcsistor varying with
lrcqucncy. u
0
is thc rcsonant lrcqucncy oclnco by thc parasitic clcmcnts.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
In highlrcqucncy applications, onc obtains thc impcoancc morc casily lrom thc rclcction cocllcicnt.
Pcwriting Fquation 51.21 in thc lorm.
(51.28)
oclncs a translormation ol which thc graphical rcprcscntation has bccn callco thc Smith chart
(Iigurc 51.8). It can bc rcgaroco as two cooroinatc systcms lying onc on top ol thc othcr. Thc rclcction
cocllcicnt is givcn in polar cooroinatcs arouno thc ccntcr, thc circlcs givc thc rcal ano imaginary part ol
thc associatco impcoancc. Thc Smith chart is vcry usclul lor solving transmission linc ano wavcguioc
impcoancc matching problcms {o].
51.5 Mcasurcmcnt TcchnIqucs
Sincc immittanccs arc complcx quantitics, onc must octcrminc two paramctcrs. magnituoc ano phasc
or rcal ano imaginary part, ocscribco as vcctor mcasurcmcnts. Thcrc cxist scvcral tcchniqucs ocpcnoing
on lrcqucncy rangc ano rcquirco accuracy {7].
CurrcntVoltagc Mcthods
A simplc way to mcasurc immittanccs lollows oircctly lrom thc oclning Fquation 51.3. Applying a wcll
known sinusoioal voltagc to thc tcrminal ano mcasuring magnituoc ano phasc ol thc currcnt givcs thc
I!CURE 51.7 Normalizco impcoancc ol a wircwouno rcsistor in thc complcx planc. Thc arrow inoicatcs thc
oircction ol incrcasing lrcqucncy.
I

+

Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
I
I
I
I
with
1
1
0
1999 by CRC Press LLC
ocsirco quantity (Iigurc 51.1). Howcvcr, thc intcrnal impcoancc Z
A
ol thc ammctcr shoulo bc known
cxactly ano thc unknown impcoancc is thcn givcn by.
(51.29)
In practical applications, impcoanccs bclow 1000 O arc mcasurco by passing a prcoctcrminco currcnt
through thc unknown ocvicc ano mcasuring thc voltagc across it. Phasc anglc inlormation is obtainco
by comparing thc rclativc phasc bctwccn voltagc ano currcnt by mcans ol a phasc octcctor {8].
A variant on this mcthoo using only thc bcttcr practicablc voltagc mcasurcmcnts is shown in
Iigurc 51.9. Thc accuratcly known rcsistor I must bc small comparco to Z
x
ano to thc intcrnal rcsistancc
ol V
2
. Onc lnos that.
(51.30)
Thc mcasurcmcnt can bc cnhancco using an opcrational amplilcr with high input ano low output
rcsistancc in an invcrting circuit (Iigurc 51.10). Thc unknown is thcn givcn by
I!CURE 51.8 Smith chart rcprcscntation ol thc impcoancc ol a wircwouno rcsistor.
Z
V
I
Z
A
Z
V
V
I Z
V
V
I I Z
x x x
or il
j
(
,
\

(
=
1
2
1
2
1 ,
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(51.31)
Practical implcmcntations usc opcrational amplilcrs as part ol an autobalancing briogc, scc {7, 8].
BrIdgc Mcthods
Altcrnating currcnt briogcs arc lowcost stanoaro laboratory ocviccs to mcasurc impcoanccs ovcr a wioc
lrcqucncy rangc lrom oc up to 300 MHz with vcry high prccision (Iigurc 51.11). Acomprchcnsivc survcy
is givcn in {1]. Thcir main aovantagc is that only a zcro inoicator in thc oiagonal branch is ncccssary.
Ior this rcason, thc intcrnal impcoancc oocs not inlucncc thc accuracy ano thc null point can bc octcctco
with a high scnsitivity ac galvanomctcr as wcll as with hcaophoncs in thc auoio lrcqucncy rangc.
Il thc briogc is balancco, thc unknown immittancc is givcn by.
(51.32)
I!CURE 51.9 Dctcrmination ol an impcoancc Z
x
by phascscnsitivc voltagc mcasurcmcnts, only using a wcllknown
rcsistor I.
I!CURE 51.10 Impcoancc mcasurcmcnt with an invcrting opcrational amplilcr circuit. Its aovantagcs arc high
input ano low output rcsistancc.
Z
V
V
I
x

1
2
Z
Z
Z
Z Y
Z
Z
Y
x x
or
1
3
2
3
1
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Sincc thc quantitics arc complcx, Fquation 51.32 involvcs thc aojustmcnt ol two paramctcrs. magnituoc
ano phasc.
(51.33)
or rcal ano imaginary parts, rcspcctivcly.
An important propcrty ol an impcoancc briogc is thc scnsitivity r.
(51.31)
or (inocpcnocnt ol Z
x
)
(51.35)
in thc vicinity ol zcro crossing whcn thc briogc is balancco.
Thc prccision ol thc mcasurcmcnt not only ocpcnos on thc cxact zcro aojustmcnt, which can bc
cnhancco by choosing thc clcmcnts ano thc voltagc accoroing to Fquation 51.35 to obtain a high scnsi
tivity, but also on thc rcalization ol Z
1
.Z
3
. Mostly, thcsc arc conncctions ol rcsistors ano capacitors.
Inouctors arc avoioco bccausc thcy always havc a rcsistivc componcnt ano it is oillcult ano cxpcnsivc
to manulacturc inouctors with cxactly oclnco ano rcproouciblc clcctrical propcrtics. Thcrc cxist various
typcs ol briogcs ocpcnoing on how thc clcmcnts arc ocsignco ano intcrconncctco. To choosc thc corrcct
conlguration, it must bc known whcthcr thc unknown impcoancc is capacitivc or inouctivc, othcrwisc,
a zcro aojustmcnt is not always possiblc sincc thc balancing conoition cannot bc lullllco. riogcs arc
thcrclorc principally usco to mcasurc capacitanccs ano inouctanccs as wcll as loss ano quality lactors ol
capacitors ano coils. Sincc magnituoc ano phasc conoitions must bc matchco simultancously, two clc
mcnts must bc tunco. To obtain a wioc mcasurcmcnt rangc, thc variablc clcmcnts arc ocsignco as
combinations ol switchablc ano tunablc capacitors ano rcsistors. Thc scnsitivity ol thc zcro inoicator can
I!CURE 51.11 Impcoancc mcasurcmcnt by briogc mcthoos. Thc briogc is balancco whcn thc voltagc V
o
across thc
oiagonal branch is aojustco to zcro by tuning Z
1
, Z
2
, or Z
3
.
Z
Z
Z
Z
x x
+
1
3
2 1 3 2
,
r
o
o

+
,
V
Z
V
Z
Z Z
o
x
x
2
2
2
r
+
,
V
Z
Z Z Z
3
2
2 1 3
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
bc changco lor global scarch ano lnal aojustmcnt. Unlortunatcly, magnituoc ano phasc cannot bc
aojustco inocpcnocntly ol cach othcr. Il thc balancing is pcrlormco by hano, a suitablc stratcgy is to
scarch thc minimum voltagc by tuning cach clcmcnt succcssivcly.
Ircqucntly usco briogcs arc thc Whcatstonc briogc (Iigurc 51.12) lor thc mcasurcmcnt ol lossy capac
itanccs, ano thc Hay briogc (Iigurc 51.13) to octcrminc inouctivity ano quality lactor ol coils. ccausc
ol its symmctrical structurc, thc balancing conoition lor thc Whcatstonc briogc is simply.
I!CURE 51.12 Whcatstonc briogc lor thc capacitancc ano oissipation lactor mcasurcmcnt ol capacitors. Thc
balancing conoition is lrcqucncy inocpcnocnt. Thc rcsistor I
1
ano thc capacitor C
1
must bc tunco succcssivcly until
thc briogc is balancco.
I!CURE 51.13 Hay briogc lor thc mcasurcmcnt ol thc inouctancc ano thc quality lactor ol coils. Il is sullcicntly
high, thc inouctancc can bc octcrminco ncarly lrcqucncy inocpcnocnt.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(51.3o)
which is inocpcnocnt ol lrcqucncy.
Thc mcasurcmcnt ol a coil with thc Hay briogc rcquircs that.
(51.37)
lrom which thc quality lactor is obtainco as.
(51.38)
Thc inouctancc ol high coils can bc octcrminco lrcqucncy inocpcnocnt sincc
(51.39)
A vcry intcrcsting altcrnativc is thc Maxwcll briogc (Iigurc 51.11), sincc it rcquircs only rcsistors as
variablc clcmcnts, which can bc manulacturco with high prccision. Thc balancing is lrcqucncy inocpcn
ocnt ano lcaos to.
(51.10)
I!CURE 51.14 Maxwcll briogc with simplc ano lrcqucncyinocpcnocnt balancing conoitions. Dcspitc thcsc aovan
tagcs, it is not rccommcnoco lor high coils bccausc ol a vcry largc I
1
valuc.
I I C C
I
I
x x
o o o
1 1
3
2
, ,
I j I
j C I I
j I C
C I I I
I C
j
C I I
I C
x x
+
+

+
,
+
+
,
u
u
u
u
u
u
u
3 1 2
3 3
2
3
2
1 2 3
3 3
2
3 1 2
3 3
2
1
1 1

I
I I C

u
u
x
x
1
3 3
I II C I C
x
il =
, 1 2 3 3 3
2
1 u
I
I I
I
I I I C CI
x x

1 2
3
1 2 3 1
, , u
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Ncvcrthclcss, thc Hay briogc is prclcrrco lor high coils, bccausc a vcry largc valuc ol I
1
is rcquirco
lor thc Maxwcll briogc lcaoing to a oisaovantagcous balancing {9].
Rcsonant Mcthod
Using thc coil as part ol a rcsonancc circuit as in Iigurc 51.15 ano tuning C to maximum voltagc, thc
quality lactor can bc mcasurco oircctly as.
(51.11)
Thc unknown inouctancc is thcn obtainco lrom thc tcst lrcqucncy by mcans ol thc rcsonancc conoition.
(51.12)
Il a capacitor with sullcicntly low losscs is usco, valucs as high as 1000 can bc mcasurco.
Mctvork AnalysIs Mcthods
Frcqucncy DomaIn
In thc casc ol oistributco clcmcnts, mcasurcmcnts ol currcnts ano voltagcs ocpcno on thc position ano
arc oltcn not oircctly applicablc to highlrcqucncy ocviccs likc wavcguiocs or microstrip lincs. Ior that
rcason thc octcrmination ol immittanccs is ocrivco lrom mcasuring thc rclcction cocllcicnt.
Fquation 51.23 shows thc importancc ol oclning a propcr mcasurcmcnt planc. This is thc crossscction
ol thc linc or wavcguioc pcrpcnoicular to thc oircction ol propagation at a oclnitc lcngth I
0
, whcrc thc
rclcction cocllcicnt has to bc mcasurco. It can thcn bc translormco along thc linc towaro loao or sourcc
using this rclation or thc Smith chart. Fxact microwavc mcasurcmcnts arc vcry sophisticatco ano ncco
a lot ol practical cxpcricncc. Iurthcr octails can bc louno in thc litcraturc {5, 1012].
Automatco ano prccisc immittancc mcasurcmcnts ovcr a wioc lrcqucncy rangc arc bcst carrico out
with a vcctor nctwork analyzcr {11]. Unlortunatcly, this is also thc most cxpcnsivc mcthoo. Thc principlc
ol mcasurcmcnt is shown in Iigurc 51.1o. A powcr oiviocr splits thc inciocnt signal into a transmittco
ano a rclcrcncc part. Thc oircctional briogc or couplcr scparatcs lorwaro ano backwaro travcling wavcs,
ano thc rclcctco signal now appcars in thc branch with thc phascscnsitivc voltmctcr V
2
. Using a briogc
I!CURE 51.15 Coil as part ol a rcsonancc circuit to octcrminc inouctancc ano quality lactor. Thc capacitor C is
tunco to maximum voltagc V
C
.

V
V I C

c, max
x
1
u
I
C
x

1
2
u
1999 by CRC Press LLC
with impcoanccs matchco to thc linc (Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
0
), thc voltagc in thc oiagonal branch is givcn by
(Iigurc 51.11).
(51.13)
ano thus thc rclcction cocllcicnt.
(51.11)
is oircctly proportional to thc voltagc ratio.
Nctwork analyzcrs usc an automatic crror corrcction to climinatc thc cllcct ol intcrnal ano cxtcrnal
couplcrs ano junctions. ccausc ol that, a calibration proccourc with stanoaro tcrminations is ncccssary.
Thcsc tcrminations must bc manulacturco vcry prcciscly, sincc thcy oclnc thc mcasurcmcnt planc ano
octcrminc thc ovcrall mcasurcmcnt crror.
TImc DomaIn
It is oltcn ncccssary to locatc an impcoancc stcp, whcthcr to lno out thc oistancc ol a cablc oclcct or to
track oown thc origin ol rclcctions within a conncction. To this cno, highpcrlormancc vcctor nctwork
analyzcrs havc a Iouricr translorm proccourc. ut thcrc also cxist chcapcr timc oomain rclcctomctcrs
(TDP) {13, 11]. Thcy usc an inciocnt stcp or impulsc signal (Iigurc 51.17) ano thc rclcctco signal is
scparatco by mcans ol a oircctional couplcr ano oisplayco on a CPT in thc timc oomain. Irom thc shapc
ol thc signal, thc impcoancc stcp can bc localizco by mcans ol thc timc oclay.
(51.15)
with \
g
as signal or group vclocity on thc linc varying lrom stcp to stcp. Charactcristic ano magnituoc
ol thc impcoancc can only bc cstimatco, sincc phasc inlormation is usually not availablc. TDP mcasurc
mcnts arc rcstrictco to thc localization ol impcoancc stcps ano not to bc rccommcnoco lor cxact
mcasurcmcnts. Morcovcr, aooitional pulsc oclormations occur in oispcrsivc wavcguiocs.
I!CURE 51.1 Schcmatic ol nctwork analyzcr mcasurcmcnts. Thc voltagc ratioV
2
/V
1
ol rclcctco wavc ano rclcrcncc
signal is proportional to thc rclcction cocllcicnt I. Thc impcoancc Z
x
can thcn bc computco.
V
Z Z
Z Z
V V
o
x 0
x

+
,

2
0
2
I

+

Z Z
Z Z
V
V
x
x
0
0
2
1
o
I \ i
1
2
g
1999 by CRC Press LLC
51.6 InstrumcntatIon and Manufacturcrs
A broao rangc ol instrumcntation lor mcasuring immittancc is availablc. Somc ol thcsc instrumcnts arc
incluoco in Tablc 51.1. Tablc 51.2 proviocs thc namcs ano aoorcsscs ol somc companics that prooucc
immittanccmcasuring instrumcntation.
I!CURE 51.17 Dctcction ano mcasurcmcnt ol impcoancc stcps on a linc or wavcguioc with a timc oomain rclcc
tomctcr (TDP). Sincc phasc inlormation is usually not availablc, thc charactcristics ano magnituocs ol thc impcoanccs
can only bc cstimatco. Noticc that thc group or signal vclocity \
g
varics lrom stcp to stcp.
TABIE 51.1 Instrumcnts lor Immittancc Mcasurcmcnts
Manulacturcr Moocl numbcr Dcscription
Anritsu Wiltron 3o0 Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 10 MHzo5 CHz
Ilukc PM o303A Automatic PCI mctcr
Ilukc PM o301 Automatic PCI mctcr
HcwlcttPackaro HP 1195A Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 10 Hz500 MHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 139oA Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 100 kHz1.8 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 8719C Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 50 MHz13.5 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 8720C Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 50 MHz20 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 8722C Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 50 MHz10 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 8510C Vcctor nctwork analyzcr 15 MHz110 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 8508A Vcctor voltmctcr 100 kHz1 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 1191A Impcoancc analyzcr 100 Hz10 MHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 1191A HIimpcoancc analyzcr 1 MHz1 CHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 1192A Impcoancc analyzcr 5 Hz13 MHz
HcwlcttPackaro HP 1193A Impcoancc analyzcr 100 kHz110 MHz
Kcithlcy 3321 ICZ mctcr, 1 tcst lrcqucncics
Kcithlcy 3322 ICZ mctcr, 11 tcst lrcqucncics
Kcithlcy 3330 ICZ mctcr 10 Hz100 kHz
Pohoc & Schwarz ZVPI Vcctor nctwork analyzcr
Pohoc & Schwarz SP 720 ICP mctcr
Tcktronix CSA 803A Communications signal analyzcr
1999 by CRC Press LLC
DchnIng Tcrms
Admittance (): Thc rcciprocal ol impcoancc.
!mmittance: A rcsponsc lunction lor which onc variablc is a voltagc ano thc othcr a currcnt. Immittancc
is a gcncral tcrm lor both impcoancc ano aomittancc, usco whcrc thc oistinction is irrclcvant.
!mpedance (): Thc ratio ol thc phasor cquivalcnt ol a stcaoystatc sincwavc voltagc to thc phasor
cquivalcnt ol a stcaoystatc sincwavc currcnt. Thc rcal part is thc resIsiance, thc imaginary part is
thc reaciance.
Phasor: A complcx numbcr, associatco with sinusoioally varying clcctrical quantitics, such that thc
absolutc valuc (mooulus) ol thc complcx numbcr corrcsponos to cithcr thc pcak amplituoc or
rootmcansquarc (rms) valuc ol thc quantity, ano thc phasc (argumcnt) to thc phasc anglc at zcro
timc. Thc tcrm "phasor` can also bc applico to impcoancc ano rclatco complcx quantitics that arc
not timc ocpcnocnt.
Reection coefhcient: At a givcn lrcqucncy, at a givcn point, ano lor a givcn mooc ol propagation, thc
ratio ol voltagc, currcnt, or powcr ol thc rclcctco wavc to thc corrcsponoing quantity ol thc
inciocnt wavc.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. . M. Olivcr ano ]. M. Cagc, IIecironIc Measurenenis anJ InsiruneniaiIon, Ncw York. McCraw
Hill, 1971.
2. H. W. ooc, Neiwor| AnaIysIs anJ IeeJ|ac| AnIIfer DesIgn, Princcton. Van Nostrano, 1959.
3. A. T. oc Hoop, HanJ|oo| oI IaJIaiIon anJ ScaiierIng oI Wa\es, Ionoon. Acaocmic Prcss, 1995.
1. P. F. Collin, IounJaiIons Ior MIcrowa\e IngIneerIng, Ncw York. McCrawHill, 1992.
5. P. I. Somlo ano ]. D. Huntcr, MIcrowa\e IneJance Measureneni, Ionoon. Pctcr Pcrcgrinus, 1985.
o. P. I. Thomas, A IraciIcaI IniroJuciIon io IneJance Maic|Ing, Dcoham, MA. Artcch Housc, 197o.
7. M. Honoa, T|e IneJance Measureneni HanJ|oo|, Yokogawa. HcwlcttPackaro, 1989.
8. Anonymous, 1800A Vecior IneJance Meier CeraiIng anJ Ser\Ice ManuaI, Pockaway. Hcwlctt
Packaro, 19o7.
9. C. P. Paul, S. A. Nasar, ano I. F. Unncwchr, IniroJuciIon io IIecirIcaI IngIneerIng, Ncw York.
McCrawHill, 1992.
10. T. S. Iavcrghctta, MoJern MIcrowa\e Measurenenis anJ Tec|nIques, Norwooo, MA. Artcch Housc,
1988.
TABIE 51.2 Companics Prooucing Immittancc Mcasurcmcnt
Fquipmcnt
Anritsu Wiltron Co. Kcithlcy Instrumcnts, Inc.
o85 ]arvis Drivc P.O. ox 3912o0
Morgan Hill, CA 950372809 Clcvclano, OH 111399o53
Tcl. (108) 77o8300 Tcl. (21o) 2180100
Ilukc Corporation Pohoc & Schwarz, Inc.
o929 Scaway oulcvaro 1125 Nicolc Dr.
P.O. ox 9090 Ianham, MD 2070o
Fvcrctt, WA 9820o Tcl. (301) 1598800
Tcl. (800) 1135853
Tcktronix, Inc.
HcwlcttPackaro Co. 2oo00 SW Parkway
Tcst ano Mcasurcmcnt Scctor P.O. ox 1000
P.O. ox 58199 Wilsonvillc, OP 970701000
Santa Clara, CA 950529913 Tcl. (503) o823111
Tcl. (800) 1521811 (800) 12o2200
1999 by CRC Press LLC
11. A. F. ailcy (co.), MIcrowa\e Measureneni, Ionoon. Pctcr Pcrcgrinus, 1985.
12. T. S. Iavcrghctta, HanJ|oo| oI MIcrowa\e TesiIng, Dcoham, MA. Artcch Housc, 1981.
13. F. K. Millcr (co.), TIneDonaIn Measurenenis In IIecironagneiIcs, Ncw York. Van Nostrano
Pcinholo, 198o.
11. Anonymous, TDI IunJaneniaIs Ior Use wIi| HI 51120T DIgIiIzIng CscIIIoscoe anJ TDI, Appli
cation notcs AN o2, Palo Alto, CA. HcwlcttPackaro, 1988.
Furthcr InformatIon
I. S. obrow, IunJaneniaIs oI IIecirIcaI IngIneerIng, Ncw York. Oxloro Univcrsity Prcss, 199o.
W. H. Poaostrum ano D. H. Wolavcr, IIecirIcaI IngIneerIng Ior aII IngIneers, Ncw York. ]ohn Wilcy &
Sons, 1991.
A. S. Morris, IrIncIIes oI Measureneni anJ InsiruneniaiIon, Ionoon. Prcnticc Hall Intcrnational (U.K.),
1993.
C. H. ryant, IrIncIIes oI MIcrowa\e Measureneni, Ionoon. Pctcr Pcrcgrinus, 1988.
Anonymous, Iow Ie\eI Measurenenis, Clcvclano, OH. Kcithlcy Instrumcnts, 1981.