Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Solids and Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Concept of Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 The Coecient of Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Variables of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Closed and Open Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Internal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10 The First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11 Specic Heats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.12 The Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.13 Isentropic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.14 Sound Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.15 Leibnitzs Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.16 The Fundamental Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.17 The Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 The Dierential Approach to Flow Analysis 26
2.1 Overview of the Dierential Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 The Eulerian Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Kinematics of a Fluid Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.3 Angular Velocity and Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.4 Rate of Volumetric Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.5 Shear Strain Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.6 The Strain Rate Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Dierential Form of Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Elementary Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
i
2.6 Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.1 The Cauchy Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7 Navier-Stokes Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.8 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9 Mechanical Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.10 The Flow Equations Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 Fundamentals of Inviscid Flow 50
3.1 General Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Newton Second Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Conservation of Thermodynamic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Euler Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7 Vorticity and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7.1 Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7.2 Helmholtz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.3 Kelvin Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7.4 Vortex Line, Surface, Tube, and Filament . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7.5 Spatial Conservation of Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7.6 Vortex Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7.7 Velocity Field due to Vorticity Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.8 The Velocity Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.9 Irrotational Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.10 Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.11 Joukowski Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.12 Joukowski Theorem for non-Lifting Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.13 Small Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.14 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.15 Greens Second Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.16 The General Solution of Laplace Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.16.1 Internal Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.16.2 Contribution from S

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.16.3 Contribution from S
W
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.17 Biot-Savarat Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.18 2D General Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.19 Stream Line and Stream Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.19.1 Some Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.19.2 Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.19.3 Stream Surfaces and Stream Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.19.4 Stream Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.19.5 Stream Function for 2D space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.19.6 Stagnation Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.20 Elementary Solutions of Laplace Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.21 Uniqueness of the solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.22 Elementary Solutions of Small Disturbance Equation . . . . . . . . . 98
3.23 Physical Interpretation and Basic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
ii
3.23.1 Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.23.2 Point Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.23.3 Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.24 Two-Dimensional Version of Basic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.24.1 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.24.2 Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.24.3 Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.24.4 Vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.24.5 Two-Dimensional Singularity Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.25 Complex Variables Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.25.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.25.2 Some Elementary Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.25.3 Elementary Flows in Tabular Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.26 Theorem of Blasius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.26.1 Extension of the Theorem of Blasius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.27 Lagallys Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4 Principle of Superposition 122
4.1 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2 Rankines Oval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3 Source in a Uniform Stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.4 Sources in Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5 Doublet in Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.1 Cauchy Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.2 Flow about Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6 Flow around Cylinder with Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.7 Kutta-Joukowski Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.8 Aerodynamic Force on the Vortex Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.9 Strait Solid Wall in the Flow Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.9.1 3D Source near the Innite Plane Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.9.2 2D Source near the Innite Plane Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.9.3 2D Doublet near the Impermeable Innite Plane . . . . . . . . 141
4.9.4 3D Doublet near the Impermeable Innite Plane . . . . . . . . 142
4.10 The Circle Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.10.1 A Few Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.11 Continuous Distributions of Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.11.1 Integration of Source Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.11.2 Integration of Doublet Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.11.3 Integration of Vortex Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.12 Extension of the Circle Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.12.1 Constant Vorticity Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.12.2 Singularities Distribution along Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5 Subsonic Singularity Panels 160
5.1 Two-Dimensional Point Singularity Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.1.1 Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.1.2 Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
iii
5.1.3 Vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.2 Numerical Quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.1 Orthogonal Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2.2 Gaussian Quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.3 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4 Two-Dimensional Line Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.1 Source panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.4.2 Vortex Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.4.3 Doublet Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.4.4 Some General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.5 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.6 Three-Dimensional Point Singularity Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.6.1 Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.6.2 Point Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.6.3 Point Vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.7 Three-Dimensional line Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.7.1 3D Line Source Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.7.2 3D Line Vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.8 Surface distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.8.1 Rotation of Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.8.2 Constant Source Distribution on Unswept Panel with Stream-
wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.8.3 Constant Source Distribution on Swept Panel with Span-wise
Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.8.4 Constant-Strength, Three-Dimensional Quadrilateral Source . 236
5.8.5 Linearly Varying Source Distribution of Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.8.6 Constant Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with Span-wise
Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.8.7 Linearly-Varying Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.8.8 Quadrilateral Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.9 Three-Dimensional Higher-Order Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6 Supersonic Singularity Panels 255
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.2 Greens Second Formulae Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.3 Two-Dimensional Point Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.4 Parametric Dierentiation of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.5 Three-Dimensional Line elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.5.1 Small Disturbance Flow about Bodies of Revolution . . . . . . 260
6.5.2 Slender Body in Axi-Symmetric Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.5.3 Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.5.4 The Basic Solutions of the Equation (6.25) . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.5.5 Singularity Lines Passing Through Coordinate Origin . . . . . 269
6.6 Surface Distribution of the Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.6.1 Gotherts Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
iv
6.6.2 Integration Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.6.3 Constant Source Distribution on Un-swept Panel with Stream-
wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.6.4 Constant Source Distribution on Swept Panel with Span-wise
Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
6.6.5 Linearly Varying Source Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.6.6 Constant Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with Span-wise
Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.6.7 Linearly Varying Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.6.8 Panel Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.6.9 Coordinate Transformation Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7 Applications 281
7.1 Incompressible Flow about Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1.1 Flow about Circle with Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1.2 Conformal Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.1.3 Transformation of a Circle into and Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.1.4 The Joukowsky Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.1.5 The K arm anTretz Airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.1.6 The Point-Vortex Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.1.7 Solution using Constant-Strength Vortex Distribution . . . . . 300
7.1.8 Linearly Varying Vortex Panel Application . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.1.9 Two Airfoil Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.1.10 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.2 Axi-Symmetric Supersonic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.2.1 Calculation of the Flow around Sharp-Nose Body of Revolution331
7.3 Vortex Lattice Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
v
Chapter 1
Introduction
Aerodynamics as a part of uid mechanics is the branch of engineering science that
is concerned with forces and moments that act on the vehicles in ight.
1.1 Solids and Fluids
Air being a uid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of shear-
ing forces. Figure (1.1) illustrate basic dierence between solids and uids. Consider
imaginary chunks of both a solid and a uid (it can be easily imagined with steel or
rubber but impossible with uid, because uid will spread away). Upper row demon-
strate deformation of solid under constant shear force, while lower row demonstrate
deformation of imaginary chunk of uid. A short time after application of shearing
force the solid body deforms to equilibrium position maintaining the same shearing
angle
1
=
2
at the moments t
o
+ t and t
o
+ 2t respectively.
Contrary to solid body uid deforms continuously under action of shear force F
s
.
Deformation angles
1
and
2
are not equal at two distinct moments t + t and
t + 2t to be more specic
2
>
1
.
Application of force to a solid body assumes certain deformed shape and retaining of
that shape as long as force is applied. Thus, for solids applied force can be connected
to deformation. Application of force to uids continuously deforms uid, so applied
shear force could be connected only to rate of uid deformation. Fluid is a substance
which can resist shear only when moving.
We have just established basic dierence between solids and uids. A solid does not
easily change shape while a uid change shape with relative ease. This concept of
uids is valid both for liquids which easily change shape but not volume, and gases
which easily change both shape and volume.
1.2 The Concept of Continuum
All substances are composed of an extremely large number of discrete particles called
molecules. Air is mechanical mixture of dierent types of molecules. Molecules
interact with each other via collisions and inter molecular forces. Molecules of solids
are relatively close to each other (order of a molecular diameter), while the molecules
of air are relatively apart (order of magnitude greater then with solids). Air exerts
1

F
s

F
s

F
s

F
s

F
s

F
s
uid
solid

2
a)
b)
t
o
t
o
+ t t
o
+ 2t

2
=
1

2
>
1
Figure 1.1: Response to a shear force a) solid and b) uid.
relatively weak inter molecular forces. That is explanation why air easily change
shape and volume.
In practice it is impossible to describe behavior of air in terms of molecule dynamics,
because of extremely large number of molecules involved. Approximately 25 of air
at normal conditions contains 10
24
molecules. Specication of initial conditions
(x, y, z position) and (u, v, w velocity) fore each molecule will require 10
17
years
if for specifying each data we spend one second.
For most cases of practical interest, it is possible to ignore the molecular nature of
matter and to assume that matter is continuous. This assumption is called contin-
uum model and can be equally applied to solids and uids. This model assumes
that molecular structure is so small relative to the dimensions involved in problems
of practical interest that we may ignore it.
Continuum model requires description of uids in terms of its properties, which
represent average characteristics of its molecular structure. Typical example is usage
of density of the uid instead of number of molecules, mass of molecule, and occupied
volume. If matter were truly continuum, the properties would be continuous function
of time and space.
1.3 Fluid Properties
Fluid properties characterize the state of the uid and microscopically represent
molecular structure and motion.
1.3.1 Density
The density of a uid at a point in space is the mass of the uid, contained in the
incremental volume surrounding the point, per incremental volume:
= lim
V0
m
1
(1.1)
2
The incremental volume must be large compared to molecular dimensions yet very
small relative to the dimensions of the vehicle whose ow eld we seek to ana-
lyze. Dimension of density is M/L
3
. Standard atmospheric density of the air is
1.225Kg/m
3
.
Several other properties can be derived directly from density. The specic volume
is dened by:
=
1

while specic weight is dened as = g, where g is the local acceleration of

gravity (g = 9.80665m/s
2
).
Figure 1.2: Gas thermometer.
1.3.2 Temperature
We are all familiar with temperature (T). However because of diculty in quantita-
tively dening the temperature, we dene equality of temperature. Two bodies have
equality of the temperature, T
2
= T
1
when no change in any observable property
occurs when they are in thermal contact. Further, two bodies respectively equal in
temperature to a third body must be equal in temperature to each other (T
1
= T
3
and T
2
= T
3
means T
1
= T
2
). Temperature of the body is measured indirectly and
is expressed in K and T[

C] = T[K] 273.15. Standard atmospheric temperature

is 15

C.
The term temperature can, however, be described in more objective manner through
of number of easily measured physical parameters. Let us now introduce the con-
cept of the thermostat. By term thermostat we mean a body whose heat capacity is
innite compared to bodies of interest to which the thermostat will be brought to
contact. That means after bringing any body to contact with thermostat tempera-
ture of the body will equalize to thermostat temperature, while the temperature of
the thermostat will remain unchanged. Let us place in thermostat vessel contain-
ing a gas with loaded piston. We will measure pressure inside the vessel, volume,
and temperature of the thermostat which can be changed. Changing the load on
the piston for constant temperature we can plot the diagrams shown in the gure
(1.2b).
3
Each line represent isotherm. Experimentally is shown that isotherms never inter-
sects, so vessel can be used as thermometer. Temperature is thus unique function
of pressure and volume T = T(P, V )
Figure 1.3: Sketch for pressure denition.
1.3.3 Pressure
Because of the random motion due to their thermal energy, the individual molecules
of air would continuously strike a surface that is placed in the air. Pressure is the
magnitude of the force per unit area of the surface. Collisions between molecules
and surface will occur even though the surface is at rest relative to the uid. By
Newtons second law, a force is exerted on the surface equal to the time rate of change
of the momentum of the rebounding molecules. Since the uid at rest cannot resist to
tangential forces, the pressure on the surface must act in the direction perpendicular
to that surface. Consider a small surface A within a uid, as shown in gure (1.3).
A force F
n
acts normal to the surface. Tangential forces may also be present but
are not relevant to the denition of pressure. the Pressure is dened by:
p = lim
A0
F
n
A
The limiting value A 0 represents the lowest bound of continuum assumption.
Furthermore the pressure acting at a point in a uid at rest is the same in all
directions.
Let us consider uid particle at rest shown in gure (1.4). Let us suppose, also, that
pressure p acts on the uid particle faces built by coordinate surfaces. We will prove
that pressure p acting on the plane ABC is also equal to p. Since uid particle is
at rest, sum of all forces acting on this particle must be equal to zero. Forces acting
on the coordinate surfaces, of the particle are:

P
OBC
=
1
/
2
pyz ,

P
OCA
=
1
/
2
pzx ,

P
OAB
=
1
/
2
pxy

k (1.2)
To calculate force acting on the ABC we must rst determine the area of the triangle
ABC:

A
ABC
=
1
/
2
AC AB =
1
2

k
x 0 z
x y 0

4
Figure 1.4: Pressure acting on uid particle at rest.
from which ows:

A
ABC
=
1
/
2
yz
1
/
2
xz
1
/
2
xy

k
Sum of all forces should be equal to zero:

P
OBC
+

P
OCA
+

P
OAB
+ p

A
ABC
= 0
or:
1
/
2
(p p)(yz + xz + xy

k) = 0 (1.3)
which can always be true only if p = p. We have proved that pressure must be equal
in all directions if a uid is at rest.
Most engineering calculations end when pressure on a surfaces immersed in the uid
is found. Standard atmospheric pressure is equal to 101 325N/m
2
.
1.4 The Coecient of Viscosity
A fundamental approach to viscosity shows that it is the property of a uid which
relates applied stress to the resulting strain rate. Here we consider a simple and
widely used example of a uid sheared between two plates, as in gure (1.5). This
geometry is such that the shear stress
xy
must be constant throughout the uid
(rst index x means in x direction, while the second index y means in the plane
to which y is normal). The motion is in the x direction only and varies with y,
u = u(y) only. Thus there is only a single nite strain rate in this ow:

xy
= f(du/dy) (1.4)
Since, for a given motion V of the upper plate
xy
is constant, it follows that in
these uids du/dy, is constant, so that the resulting velocity prole is linear across
the plate, as sketched in gure (1.5). This is true regardless of the actual form
of the functional relationship in equation (1.4). If the no-slip condition holds, the
velocity prole varies from zero at the lower wall to V at the upper wall. Repeated
5
experiments with various values of
xy
will establish the functional relationship (1.4).
For simple uids such as water, oils, or gases, the relationship is linear or Newtonian:

xy

du
dy
=
V
h
(1.5)
Everybody knows from experience that viscosity is associated with the ability of
a uid to ow freely. Heavy oil takes a long time to ow out of a can. Light
oil ows out quickly. The idea of viscosity being proportional to time to ow has
become accepted practice in the petroleum industry. Thus the motorist purchases
oil with a viscosity labeled SAE 30. This means that 60 ml of this oil at a specied
temperature takes 30 s to run out of a 1.76cm hole in the bottom of a cup. This
experiment is convenient and reproducible for very viscous liquids such as oil, but
the time to ow is not viscosity, any more than the speed of sound is the time it
takes an echo to return from a mountainside. It is an intriguing fact that the ow
of a viscous liquid out of the bottom of a cup is a dicult problem for which no
analytic solution exists at present.
Figure 1.5: Fluid sheared between two plates.
1.5 Variables of State
Let us dene thermodynamic system as a quantity of matter separated from sur-
roundings by an enclosure. The enclosure does not necessarily consist of a solid
boundary, it is only necessarily that the enclosure forms a closed surface and that
its properties are dened everywhere.
Let us consider system at equilibrium than all macroscopic quantities will be inde-
pendent of time. Variables of the system which depend only on state of the system
are called variables of state. Before mentioned properties; pressure p, density ,
volume and temperature T are variables of state. Experiments show that these
variables are not independent. They are connected to each other through relation
of the form:
p = p(, T) (1.6)
which is called equation of state, or zeroth law of thermodynamics. In most cases
air can be considered as ideal gas for which equation (1.6) has simple form:
p = RT (1.7)
6
where R is constant equal to the ratio R
u
and molecular weight M.W. of the air.
R
u
being equal to:
R
u
= 8.31434
kJ
k mol

K
Since molar mass of air is 28.97kg/k mol then the gas constant for air is:
R =
R
u
M.W.
=
8.3143
28.97
= 0.2870
kJ
kg K
1.6 Closed and Open Systems
In the previous section we have dened closed or thermodynamics system. The mass
or region outside the system is called surroundings. The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. These terms
are illustrated in gure (1.6), the boundary of the system can be xed or movable.
The boundary of a system has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any
mass nor occupy any volume in space.
Figure 1.6: Thermodynamic system (Control mass).
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a xed
mass or a xed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system (also known
as a control mass) consists of a xed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary. If besides mass even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.
An open system, or a control volume is a properly selected region in space. Both
mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume, which is called a control
surface. A control volume is shown in the gure (1.7).
The thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open systems are
dierent. Therefore, it is extremely important that we recognize the type of system
we have before we start analyzing it.
1.7 Forms of Energy
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
magnetic, electric, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy
7
Figure 1.7: A control volume, both mass and energy can cross the boundaries of
control volume.
E
t
of the system. The total energy of the system per unit mass e
t
is dened as:
e
t
= e
k
+ e
p
+ e
i
=
E
t
m
(kJ/kg) ,
where e
k
is kinetic, e
p
is potential, and e
i
is internal energy.
Thermodynamics does not provide information about absolute value of the total
energy of a system. It deals with the energy change within a system which is
what matters in engineering problems. Thus value E
t
= 0 can be assigned to some
convenient reference point. The change of the total energy of a system is independent
of the reference point selected.
Generally total energy of the system is divided into two groups: macroscopic and
microscopic forms of energy. System processes in which system takes part as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame contribute to macroscopic energy,
such as kinetic and potential energies. Microscopic forms of energy are related
to molecular structure of the system and the degree of molecular activity. The
microscopic forms of energy are independent of outside reference frame. The sum
of all microscopic forms of energy is called internal energy. Symbol U is devoted to
internal energy in thermodynamics. But in aerodynamics symbols U and u are used
for x-component of velocity, thus we will use symbols E and e for internal energy.
The energy that the system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy:
K.E. =
mV
2
2
where V is velocity of the system, and m is the mass of the system. Kinetic energy
per unit mass is obtained from former equation after division by m:
k.e. =
V
2
2
Potential energy does not play signicant role in aerodynamic since density of the
air is small under normal conditions. Anyway, energy of the system as a result of
its elevation in a gravitational eld is called potential energy and is expressed as:
P.E. = mg z
where g = 9.80665m/s
2
and z is elevation. Potential energy of the system per unit
mass is:
p.e. = g z
8
1.8 Internal Energy
To have better understanding of internal energy, let us consider a system at molec-
ular level. In general internal energy is consisted of sensible energy, latent energy,
chemical energy, and nuclear energy. The sensible energy is associated with the
kinetic energies of the molecules, gure (1.8a)
Figure 1.8: Forms of internal energy.
The internal energy is also associated with the inter molecular forces between the
molecules of a system. These are the forces that bind the molecules together. The
internal energy associated with phase of a system is called latent energy, gure (1.8b).
The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical
energy. During chemical reactions some chemical bonds are destroyed while others
are formed. As a result, the internal energy is changed, gure (1.8c).
Tremendous amount of internal energy is associated with the bonds within the
nucleus of the atom. This internal energy is called nuclear energy, gure (1.8d). So
we can write:
e
i
= e + e
l
+ e
ch
+ e
n
where e is sensible energy (we can sense it by termometer), e
l
is latent energy, e
ch
is
chemical energy, and e
n
is nuclear energy. In most aerodynamics applications total
energy of the air can be considered to be consisted of kinetic energy and sensible
energy, only, since other forms of energy did not change:
e
t
= e + e
k
.
Forms of energies capable to cross system boundaries are called dynamic forms
of energy. The only two forms of energy capable to cross closed system boundary
are heat transfer and work. Heat transfer is possible only if exists temperature
dierence between the system and surroundings. For control volume the mass is
also transferred and of course energy associated with that mass. If there are no
energy and mass transfer through boundary of the system it is said for that system
that it is in equilibrium state. For equilibrium state all state variables are not
function of time.
Figure (1.9) shows relation between various forms of energy of the uid.
9
Figure 1.9: Relation between various forms of energy.
1.9 Heat Transfer
People use re for warmth and light about half million of years. It has been only
in relatively recent time that people have understood that heat is energy and that
temperature is a measure of the amount of that energy. Being a from of energy heat
can be converted to work. We do not speak about amount of heat accumulated in
body since word heat is restricted to energy being transferred.
Heat ows from one body to another as a result of a dierence in temperature. Heat
always ow from the hotter body to the colder body. In absence of phase changes the
temperature of the colder body will always rise and the temperature of the hotter
body decrease.
Since temperature gradient is essential for heat ow it is necessary to know temper-
ature distribution whiting body to calculate that ow. Heat transfer is performed
through three distinct mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation.
1.9.1 Conduction
The conduction law is formulated by Fourier based on experimental observations
made by Biot. Fourier law states that the rate of heat ow by conduction in a given
direction is proportional to temperature gradient in that direction and area normal
to that direction:

Q = kSnT
where S is the area of the surface, n is the unit normal to that area, and k is
proportionality constant being material property. Minus sign is needed because heat
ows form higher to lower temperature, and gradient (T) is positive if temperature
increases. Heat ow rate per unit area is called heat ux and is dened by:
q = kT (1.8)
1.9.2 Convection
When uid ow over a solid body, and the temperatures are dierent, heat transfer
takes place between the uid and the solid surface as a result of motion of the uid.
This mechanism of heat ow is called convection, since the motion of the uid plays a
10
signicant role in augmenting the hat transfer rate. Let us denote uid temperature
with T
f
and wall temperature of the body with T
w
than experimental relation of
heat ux from body to uid is given by
q = h(T
w
T
f
)n (1.9)
where h is heat transfer coecient, and n is the unit normal to the body surface.
Coecient h depends on
The type of ow (laminar, turbulent, transitional)
Geometry of the body
Physical properties of the uid
Temperature dierence
Position along the surface of the body
Of the mechanism of convection (free or forced)
1.9.3 Radiation
All bodies emit energy due to their temperature. This energy is called thermal
radiation. The radiation ux emitted by a real body at an absolute temperature T
is always less than the black body emissive power, and is given by:
q =
_
T
4
_
n (1.10)
where is emissivity of the body (always less than 1), terms in parenthesis represent
black body emissive power, = 5.6697 10
8
W/(m
2
K
4
) is Stefan-Boltzman constant.
Figure 1.10: Energy can cross the boundary of the closed system only in the form
of heat or work.
11
1.10 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The principle based on experimental observations that energy can be neither created
nor destroyed is known as the rst law of thermodynamics. As we already mentioned
heat and work are dynamic forms of energy. There is no sense in saying that a body
stores some heat or work. Heat and work are only forms of energy transfer between
system and surroundings and vice versa, gure (1.10).
In general case, when addition of a heat to a body results in a rise in the temperature
of the body, and external work is performed due to an increase in the volume of the
body, the heat Q added to the body is expended to increase its internal energy
E and to accomplish work W. This statement can be expressed by the formula:
Q = E
t
+ W (1.11)
or in dierential form:
dQ = dE
t
+ dW per unit mass: dq = de
t
+ dw (1.12)
The heat added to a system and work done by the system is considered to be
positive, gure (1.11). Signs can be chosen arbitrary, but those mentioned above
are customary in engineering.
Figure 1.11: Heat added to a system, Q, and work done by the system, W, against
surrounding pressure p.
1.11 Specic Heats
The specic heat is dened as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree. This energy depend on the way how the process is
executed. In thermodynamics we are interested in specic heat at constant pressure
C
P
and specic heat at constant volume C
V
. Let us consider imaginary experiment
shown in the gure (1.12a). Pressure is maintained constant by the movable piston.
When heat is added to the system it is spent to the work against the pressure and
to the raise of temperature:
q = w + e ,
12
in former equation our tothal energy is consisted of sensible energy only (e
t
= e),
since all other forms of internal energies are assumed unchanged.
Let us denote such heat by h, then by denition specic heat at constant pressure
must be equal to:
C
P
=
_
h
T
_
p
, h = C
P
T (1.13)
In the second case gure (1.12b) heat is spent only to temperature rising (i.e. inernal

Q
W

q = h
q = e

Q
a) b)
Figure 1.12: Specic heat at constant pressure is the heat added to a system per
unit mass which raise temperature by one degree when pressure is unchanged a),
while specic heat at constant volume is the heat added to unit mass of a system
which raise temperature of the system by one degree when volume of the system is
maintained constant b).
energy q = e). Specic heat at constant volume is equal by denition to:
C
V
=
_
e
T
_
v
, e = C
V
T (1.14)
It is clear that C
P
> C
V
because h must be greater then e since heat h is spent also
to work, and by denition temperature increment is equal to 1 in both cases. If we
choose that at T = 0 also e = h = 0 than equations (1.13) and (1.14) become
e = C
V
T (1.15)
h = C
P
T (1.16)
From equation equation (1.12) the rst principle of thermodynamics for constant
pressure system, per unit mass, follows
dh = dq = de + p
d1
m
(p = const.) dh = d
_
e +
p

_
(1.17)
since
d1
m
=
d1
dm
..
1/

d
..
dm/1
m/1
. .

=
d

2
13
takeing into account sign convention for work, we can express equation (1.17) in the
form:
h = e +
p

(1.18)
where h is anoter state variable called enthalpy. For general execution of processes
we have, (from (1.12)):
dq = de + pd
_
1

_
= d
_
e +
p

dp

= dh
dp

(1.19)
since dw = p d1, and the following is taken into account:
d
_
p

_
= pd
_
1

_
+
dp

Substituting denitions (1.15) and (1.16) into equation (1.18) for ideal gas then
follows
C
P
T = C
V
T +
p

(C
P
C
V
)T = RT
which connects specic heats with gas constant. If we dene ratio of specic heats
C
P
/C
V
= than former equation yields
C
V
=
R
1
C
P
=
R
1
(1.20)
Since e is also variable of state equation of state equation (1.7) can be expressed
through this variable
p = RT = (C
P
C
V
) T = ( 1)C
V
T = ( 1) e (1.21)
from which follows:
e =
1
1
p

(1.22)
Equation of state can be also expressed through other variables of state, for ehample:
h =

1
p

(1.23)
1.12 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics asserts that processes occur in a certain direction
and that energy has quality as well as quantity. A process cannot take place unless
it satises both the rst and second laws of thermodynamics.
To ascertain the proper direction of a processes, let us dene a new state variable,
the entropy, as follows:
ds =
q
rev
T
where s is the entropy of the system, q
rev
is an incremental amount of heat added
reversibly to the system, and T is the system temperature. Dispute the fact that we
have dened entropy s in terms of reversible addition of heat q
rev
entropy is state
14
variable, and it can be used in conjunction with any type of processes, reversible or
irreversible. For general processes the following relation is valid:
ds =
q
T
+ ds
irrev
(1.24)
The dissipative phenomena always increase the entropy:
ds
irrev
0 (1.25)
The equal sign denotes a reversible process, where by denition above dissipative
phenomena is absent. Hence combination of (1.24) and (1.25) yields
ds
q
T
(1.26)
If process is adiabatic q = 0 equation (1.26) reduces to
ds 0 (1.27)
Equations (1.26) and (1.27) are forms of the second law of thermodynamics. This
law tell us in what direction a process will take place. A process will proceed in a
direction such that entropy of the system and surroundings will not decrease.
Let us, for a while, assume that process is reversible, than q = T ds. First law of
thermodynamics (1.12) when only pressure performs work now reads
T ds = de + p d
_
1

_
(1.28)
or in terms of enthalpy:
T ds = dh
dp

(1.29)
For thermally perfect gas we have dh = C
P
dT, substitution in equation (1.29) gives:
ds = C
P
dT
T

dp
T
(1.30)
If from equation of state product T is replaced by p/R in the equation (1.30) the
following is obtained
ds = C
P
dT
T
R
dp
p
(1.31)
The equation (1.31) is valid for thermally perfect gas. It can be integrated if function
C
P
(T) is known. In the case when C
P
is constant (calloricaly perfect gas) integration
between state 1 and 2 gives:
s
2
s
1
= C
P
ln
T
2
T
1
R ln
p
2
p
1
(1.32)
If instead of p
2
/p
1
we substitute
2
T
2
/
1
T
1
the equation (1.32) gives
s
2
s
1
= C
V
ln
T
2
T
1
R ln

2

1
(1.33)
15
If we eliminate temperature ratio T
2
/T
1
from equation (1.32) by equation of state
we, after some manipulations, obtain
p
2
p
1
=
_

1
_

e
(s
2
s
1
)/(C
V
)
(1.34)
What is equation of state expressed in terms of pressure p, density , and entropy s
as a variables of state.
1.13 Isentropic Relations
Process is concerned to be isentropic if it is adiabatic q = 0 and reversible s
2
= s
1
.
From equation (1.32) then follows
0 = C
P
ln
T
2
T
1
(C
P
C
V
) ln
p
2
p
1
(1.35)
Since:
C
P
R
=
C
P
C
P
C
V
=

1
C
V
R
=
C
V
C
P
C
V
=
1
1
from equation (1.35) the following relation between pressure and temperature is
obtained:
p
2
p
1
=
_
T
2
T
1
_
/(1)
(1.36)
From equation (1.33) follows equation (when s = 0):

1
=
_
T
2
T
1
_
1/(1)
(1.37)
Summarizing Eqs. (1.36) and (1.37) following relation is obtained for isentropic
relations
p
2
p
1
=
_

1
_

=
_
T
2
T
1
_
/(1)
(1.38)
Equation (1.38) relates pressure, density and temperature, as well as equation of
state. But there are signicant dierence between equation (1.38) and equation
(1.7). Equation (1.7) is always valid as long as air can be considered to be ideal
gas, while equation (1.38) describes the process. At each point of the process (1.38)
equation of state (1.7) is satised. If the process is known to be isentropic, then one
of the fundamental laws of uid nature (to be discussed later) can be replaced by
simple relation (1.38) what greatly simplies practical applications.
1.14 Sound Velocity
Let us consider, now, straight tube of uid at rest. At some moment t = 0 in the
tube of unit area, at location O, is introduced disturbance, gure (1.13). From
that moment on disturbance continues to propagate through tube. We consider the
portion of the uid which passed location A in unit time t = 1, with density and
16
velocity a. After short time interval t uid will pass location B having density
+ and velocity a + a. Since mass must be preserved the following relation
holds
a
..
A
S = ( + )(a + a)
. .
B
S
Relation is accurate to the rst order in time since there is no guarantee that the
same mass will pass point B in unit time. Neglecting higher order terms from
previous equation and canceling nite term products we obtain
a = a (1.39)
Figure 1.13: Propagation of disturbance through air contained in long tiny tube.
We now apply Newton second law of motion to the same mass. Change in momentum
of the mass must be caused by the forces applied to it. We neglect inuences of tube
wall, so only pressure force is to be considered
( + )(a + a)
2
. .
B momentum
S a
2
..
A momentum
S = p S
Again canceling nite order terms and neglecting higher order terms we obtain
a
2
+ 2aa = p (1.40)
Substituting product a from equation (1.39) yields
a
2
=
p

or when the considered amount of mass is innitesimally small

a
2
=
dp
d
(1.41)
The relation between pressure and density is not unique, because p = p(, T), so
fraction dp/d can have various values. Newton has supposed that the disturbances
through gases are transmitted isothermally
p

= const or:
dp
d
=
p

17
But experiments has proved that another great scientist (Laplace) had better idea.
Namely, he supposed that the disturbances are transmitted through gases adiabat-
ically
p

= const from which follows:

dp
d
=
p

Constant a is called velocity of sound and is dened as

a =

=
_
RT (1.42)
or symbolically
a =
_
p

_
S=const
(1.43)
1.15 Leibnitzs Theorem
Integrals that involve a parameter often occur in uid mechanics. In most cases
time plays the role of a parameter and the integrals are of the form
I(t) =
_
V(t)
B(t, x, y, z) d1 (1.44)
Here B, stands for any scalar, vector, or tensor function of interest. Not only does
time change the integrand, but the region of integration 1(t) may be moving. We let
v be the velocity of the surface of 1(t). In addition to translating, the surface may
be expanding or contracting. The velocity v is any prescribed function of position
on the surface. The theorem of Leibnitz allows us to nd dI/dt in a convenient
manner. The theorem is
d
dt
_
V(t)
B(t, x, y, z) d1 =
_
V
B
t
d1 +
_
S
nvBdS (1.45)
Equation (1.45) states that we may move the derivative with respect to time inside
the integral if we add a surface integral to compensate for the motion of the bound-
ary. The surface integral tells how fast B is coming into 1 because of the surface
velocity v, regions A and B in gure (1.15). If the boundary does not move, then
v = 0 and the theorem merely says it is permissible to interchange the order of
dierentiation and integration.
As a specic example take B as the constant scalar function one (B = 1). The
integral on the left of (1.45) is the volume of the region. Since partial derivative of
constant with respect to time is equal to zero, (1.45) becomes
d
dt
_
V(t)
d1 =
_
S
v ndS (1.46)
The rate of change of the volume of a region is the integral of the normal component
of the surface velocity over the region. The sketch of the region 1 for two close time
instances is shown in the gure (1.14).
18
Figure 1.14: Region 1 in two close time instances.
1.16 The Fundamental Laws
Experience has shown that all uid motion must obey the following fundamental
laws of nature.
The law of conservation of mass. Mass can be neither created nor destroyed;
it can only be transported or stored.
Newtons three laws of motion.
1. A mass remains in a state of equilibrium, that is, at rest or moving at
constant velocity, unless acted on by an unbalanced force. (First law)
2. The rate of change of momentum of a mass is proportional to the net
force acting on the mass. (Second law)
3. Any force action has an equal (in magnitude) and opposite (in direction)
force reaction. (Third law)
The rst law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy). Energy,
like mass, can be neither created nor destroyed. Energy can be transported,
changed in form, or stored.
The second law of thermodynamics. The second law deals with the availability
of energy to perform useful work. The only possible natural processes are
those that either decrease or, in the ideal case, maintain, the availability of
the energy of the universe. The science of thermodynamics denes a material
property called entropy, which quanties the second law. The entropy of the
universe must increase or, in the ideal case, remain constant in all natural
processes.
The state postulate (law of property relations). The various properties of a uid
are related. If a certain minimum number (usually two) of a uids properties
are specied, the remainder of the properties can be determined from these
two.
The important thing to remember about these laws is that they apply to all ows.
They do not depend on the nature of the uid, the geometry of the boundaries, or
19
anything else. It is known, that they have always been true and will continue to be
true unless they are suspended by the Creator of the universe. Hence we can rmly
base analysis of all ows on these laws. In addition to these universal laws, several
less fundamental laws apply in restricted circumstances. An example is Newtons
law of viscosity, which states that:
The shear stress in a uid is proportional to she rate of deformation of the uid.
This law is true only for some uids and does not apply at all to solids. Such
laws are better termed constitutive relations. We must use constitutive relations to
solve most ow problems, but we must select them carefully to match the particular
problem.
1.17 The Transport Theorem
The transport theorem is a mathematical expression that connects the system and
control volume points of view for a global or nite control volume approach to ow
analysis. It provides a way to identify a nite system and to evaluate the rate
of change of any property or characteristic of that system by examining the ow
through a control volume.
The fundamental laws deal with rates of change of certain properties of the system
to which they are applied; for example, Newtons second law addresses the rate of
change of system momentum, and the rst law of thermodynamics addresses the
rate of change of system energy. In order to apply these laws, we have to gure out
how to identify a specic system in a moving, deforming uid and how to calculate
the rate of change of this systems properties. This is where a control volume comes
in. Although uid ows through a control volume continuously, a control volume
contains a specic mass of uid at any instant. We designate our system as the uid
mass that instantaneously occupies the control volume. A dierent system occupies
Figure 1.15: Control volume and enclosed system in a ow eld.
the control volume at each instant; however, we may apply the fundamental laws to
whatever system occupies the control volume at that instant. The control volume
becomes a way to identify a specic system, even if only for a very short time. This
idea is somewhat like taking motion pictures. We point the camera at a particular
location (say, a busy street corner) and take pictures. We record frame-by-frame
the pictures of people who occupy the location. When we run the lm at regular
20
speed, we see a continuous ow of people; but each frame shows a particular person
occupying the location.
Figure (1.15) shows a three-dimensional, three-directional ow eld with a control
volume superimposed. The mass contained in the control volume at the instant that
the gure represents is chosen as a system. Figure (1.16) shows the passage of that
system out of the control volume over time.
Figure (1.16a) shows the situation at time t, when the system exactly lls the control
volume. Figure (1.16b) shows the situation at a later time, t +t, when a portion of
the system has left the control volume: 1
1
, is the portion of the control volume that
has been vacated by the system in time t; 1
2
is the portion of the control volume
that contained part of the system at time t and still contains part of the system at
time t + t; and 1
3
lies outside the control volume and contains the portion of the
system that has left the control volume in time t.
Mass of uid in
control volume at
initial time t.
a)
V
sys
= V
cv
Control volume and
sustem after short
period dt.
b)
V
1
V
2
V
3
Control volume
and system at
some later time
c)
V
cv
V
sys
V
sys
= V
2
+V
3
V
cv
= V
1
+V
2
Figure 1.16: A system ows through a control volume.
We can calculate the rate of change of an arbitrary property B of this system;
B could be momentum, energy, or any other property. Property B may be non
uniformly distributed throughout the system, so we let b be the specic (per-unit-
mass) property. If B represents system momentum (

M = m

V ), then b is velocity
(

V ). If B represents system kinetic energy (B = mV

2
/2), then b is V
2
/2. The total
amount of B in the system is
B
sys
=
_
m
sys
b dm =
_
V
sys
b d1 (1.47)
where m
sys
is the system mass and 1
sys
is the system volume.
By denition, the rate of change of B
sys
is
dB
sys
dt
= lim
t0
B
sys

t+t
B
sys

t
t
Substituting denition from equation (1.47), we have
dB
sys
dt
= lim
t0
_
V
sys
b d1[
t+t

_
V
sys
b d1[
t
t
. (1.48)
21
At time t,
1
sys

t
= 1
cv
,
and at time t + t,
1
sys

t+t
= 1
2
+1
3
= 1
cv
1
1
+1
3
,
so
dB
sys
dt
= lim
t0
_
V
cv
b d1[
t+t

_
V
1
b d1[
t+t
+
_
V
3
b d1[
t+t

_
V
cv
b d1[
t
t
.
We can rewrite this expression as
dB
sys
dt
= lim
t0
_
V
cv
b d1[
t+t

_
V
cv
b d1[
t
t
. .
TermI
+ lim
t0
_
V
3
b d1[
t+t
0
t
. .
TermII
lim
t0
_
V
1
b d1[
t+t
0
t
. .
TermIII
.
where zeros are the values of integrals in terms II and III at the moment t.
Each of the three terms has its own meaning. Term I is similar to the right-hand
side of equation (1.48), with one important dierence: In term I the integration
is over the control volume, whereas in equation (1.48), the integration is over the
system volume. Using the denition of a derivative, we nd that
TermI =
d
dt
_
V
cv
b d1 =
d
dt
(B
cv
) ,
which represents the time rate of change of the amount of B contained in the control
volume. Note that this amount of B could change because of changes in 1
cv
(a
moving or deforming control volume) and changes of or b with time at points
within the control volume. We sometimes call term I the rate of accumulation.
The integral in the numerator of term II represents the amount of B that ows out
of the control volume between time t and time t + t. Dividing by t, we get the
average rate of outow, and passing to the limit, we get the instantaneous rate of
outow:
TermII =

B
out
.
The integral in term III is the amount of B that ows into the control volume
between time t and time t + t. (Note that this B is not in the original system.)
Dividing by t, we get the average rate of inow, and passing to the limit, we get
the instantaneous rate of inow:
TermIII =

B
in
We sometimes call terms II and III the ux terms. Collecting terms I, II and III,
we get
dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
_
V
cv
b d1 +

B
out

B
in
. (1.49)
In words:
22
The rate of change of any property of the system that occupies a
control volume at any particular instant is equal to the instantaneous
rate of accumulation of the property inside the control volume plus
the dierence between the instantaneous rates of outow and inow
of the property. This latter term is the net rate of outow of the
property across the control surface.
Sometimes we can use equation (1.49) directly, but we often must relate

B
out
and

B
in
to the ow eld. For

B
out
, where B is a property of the uid mass and the uid
is owing across the control surface, each unit of mass leaving the control volume
carries b units of B out with it. As b may not be uniform, we write
d

B
out
= b(d m)
out
and

B
out
=
_
d

B
out
=
_
b(d m)
out
. (1.50)
Similarly,

B
in
=
_
d

B
in
=
_
b(d m)
in
. (1.51)
Now consider the rate of ow of mass out of the control volume. Figure (1.17) shows
an enlargement of a small portion of the control surface. Mass ows out from the
control volume through the area dS. Figure (1.17a) shows the uid velocity at dS
at a particular time t; n is a unit vector drawn perpendicular to dS and pointing
Figure 1.17: Detail of outow through small piece of the control surface (dS): a)
velocity and unit out drawn normal vector at surface; b) uid particles that were at
dS at t are at dS

at t + t; uid in volume d(1) has left control volume through

dS.
outward from the control volume. In general, the uid velocity is not perpendicular
to the control surface, so the angle between

V and n is not zero. Figure (1.17b)
shows the uid that has left the control volume through dS in time t. The uid
that was at dS at time t has now moved to dS

. All the uid in the volume d(1)

between dS and dS

has owed out of the control volume through dS in time t.

Thus we can write
d(m)
out
= d(1) . (1.52)
23
From gure (1.17b), we have
d(1) = (vt) cos dS . (1.53)
To obtain an expression for the rate of outow through dS, we substitute equation
(1.53) into equation (1.52), divide by t, and take the limit as t 0. The result is
d m
out
= V cos dS . (1.54)
To identify the outow area, note that uid ows outward across the control surface
at any point where 0

90

. We can write in vector notation

d m
out
=

V ndS . (1.55)
Remember that the magnitude of vector n is unity.
Next, consider the rate of mass ow into the control volume. Figure (1.18) illustrates
a portion of the control surface through which mass enters the control volume.
Figure (1.18a) shows the velocity vector

V and the unit outward normal vector n at
the area dS at time t. Note that for inow, the angle lies between 90

and 180

.
The angle

is the complement of the angle . Figure (1.18b) shows the situation

at time t +t. The uid that was at dS at time t has now moved to dS

, inside the
control volume. All the uid in volume d(1) owed into the control volume across
dS in time t. We can write
d(m)
in
= d(1) . (1.56)
where
d(1) = (V t) cos

dS = V t cos dS .
Dividing by t and taking the limit as t 0 gives
Figure 1.18: Details of inow through a small piece of control surface: a) velocity
and unit out drawn normal vector at surface; b) uid particles that were at dS at
time t are at (dS

) at time t + t; uid in volume d(1) has entered the control

volume.
d m
in
= V cos dS . (1.57)
24
In vector notation,
d m
in
=

V ndS . (1.58)
Substituting the expressions for mass ow rate [Eqs. (1.54), (1.55), (1.57) and (1.58)]
into Eqs. (1.50) and (1.51) gives

B
out
=
_
S
out
bV cos dS =
_
S
out
b
_

V n
_
dS . (1.59)
and

B
in
=
_
S
in
bV cos dS =
_
S
in
b
_

V n
_
dS . (1.60)
Using Eqs. (1.59) and (1.60), we write equation (1.49) in the following forms:
dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
_
V
cv
bd1 +
_
S
out
bV cos dS +
_
S
in
bV cos dS , (1.61)
dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
_
V
cv
bd1 +
_
S
out
bV
n
dS
_
S
in
bV
n
dS , (1.62)
and
dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
_
V
cv
b d1 +
_
S
cv
b
_

V n
_
dS . (1.63)
In equation (1.62), V
n
represents the velocity component normal (perpendicular) to
the control surface. We combine the two surface integrals in Eqs. (1.61) and (1.62)
into a single integral over the entire surface, as in equation (1.63), because any point
on the surface has either inow, outow, or

V n = 0.
Equation (1.61) to (1.63), in any of its forms, is the transport theorem. It allows us
to relate the system and control volume points of view (alternatively, the Lagrangian
and Eulerian methods of description) at a global level of detail.
If the control volume is xed in space we can move dierentiation d/dt. inside the
integral and replace it with partial dierentiation /t. If control volume is movable
or deformable than Leibntzs rule must be applied, equation (1.46), to replace the
derivative of the rst term in equation (1.63). Thus,
dB
sys
dt
=
_
V
cv

t
(b) d1
_
S
cv
b (v n) dS +
_
S
cv
b
_

V n
_
dS .
or:
dB
sys
dt
=
_
V
cv

t
(b) d1 +
_
S
cv
b
_

V v
_
ndS . (1.64)
where

V v is relative uid velocity, and (

V v) n is the local normal component

of relative velocity, V
rn
.
The system point of view is related to a Lagrangian description of ow. Its advantage
is that all the fundamental laws may be expressed directly in terms of a specic
collection of mass. The control volume point of view is related to an Eulerian
description of ow. Its advantage is that control volumes are easier to keep track
of than systems. Unfortunately, Newtons laws of motion and the state postulate
apply only to samples of matter, not to volumes. Thus we need to adopt the system
point of view to formulate the fundamental laws but use the control volume point
of view to apply them to ow problems! Fortunately, we have formally connect the
two points of view by purely mathematical relationships.
25
Chapter 2
The Dierential Approach to Flow
Analysis
In this chapter, we consider the dierential approach to ow analysis. We concen-
trate on developing the governing dierential problems.
2.1 Overview of the Dierential Approach
The dierential approach to ow analysis begins with formulation of the law of
conservation of mass and Newtons second law of motion as dierential equations.
Because these laws are valid at every point in a ow eld, the resulting dierential
equations are capable of describing every point in the eld. Deriving the dierential
equations is a relatively straightforward exercise, and they are quite general.
Another necessary task is to prescribe boundary conditions and initial conditions
for the equations. Boundary conditions are derived from the physical constrains
that exist at the boundaries of the ow (for example, the velocity of a air particle in
contact with a aircraft wing must have the same velocity as the wing (if the viscous
model of the ow is considered). Initial conditions describe the ow eld at the
initial instant of time. Boundary conditions and initial condition depend on the
physical model which describes the ow. Boundary conditions and initial conditions
are unique to a given problem. The main reason is variations in geometry: Flow over
a streamlined airfoil is dierent from ow over a square rod and both are dierent
from ow through a circular pipe.
The (general) dierential equations, together with the (problem-dependent) bound-
ary and initial conditions, are a complete mathematical model of a particular ow.
If we can solve the dierential equations and incorporate the correct boundary and
initial conditions, we are rewarded with information about the ow at every point
in the eld for all time (or at least until the conditions change). We can calculate
ow rates from the known velocities and forces from the known pressure and shear
stress distributions.
Detailed view in the ow eld is paid by the fact that each dierent ow geometry
must be solved separately; only the dierential equations are general. The analytic
solution to the general ow problems are hard to nd or even does not exist. In-
stead of solving problem analytically, we may tackle accurate approximations to the
26
dierential equations with the methods of computational uid dynamics. Advances
in digital computer hardware and software have made the dierential approach a
feasible alternative for many important aerodynamic ow problems.
2.2 The Eulerian Derivative
The Eulerian derivative is a mathematical expression that connects the system and
control volume points of view for a local or dierential equation approach to ow
analysis. It relates the rate of change of any property of a uid particle (system) to
the particles location in the ow eld.
Figure 2.1: Property b at point (x, y, z) at time t and shortly after that (t + dt).
Imagine a specic uid particle located at a specic point in a ow eld (see gure
2.1). For generality, we assume a three-directional, three-dimensional, unsteady ow.
We describe the ow in Cartesian coordinates. If we use an Eulerian description,
the particles properties and velocity depend on its location and time. Then for an
arbitrary property b (b may be density, pressure, velocity, etc.), we can write
b
P
= b(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t)
where the subscript P reminds us that we use the location of the particle.
The fundamental laws usually require rates of change of certain properties of matter
(e.g., momentum, mass, energy, entropy). We determine the rate of change of b
P
by
using the rule for calculating total derivatives:
db
P
dt
=
b
t
+
b
x
P
dx
P
dt
+
b
y
P
dy
P
dt
+
b
z
P
dz
P
dt
.
However, x
P
, y
P
and z
P
are the position coordinates of the uid particle, so their
time derivatives are the particles velocity components,
dx
P
dt
= u
P
,
dy
P
dt
= v
P
,
dz
P
dt
= w
P
.
Substituting, the rate of change of b is
db
dt
=
u
t
+ u
b
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
b
z
(2.1)
where we have now dropped the subscript P.
27
The complicated form of equation (2.1), requiring four terms to express a single total
time derivative, is a consequence of selecting the Eulerian method of description in
which uid properties depend on both location and time. This type of derivative
is variously called the Eulerian derivative (because it is necessary in an Eulerian
description), the material derivative (because it expresses the rate of change of a
property of a particle of the material), the substantial derivative (substituting the
word substance for material), or the total derivative.
As the property b was arbitrary, we can drop it and write the derivative as a math-
ematical operator. To remind us of its special nature, we often write the operator
as a D and rearrange it as follows:
D
Dt
=

t
+ u

x
+ v

y
+ w

z
. (2.2)
A shorthand notation, using vectors, is
D
Dt
=

t
+ (

V ) , (2.3)
where

V is the uid velocity vector and is the gradient operator.
Some comments on the physical meaning of Eqs. (2.12.3) are in order. The term
db/dt (alternatively, D/Dt) is the total rate of change over time of the property b
of the particle. That property may change because the particle moves to another
location over time or because the value of the property at a specic location may
change over time. For example, the temperature of a specic particle of air in the
atmosphere may change as winds carry it to a region of dierent temperature, or
if the particle remains at a xed location, the temperature may change from day
to night or season to season. The rate of change resulting from changes of location
is reected in the terms containing the velocity. The rate of change resulting from
unsteady eects at a xed location is reected in the partial derivative with time.
Remember the basic idea that, for any property of a uid particle, we may write:
Total rate of
change of
property of a
uid particle
=
UNSTEADY
TERM
Rate of change
at a xed
location

t
+
CONVECTIVE
TERM
Velocity times the
derivatives with
respect to space
(

V )
The rst term on the right-hand side of this word equation is called the local un-
steady term. The right-most term is called the convective rate of change, because
it reects that the uid is convected (carried) about in the eld.
2.3 Kinematics of a Fluid Particle
Kinematics is the study of space-time relationships. In order to understand a compli-
cated uid motion, we must consider quantities such as uid velocity, acceleration,
rotation, and deformation. Fluid kinematics and dynamics interact strongly, be-
cause force is related to acceleration and uid shear stress is related to the rate of
shear deformation.
28
a)

y
r
r

V t
TRANSLATION

y
r
r

ROTATION
1
/
2

V
b)

y
r
r
STRETCHING

xy
,
xz
,
yz

y
r
r

V
SHEAR DEFORMATION
MOTION DEFORMATION
Figure 2.2: General particle motion and its components in x y plane. a) total xy
particle solid body motion; b) components of particle deformation.
Figure 2.3: Fluid particle in three-dimensional, three-directional velocity eld; par-
ticle center is at particle point (x, y, z) with velocity (u, v, w) at time t.
29
Consider a small cubical uid particle in a three-directional, three-dimensional, un-
steady ow. As the particle moves from point to point, its motion is a combination
of translation, rotation, stretching, and shear deformation. Figure (2.2) illustrates
all these components of motion. We can express them in terms of the velocity. eld.
Figure (2.3) shows the particle located at point (x, y, z) at time t. The uid velocity
at the center of the particle (in an Eulerian description) is

V =

V (x, y, z, t) = u(x, y, z, t) + v(x, y, z, t) + w(x, y, z, t)

k
The velocity is continuously variable so the velocities at the faces of the uid particle
may be dierent from the velocity at the center. Figure (2.3) shows these velocities,
as approximated by the rst term of a Taylor series.
2.3.1 Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle is the total time rate of change of its velocity. It is
consisted of all possible transformations of elementary particle. We introduce the
subscript P to remind us that we are considering a specic uid particle, and write

V
P
=

V
P
(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t) .
for the velocity of the particle P. The acceleration for this particle is
a
P
=
d
dt
_

V
P
_
=
d
dt
_

V
P
(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t)
_
.
We write the velocity and acceleration in x, y and z components:
a
P,x
=
d
dt
(u
P
(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t))
a
P,y
=
d
dt
(v
P
(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t))
a
P,z
=
d
dt
(w
P
(x
P
, y
P
, z
P
, t))
Considering a
P,x
, we have
a
P,x
=
u
P
x
P
_
dx
P
dt
_
+
u
P
y
P
_
dy
P
dt
_
+
u
P
z
P
_
dz
P
dt
_
+
u
P
t
.
However,
dx
P
dt
= u
P
,
dy
P
dt
= v
P
, and
dz
P
dt
= w
P
.
so
a
P,x
=
u
P
t
+ u
P
u
P
x
P
+ v
P
u
P
y
P
+ w
P
u
P
z
P
At the instant in question, the uid particle is at x
P
= x, y
P
= y, z
P
= z with
u
P
= u, v
P
= v and w
P
= w, so
a
x
=
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
30
By a similar development,
a
y
=
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
a
z
=
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
Note that the derivatives on the right-hand side of the acceleration equations are
the Eulerian derivatives from equation (2.2), so
a
x
=
Du
Dt
, a
y
=
Dv
Dt
, a
z
=
Dw
Dt
.
All three equations written together are:
a
x
=
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
; (2.4)
a
y
=
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
; (2.5)
a
z
=
Dw
Dt
=
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
. (2.6)
Or we can write them in a single equation using vector notation:
a =
D

V
Dt
=

V
t
+
_

V
_

V . (2.7)
Figure 2.4: Comparison of rotation of rectangular particles of rigid material at a)
time t and b) time t + t; and of uid at c) time t and d) time t + t.
2.3.2 Translation
The rst of transformations shown in the Figure (2.2) is translation. The translation
of the uid particle is dened by the particle velocity,

V . After small time interval
position of the particle changes according to r = r
o
+

V t where r
o
is the initial
position of the particle, and r its position after t.
31
2.3.3 Angular Velocity and Vorticity
Purely mathematical procedure yields the acceleration of a uid particle. However,
we cannot obtain the angular velocity quite so rigorously. To understand why,
consider a particle of a rigid material (such as steel), as shown in gure (2.4a).
Two perpendicular lines are marked on the particle. Because the particle is rigid,
both lines rotate at the same angular velocity. If the angular velocity is not zero,
a short time later the lines appear as in (2.4b). Next, consider a rectangular uid
particle with two perpendicular lines marked on it (2.4c). The uid is deformable,
so a short time later the uid and the lines appear as shown in part (2.4d). Because
of deformation, the two lines may have rotated dierent amounts. To obtain a
unique value for the angular velocity of the uid particle, we must introduce a
denition: The instantaneous angular velocity () of a uid particle is the average
of the instantaneous angular velocities of two mutually perpendicular lines on the
uid particle.

v
u
A A

B
B

u +
u
y
y
2

u
u
y
y
2

v
v
x
x
2

v +
v
x
x
2
Figure 2.5: Rectangular uid particle with two instantaneous perpendicular lines
AA

and BB

; velocities perpendicular to AA

and BB

are also shown.

Figure (2.5) shows a uid particle with two lines AA

and BB

. By denition,


AA
+
BB

2
, (2.8)
where

AA
=
v
A
v
A
x
=
_
v +
v
x
x
2
_

_
v
v
x
x
2
_
x
=
v
x
(2.9)
and

BB
=
u
B
u
B
y
=
_
u +
u
y
y
2
_

_
u
u
y
y
2
_
y
=
u
y
, (2.10)
so

z
=
1
/
2
_
v
x

u
y
_
. (2.11)
32
We added the subscript z to to remind us that this is actually the angular velocity
about the z axis (perpendicular to the paper). The
1
/
2
is somewhat inconvenient,
so instead of the angular velocity
z
, we often use the vorticity
z
, dened by

z
= 2
z
. (2.12)
In three-directional, three-dimensional ow, the angular velocity and vorticity have
three components:

x
= 2
x
=
w
y

v
z
; (2.13)

y
= 2
y
=
u
z

w
x
; (2.14)

z
= 2
z
=
v
x

u
y
. (2.15)
in vector notation,

= 2 =

V . (2.16)
A ow in which angular velocity and vorticity are zero is called an irrotational ow.
In irrotational three-dimensional ow, all three components of and

must equal
zero.
The simplest continuum motion is the solid body motion. We prove now that for
such motion is also valid equation (2.16). Form the courses in Mechanics we now
that velocity of the arbitrary point at the solid body is expressed as:

V =

V
P
+ (r r
P
) (2.17)
where

V is the velocity of the arbitrary point of the body dened by position vector r,
velocity

V
P
is translational velocity of the some point P at the body whose position
vector is r
P
, and is instantaneous angular velocity of the body (the same for all
points of the body, i.e. does not depend on the spatial coordinates). Note that
application of any dierential operator to constants

V
P
, , and r
P
results to zero.
Let us now apply on both sides of the equation (2.17) from the left-hand side:

V =

V
P
. .
=0
+( r) ( r
P
)
. .
=0
in former equation dierentiation of constant terms is marked as zero. Applying the
vector dierentiation rule
(a

b) =a

b a + (

b)a (a)

b ,
to the remaining right-hand side term we obtain:

V = ( r) = ( r)
. .
3
r( )
. .
=0
+(r)
. .
=0
( )r
. .

= 2 .
what is exactly equation (2.16).
33
2.3.4 Rate of Volumetric Strain
A uid particle can be stretched and squeezed, as illustrated in gure (2.6). This
process can cause a change in the volume of the uid particle. The rate of change
of volume, divided by the volume itself, is called the rate of volumetric strain or
stretching:
1
1
d
dt
(1)
1
1
D
Dt
(1) .
The volume of this uid particle is (refer also to gure 2.3)
1 = x y z .
In three-directional, three-dimensional ow, the particle stretches or shrinks in all
three directions, so
d(1)
dt
= yz
d(x)
dt
+ xz
d(y)
dt
+ xy
d(z)
dt
.
We have x as the distance between the left and right faces of the uid particle;
y
x

t + t t
Figure 2.6: Fluid particle stretched in x direction and squeezed in y direction.
d(x)/dt is the relative x velocity between the two faces:
d(x)
dt
=
_
dx
dt
_
= u[
right face
u[
left face
or
d(x)
dt
=
_
u +
u
x
x
2
_

_
u
u
x
x
2
_
.
Simplifying, we get
d(x)
dt
=
u
x
x.
By a similar argument,
d(y)
dt
=
v
y
y and
d(z)
dt
=
w
z
z .
34
so the rate of volumetric strain for a three-dimensional, three-directional ow is:
1
1
d(1)
dt
=
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
. (2.18)
In vector notation:
1
1
d(1)
dt
=

V =
1
1
D
Dt
(1) . (2.19)
Figure 2.7: Shear deformation of uid particles, positive deformation angles
1
and

2
are shown.
2.3.5 Shear Strain Rate
In addition to rotation and volumetric strain, a uid particle in a ow eld also
experiences shear deformation. Next to acceleration, the rate of shear deformation
is the most important kinematic property because the shear stresses in the uid are
related to this strain rate.
A general denition of strain rate can be developed with the aid of a sketch. Figure
(2.7) shows an initially rectangular uid particle with two perpendicular lines on it
and the deformed uid particle at a later time. The average shear deformation, ,
is dened by

1
/
2
(
1
+
2
) ,
with
1
and
2
positive as shown. The rate of shear deformation, , is

=
d
dt
=
1
/
2
_
d
1
dt
+
d
2
dt
_
. (2.20)
Borrowing results from the discussion of angular velocity, we have
d
1
dt
=
AA
and
d
2
dt
=
BB

When we use Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10), equation (2.20) becomes

=
1
/
2
_
u
y
+
v
x
_
=
xy
=
yx
. (2.21)
35
This expression can be extended to a three-dimensional uid particle, where there
are six component rates of shear strain, which are:

xy
=
yx
=
1
/
2
_
u
y
+
v
x
_

xz
=
zx
=
1
/
2
_
u
z
+
w
x
_
(2.22)

yz
=
zy
=
1
/
2
_
v
z
+
w
y
_
We can place all deformation velocities (volumetric strain and shearing deformation
velocities) into one matrix:

S =
_
_
_
u
x

yx

zx

xy
v
y

zy

xz

yz
w
z
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
u
x
1
/
2
(u
y
+ v
x
)
1
/
2
(u
z
+ w
x
)
1
/
2
(u
y
+ v
x
) v
y
1
/
2
(v
z
+ w
y
)
1
/
2
(u
z
+ w
x
)
1
/
2
(v
z
+ w
y
) w
z
_
_
_ (2.23)
which is called the tensor of deformation velocities, the rst index deontes the di-
rection normal to the plane in which shearing acts, and the second index denotes
direction of shearing. It is customary to denote u
x
as
xx
, v
y
as
yy
, and w
z
as
zz
2.3.6 The Strain Rate Generally
The velocity deformation rate component is represented by the term
u
i
x
j
, where u
i
is
the velocity component, and indices are one of i, j x, y, z. The symmetrical part
of the deformation rate tensor is the strain rate tensor, and the anti-symmetrical
part is the rotation tensor. The strain rate tensor is denoted as
ij
and the rotation
tensor as
ij
. The deformation rate can be written in terms of
ij
and
ij
as:
u
i
x
j
=
ij
+
ij
, i, j x, y, z . (2.24)
The components of the deformation velocities tensor can be, thus, always obtained
if the strain rate tensor and the rotation tensor are known.
Cartesian expression for strain rate and rotational tensor are given below:

ij
=
ji
=
1
2
_
u
i
x
j
+
u
j
x
i
_
(2.25)

ij
=
ji
=
k
=
1
2
_
u
i
x
j

u
j
x
i
_
i ,= j (2.26)
where indices i, j, and k denote components in coordinate directions. Summing up
the righthand sides of the former two equations we obtain u
i
/x
j
what is assumed
by expression (2.24).
The general expression for particle acceleration is obtained when we apply Euler
derivative to the velocity vector

V :
D

V
Dt
=

V
t
+ u

V
x
+ v

V
y
+ w

V
z
36
or in component form:
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
(2.27)
Dw
Dt
=
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
If we, now, substitute expression (2.24) into former set of equations we obtain:
Du
Dt
=
u
t
+ u
xx
+ v (
yx

z
) + w(
zx
+
y
)
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+ u(
xy
+
z
) + v
yy
+ w(
zy

x
) (2.28)
Dw
Dt
=
w
t
+ u(
xz

y
) + (
yz
+
x
) + w
zz
or in matrix form:
D
Dt
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
=

t
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
+
_

_
0
z

y

z
0
x

y

x
0
_

_
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
+
_

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz
_

_
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
The rst two terms on the right-hand side represent the solid body acceleration,
while the last term is the contribution of the deformation to the acceleration. We
can shortly write the former equations as:
D

V
Dt
=

V
t
+

V +

V

S (2.29)
where

V

S denotes product between vector and tensor which is performed in a such
way, that for each vector component of the left-hand side suitable row of the tensor

S is chosen for dot product.

2.4 Dierential Form of Continuity Equation
One of the fundamental laws of nature which states that mass can neither be created
nor destroyed will be used to derive the dierential form of continuity equation.
Mathematically this gives
D(m)
Dt
= 0 (2.30)
where m = 1 is the mass of a uid particle, is the density and 1 is the
volume of a particle. If former expression for m is substituted into Equation (2.30)
the following equivalent expression is obtained
D(m)
Dt
=
D(1)
Dt
=
D
Dt
1 +
D(1)
Dt
= 0
37
Let us now divide former equation by 1 and substitute derivative D/Dt by the
equation (2.1) in which b is replaced by

t
+ u

x
+ v

y
+ w

z
+

1
D(1)
Dt
= 0 (2.31)
The last term is the rate of volumetric strain. If we now substitute the last term on
the left-hand side by the expression given by (2.18) the following results:

t
+ u

x
+ v

y
+ w

z
+
_
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
_
= 0 (2.32)
or
D
Dt
+ (

V ) = 0 (2.33)
what is the non-conservative form of the continuity equation. Former equation can
be easily transformed into conservative form:

t
+
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (2.34)
or in the vector notation:

t
+
_

V
_
= 0 (2.35)
For steady ows derivative with respect to t is dropped and equation reduces to
compressible steady ow continuity equation:

V
_
= 0 (2.36)
or
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (2.37)
In the case that uid can be considered incompressible equation reduces to:

V =
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (2.38)
what means that the rate of volumetric strain in that case is equal to zero. Note
that continuity equation has the same form for steady and unsteady ow when uid
is incompressible. This fact can be used to adopt some steady state computational
procedures to unsteady one.
2.5 Elementary Cube
Before going on further let us examine dierential properties of uid particle chosen
to be of a cubic shape, shown in the gure (2.8). Let the property be dened in
the center of the cube. On the faces of the cube which are x/2, y/2 or z/2
apart values of a property are little-bit dierent. We can estimate these values
using Taylor expansion truncated after rst derivative term. Values of a property
38
are shown in the gure (2.8), for the faces of the cube visible to observer. For the
faces behind these values are determined similarly by the expressions:


x
x
2
for x direction


y
y
2
for y direction (2.39)


z
z
2
for z direction
Also notice that unit normal to cube faces are , , , ,

k, and

k for front,
Figure 2.8: Dierential properties of the cubic particle.
back, right-hand, left-hand, top, and bottom face respectively. Practically always it
is needed to nd total inow of the variable (which is usually specied per unit
area) through parallel faces, thus
_
+

x
x
2
_
( yz) +
_


x
x
2
_
( yz) =

x
1
_
+

y
y
2
_
( xz) +
_


y
y
2
_
( xz) =

y
1 (2.40)
_
+

z
z
2
_
_

k xy
_
+
_


z
z
2
_
_

k xy
_
=

k

z
1
2.6 Momentum Equations
Next we will discuss some common forms of momentum equation. Type of forces
taken into account dierentiate forms of equations.
2.6.1 The Cauchy Equations
The Cauchy equations are the dierential equations of motion expressed in terms
of stress. Consider a uid particle located at point (x, y, z) in a three-dimensional,
39
three-directional ow eld. The particle experiences forces from viscous stress as
well as gravity and pressure. Newtons second law, for the x , y and z directions,
respectively, gives
m
p
a
x
= F
x,pressure
+ F
x,gravity
+ F
x,stress
m
p
a
y
= F
y,pressure
+ F
y,gravity
+ F
y,stress
(2.41)
m
p
a
z
= F
z,pressure
+ F
z,gravity
+ F
z,stress
Mass of the particle is given by:
m
p
= xyz
Acceleration of the particle (its center of gravity) is obtained from Euler derivative:
a
x
=
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
a
y
=
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
a
z
=
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
Pressure force acts on particle faces (in direction opposite to surfaces unit normals)
so we must to apply relation derived for general surface variable , equation (2.40),
substituting by p( + +

k) and 1 by x yz
F
x,pressure
=
p
x
xy z
F
y,pressure
=
p
y
xy z
F
z,pressure
=
p
z
xy z
Among various body forces we consider here only gravity force g m
p
= g 1 whose
projections to coordinate axes are
F
x,gravity
= g
x
xy z ;
F
y,gravity
= g
y
xy z ;
F
z,gravity
= g
z
xy z .
In order to determine the net stress force acting on a uid particle, we consider
again gure (2.8), and equation (2.40). In general two types of stresses may act
on the uid: tangential (stress) and normal stress. In a presence of volumetric
strain, besides pressure, appears also corresponding normal stress so normal stress
is represented by two components: pressure p and additional normal stress . We
assume that at cubic center acts pressure p and three normal stresses
x
,
y
and

z
. Shear stresses
xy
,
xz
, . . . ,
zx
and
zy
are also assumed to act at cubic center.
Figure (2.9) shows elementary cube with stresses on its faces.
The rst subscript on the shear stress identies the coordinate direction perpendic-
ular to the face of the particle on which the particular shear stress act. The second
40
Figure 2.9: Stresses acting on the particle surfaces.
subscript identies the direction in which the particular shear stress acts. In three-
dimensional ow, x-face have stresses
x
,
xy
, and
xz
acting on it. So on each face
acts three stresses one normal and two in the plane of the face. Since the values
of these stresses are little-bit dierent from values at cube center we must apply
equation (2.40) to calculate net force. Application of equation (2.40) to each stress
component, and gathering components which acts in the same coordinate direction,
yields
F
x,stress
=
_

x
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
_
xy z
F
y,stress
=
_

xy
x
+

y
y
+

zy
z
_
xy z
F
z,stress
=
_

xz
x
+

yz
y
+

z
z
_
xy z
Next, we substitute the particles mass and acceleration and all the forces into Eqs.
(2.41), divide by xyz and take the limit, shrinking the particle to the point
(x, y, z). The results are

_
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
_
= g
x

p
x
+

x
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z

_
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
_
= g
y

p
y
+

xy
x
+

y
y
+

zy
z

_
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
_
= g
z

p
z
+

xz
x
+

yz
y
+

z
z
(2.42)
Like deformation velocities stresses can also be put into matrix form. Let us intro-
duce new symbols
xx
,
yy
, and
zz
which resemble
x
,
y
, and
z
respectively, and
41
build the matrix of the form

ij
=
_
_
_

xx

yx

zx

xy

yy

zy

xz

yz

zz
_
_
_ (2.43)
which is called stress tensor. Now we can write the system of equations (2.42) more
compact form

V
Dt
=

V
t
+
_

V
_

V = g p +
ij
(2.44)
where
ij
is the stress tensor, operator should be applied to each row of the stress
tensor for each coordinate direction. The term (

V )

V is not suitable for coordinate

transformation so it is often substituted using vector identity
_

V
_

V =
_
V
2
2
_

V
_

V
_
(2.45)
Replacing this relation into (2.44) we obtain

V
Dt
=
_
_

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_

V
_

V
_
_
_
= g p +
ij
(2.46)
These are the Cauchy equations for three-dimensional, three-directional ow. Three-
directional, three-dimensional viscous ow must satisfy the Cauchy equations and
the dierential continuity equation. These four equations, however, contain thirteen
dependent variables (u, v, w, p,
xx
,
yx
,
zx
,
yx
,
yy
,
zy
,
xz
,
yz
and
zz
). If we
consider the rotational equilibrium of a uid, than

xy
=
yx
,
xz
=
zx
,
yz
=
zy
.
Even so, we still have ten dependent variables and only four equations. To obtain a
closed set of equations, we must relate the uid stresses to the velocity eld.
2.7 Navier-Stokes Equation
In order to reduce number of equations we have to connect the stress tensor with
the tensor of deformation velocities:

i,j
= f(

S) (2.47)
Navier-Stokes equations are obtained from Cauchy equations under following as-
sumptions:
1. Stress tensor is symmetric. This is needed to be able to switch from one
coordinate system to another using six equations of equilibrium.
2. The viscous stress linearly depend on rst derivatives of velocity. This implies
that there are no viscous stress at rest.
42
3. The viscous stress vanish for a rigid body motion. This exclude vorticity from
consideration.
4. Viscous stress vanish for homotetic deformation of a particle. Homotetic de-
formation is such for which deformed body remains similar to the body before
deformation.
5. For the velocity eld u = u(y), w = v = 0 equation (1.5) from Section (1.4)
must be satised.
All these requirements can be satised by the following relation between stresses
and deformation velocities, as it is indicated by (2.47):
_
_
_

xx

yx

zx

xy

yy

zy

xz

yz

zz
_
_
_ = a
_
_
_
u
x
u
y
+v
x
2
u
z
+w
x
2
u
y
+v
x
2
v
y
v
z
+w
y
2
u
z
+w
x
2
v
z
+w
y
2
w
z
_
_
_ +
_
_
_
_

V 0 0
0

V 0
0 0

V
_
_
_
_
(2.48)
The rst criterion is met since matrices on the right-hand side are symmetric. Second
criterion is met since only rst order derivative of the velocity components are used.
Vorticity is not included on the right-hand side. Homotetic deformation is obtained
when u
x
= v
y
= w
z
and all other derivatives are equal zero. In that case viscous
stress will be zero only if the following is satised:
a u
x
+ 3u
x
= 0 , = a/3
From the last requirement follows that a = 2 and thus = 2/3. So viscous
stresses and deformation velocities are related by the equation:
_
_
_

xx

yx

zx

xy

yy

zy

xz

yz

zz
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
_
2u
x
+

V u
y
+ v
x
u
z
+ w
x
v
x
+ u
y
2v
y
+

V v
z
+ w
y
u
z
+ w
x
v
z
+ w
y
2w
z
+

V
_
_
_
_
(2.49)
or explicitly

xx
= 2u
x
+

V
yx
= (u
y
+ v
x
)
zx
= (u
z
+ w
x
)

xy
= (u
y
+ v
x
)
yy
= 2v
y
+

V
zy
= (v
z
+ w
y
)

xz
= (u
z
+ w
x
)
yz
= (v
z
+ w
y
)
zz
= 2w
z
+

V
(2.50)
In the equation (2.50) we have retained symbol instead of
2
/
3
since assump-
tion 4 is not always valid. That assumption is equivalent to demand that average
value of normal stresses equals zero (Stokes hypothesis). Experiments show that in
regions with high density gradients (like shock waves) that value is of opposite sign
and greater then rst coecient. Out of shock waves Stokes hypothesis does not in-
troduce signicant errors. Cauchy equation, equation (2.42) together with relations
(2.50) is called Navier-Stokes equation.
Right-hand side of the Cauchy equation, equation (2.42) when expressions (2.50)
are used is given in the form

xx
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
=

x
_
2u
x
+
_

V
__
+

y
[(u
y
+ v
x
)]
43
+

z
[(u
z
+ w
x
)]

xy
x
+

yy
y
+

zy
z
=

x
[(v
x
+ u
y
)] +

y
_
2v
y
+
_

V
__
+

z
[(v
z
+ w
y
)]

xz
x
+

yz
y
+

zz
z
=

x
[(w
x
+ u
z
)] +

y
[(v
z
+ w
y
)]
+

z
_
2w
z
+
_

V
__
If we assume constant viscosity coecients than we can rearrange Navier-Stokes
equation (equation above)

xx
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
=
2
u + ( + )

x
_

V
_

xy
x
+

yy
y
+

zy
z
=
2
v + ( + )

y
_

V
_
(2.51)

xz
x
+

yz
y
+

zz
z
=
2
w + ( + )

z
_

V
_
Equation (2.42) together with (2.51) gives

_
u
t
+ u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
_
= g
x

p
x
+
2
u + ( + )

x
_

V
_

_
v
t
+ u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
_
= g
y

p
y
+
2
v + ( + )

y
_

V
_
(2.52)

_
w
t
+ u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
_
= g
z

p
z
+
2
w + ( + )

z
_

V
_
or in more compact form

V
Dt
=
_
_

V
t
+
_

V
_

V
_
_
= g p +
2

V + ( + )
_

V
_
(2.53)
Or if viscosity is replaced by
2
/
3
but both coecients are assumed constant

V
Dt
=
_
_

V
t
+
_

V
_

V
_
_
= g p +
2

V +

3

V
_
(2.54)
If the uid can be assumed incompressible than last term on the right-hand side is
equal to zero, thus:

V
Dt
=
_
_

V
t
+
_

V
_

V
_
_
= g p +
2

V (2.55)
Or when the term (

V )

V is replaced with equivalent expression

_
_

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_
+

V
_

V
_
_
_
= g p +
2

V (2.56)
44
2.8 Energy Equation
We derive energy equation applying the rst law of thermodynamics to uid particle
which states

Q

W =
d
dt
_
e +
1
/
2
V
2
g r
_
1
where

Q is heat ow rate to the particle,

W is work done by the particle, e is internal
energy per unit mass, (e
ch
= e
n
= e
l
= 0),
1
/
2
V
2
is kinetic energy per unit mass and
g r is energy of position per unit mass. Since mass is preserved we can put term
1 in front of the dierential. We know the forces acting on the particle surface so
work done on the particle should be taken instead of minus sign with plus sign in
former equation.
To derive heat ow and work we apply consideration of Sec. (2.5) and equation
(2.40). Heat ux q is little-bit dierent at cube surfaces then on its center and heat
is increased if heat ux is directed opposite to direction of face unit normals of the
uid particle. Heat ux, thus, is taken with minus sign. Total heat ow to uid
particle is thus:

Q =
_
q
x
x
+
q
y
y
+
q
z
z
_
1 = q 1 (2.57)
where (q
x
, q
y
, q
z
) are components of heat ux.
Work rate done to the particle is expressed as product between forces and velocities
(

V ):

W =
_
(
xx
p) +
(
xx
p)
x
x
2
_
yz
_
u +
u
x
x
2
_

_
(
xx
p)
(
xx
p)
x
x
2
_
yz
_
u
u
x
x
2
_
+
_

yx
+

yx
y
y
2
_
xz
_
u +
u
y
y
2
_

yx

yx
y
y
2
_
xz
_
u
u
y
y
2
_
+
_

zx
+

zx
z
z
2
_
xy
_
u +
u
z
z
2
_

zx

zx
z
z
2
_
xy
_
u
u
z
z
2
_
+
_
(
yy
p) +
(
yy
p)
y
y
2
_
xz
_
v +
v
y
y
2
_

_
(
yy
p)
(
yy
p)
y
y
2
_
xz
_
v
v
y
y
2
_
+
_

xy
+

xy
x
x
2
_
yz
_
v +
v
x
x
2
_

xy

xy
x
x
2
_
yz
_
v
v
x
x
2
_
+
_

zy
+

zy
z
z
2
_
xy
_
v +
v
z
z
2
_

zy

zy
z
z
2
_
xy
_
v
v
z
z
2
_
+
_
(
zz
p) +
(
zz
p)
z
z
2
_
xy
_
w +
w
z
z
2
_

_
(
zz
p)
(
zz
p)
z
z
2
_
xy
_
w
w
z
z
2
_
+
45
_

xz
+

xz
x
x
2
_
yz
_
w +
w
x
x
2
_

xz

xz
x
x
2
_
yz
_
w
w
x
x
2
_
+
_

yz
+

yz
y
y
2
_
xz
_
w +
w
y
y
2
_

yz

yz
y
y
2
_
xz
_
w
w
z
y
2
_
Finite order term cancel each other in the previous equation and second order terms
can be neglected compared to products between rst order terms and nite values,
so former expression reduces to

W
1
= u
_

xx
x

p
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
_
+ (
xx
p)
u
x
+
yx
u
y
+
zx
u
z
+
v
_

yy
y

p
y
+

xy
x
+

zy
z
_
+ (
yy
p)
v
y
+
xy
v
x
+
zy
v
z
+
w
_

zz
z

p
z
+

xz
x
+

yz
y
_
+ (
zz
p)
w
z
+
xz
w
x
+
yz
w
y
(2.58)
or after regrouping

W = 1
_

x
(
xx
u pu +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v pv +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w pw +
zx
u +
zy
v)
_
(2.59)
If we denote with e
t
total internal energy per unit mass, which in this case is consisted
of sensible energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy:
e
t
= e +
1
/
2
V
2
g r (e
l
= e
ch
= e
n
= 0)
and apply Euler derivative to it
De
t
Dt
=
e
t
t
+ (

V )e
t
(2.60)
then we have completed derivation of all terms found in the rst law of thermody-
namics. Gathering (2.60), (2.59), and (2.57) into the rst law of thermodynamics,
the following is obtained
q +

V

F =
De
t
Dt
or:

e
t
t
+ (

V )e
t
+q =

x
(
xx
u pu +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v pv +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w pw +
zx
u +
zy
v)
(2.61)
what represents the rst law of thermodynamics for the moving and deforming uid
particle. We can move pressure from the right-hand side to the left-hand side noting
46
that on right hand side we have (p

V ) (

V )p p

V . After moving part

of the pressure term (

V )p to the left-hand side and adding to both sides p/t

we obtain

De
t
Dt
+
Dp
Dt
+q =
p
t
p

V +

x
(
xx
u +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w +
zx
u +
zy
v) (2.62)
We can now include Dp/Dt into single term e
t
+ p/ obtaining

D
Dt
_
e
t
+
p

_
+
p

D
Dt
+q =
p
t
p

V +

x
(
xx
u +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w +
zx
u +
zy
v)
where we added the term (p/)(D/Dt) in order to maintain identity between this
equation and equation (2.62). Euler derivative D/Dt can be replaced by

V
from equation (2.33), so we obtain on both sides the same term p

V which
cancels out and we obtain

D
Dt
_
e
t
+
p

_
+q =
p
t
+

x
(
xx
u +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w +
zx
u +
zy
v) (2.63)
Note that total enthalpy h

is dened as h

= e
t
+p/. Thus, equation (2.63) is the
rs principle of thermodynamics in enthalpy form.
2.9 Mechanical Energy Equation
The equation which we are deriving now is not an independent law, but is derived
from the momentum equation. The dot product of the velocity

V with momentum
equation leads to the mechanical (kinetic) energy equation. Let us note that:

D
Dt
_
1
/
2

V
_
=

V
D

V
Dt
what is the left-hand side of the equation (2.44) multiplied by

V , it must be, thus,
equal to the right-hand side of the equation (2.44) multiplied by

V

D
Dt
_
1
/
2

V
_
=

V
_
_

V
t
+
_

V
_

V
_
_
=

V [g p +
ij
] (2.64)
or after expansion

D
Dt
_
1
/
2

V
_

V g = u
_
(
xx
p)
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
_
+
+v
_

xy
x
+
(
yy
p)
y
+

zy
z
_
+ w
_

xz
x
+

zy
z
+
(
zz
p)
z
_
(2.65)
47
If we compare right-hand side of equation (2.65) to right-hand side of equation
(2.58) than we observe that half of terms in the equation (2.65) are missing. We
can interpret this situation in the following way: Terms given in the equation (2.65)
contribute to acceleration of the uid particle and increase in mechanic energy while
rest of the terms in equation (2.58) contribute to increase of thermal energy. Re-
maining terms without pressure gradients are called the dissipation function and are
denoted by
=
xx
u
x
+
yx
u
y
+
zx
u
z
+

yy
v
y
+
xy
v
x
+
zy
v
z
+
zz
w
z
+
xz
w
x
+
yz
w
y
If we replace expression for viscous stresses from equation (2.50) into previous equa-
tion, and after some regrouping we obtain
=
_

V
_
2
+ 2
_
u
2
x
+ v
2
y
+ w
2
z
_
+
+(v
x
+ u
y
)
2
+ (w
y
+ v
z
)
2
+ (u
z
+ w
x
)
2
(2.66)
All terms in equation (2.66) are positive so must be , in accordance with the second
law of thermodynamics, since viscosity cannot add energy to the system. On the
other hand, from Stokes hypothesis =
2
/
3
and is negative. Since dissipation
function must be positive correct condition for and may follow from (2.66)
when homotetic deformation is assumed:
0 , 9 + 6 0
If we subtract mechanical energy equation (2.65) from energy equation, equation
(2.63) we obtain

Dh

Dt
+ q =
p
t
+p

V +
or

Dh

Dt
+ q =
Dp
Dt
+ (2.67)
what is the energy equation in enthalpy form, where h

= e
t
+ p/.
2.10 The Flow Equations Overview
We repeat here allready derived vector forms of the ow equations. The Continuity
equation is given by (2.35):

t
+
_

V
_
= 0 (2.68)
Momentum equation or Newton second law of motion is given by:

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_
+ (

V )

V = g
p

V +
+

V
_
(2.69)
48
First principle of thermodynamics is expressed as

D
Dt
_
e
t
+
p

_
+q =
p
t
+

x
(
xx
u +
xy
v +
xz
w)
+

y
(
yy
v +
yx
u +
yz
w) +

z
(
zz
w +
zx
u +
zy
v) (2.70)
or in enthalpy form

Dh

Dt
+ q =
Dp
Dt
+ (2.71)
or in more compact form:

De
t
Dt
+q =

V

F (2.72)
where

F is resultant of pressure force and surface stresses acting on the uid particle.
To conclude discussion about general physical law we repeat here also equation of
state which can be choosen from one of the following expressions
p = RT
e =
1
1
p

(2.73)
h =

1
p

49
Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Inviscid Flow
3.1 General Assumptions
Assume:
1. Fluid is continuum.
2. Fluid is inviscid and adiabatic.
3. Perfect gas or constant density uid.
4. Shock waves are treated separately.
Consequences:
1. Can apply mathematical analysis.
2. No heat exchange, No boundary layer, no friction, no ow separation.
3. One of the following relationships hold:
p

= RT or: = const
4. Shock wave is the boundary of the problem.
3.2 Continuity Equation
Is expressed as:

t
+
_

V
_
=
D
Dt
+

V = 0 (3.1)
In subsequent expressions is density, p is static pressure, and T is temperature.
Velocity

V is dened as:

V = U + V + W

k (3.2)
where , ,

k are the unit vector of the coordinate axes x, y, z.

50
3.3 Newton Second Law of Motion
Is expressed as:
D

V
Dt
=

F
p

(3.3)
where

F is force per unit mass (such as gravity). Often we write:

F = (3.4)
If

F = g

k, and g = 9.80665 m/s

2
, then:
= gz (3.5)
3.4 Conservation of Thermodynamic Energy
D
Dt
_
e +
[V [
2
2
_
=
1

_
p

V
_
+

F

V (3.6)
where e is internal energy per unit mass, [V [ =

is magnitude of the vector

V . If
we introduce enthalpy h = e + p/ in former equation we get:

D
Dt
_
h +
[V [
2
2
_
=
p
t
+

V (3.7)
The simplest form of this law is:
Ds
Dt
= 0
where s is entropy per unit mass.
3.5 Equation of state
For thermally perfect gases is given in the form:
p = RT and: C
P
, C
V
= const (3.8)
For calloricaly perfect gas:
C
P
, C
V
= const (3.9)
For constant density uid
= const
Ratio of specic heats for air is given in the form:
=
C
P
C
V
Equivalent expressions for equation of state:
e = e(p, ) p = p(e, s)
51
3.6 Euler Equations of Motion
For the following seven unknowns: u, v, w, p, , e, T we have corresponding number
of equations:
1. Vector equation of motion (3 scalar equations):

V
Dt
=

F p
2. Conservation of mass equation:
D
Dt
+

V = 0
3. Energy equation, if we from equation (3.6) subtract equation (3.3) multiplied
by

V we obtain:

De
Dt
= p

V
4. Equation of state
p = RT , p = p(e, ) , e = e(p, )
3.7 Vorticity and Circulation
3.7.1 Vorticity
Circulation is dened as:
=
_
c

V dr =
_
c
Udx + V dy + Wdz (3.10)
or:
=
_
c

V dr =

i
_

V dr
If the square regions are of innitesimal size (see gure (3.2)) we get:
_

V dr Ux +
1
2
U
x
x
2
. .
AB
+V y +
V
x
xy +
1
2
V
y
y
2
. .
BC
Ux
U
y
xy
1
2
U
x
x
2
. .
CD
V y
1
2
V
y
y
1
. .
DA
=
_
V
x

U
y
_
xy
= (

V )

kxy (3.11)
so:

i
_

V dr (

V )

kxy
. .
nS
52
or:

c
=
_
c

V dr =

i
_

V
_
nS (3.12)
when number of areas (S) tends to innity in a such way that each S 0 we
Figure 3.1: Circulation of the vector

V around closed curve c.
can replace sum on the right-hand side by area integral:

c
=
_
c

V dr =
_ _
S
(

V )ndS (3.13)
The former equation is known as Stokes theorem. The quantity
=

V
is called vorticity of the ow eld, physically it is equal to the circulation per unit
of surface.
3.7.2 Helmholtz Theorem
Let us start from the Newton second law of motion for inviscid and incompressible
uid
D

V
Dt
=

F
_
p

_
We can express acceleration of the uid particle in the form
D

V
Dt
=

V
t
+ (

V )

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_
+

V
After replacing expression for acceleration into Newtons second law of motion we
get

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_
+

V =
_
p

_
(3.14)
53
u, v
u +
u
y
y
v +
v
y
y
u +
u
x
x
v +
v
x
x
u +
u
x
x +
u
y
y
v +
v
x
x +
v
y
y
Figure 3.2: Circulation of the vector

V around square
i
.
where it is assumed that body forces have potential

F = , what is true for
gravitational force. If we group all the terms preceded by we get

V
t
+

V =
_

p

V
2
2
_
Let us now apply operator to the former equation. Right-hand side is equal to
zero since ( ) is always zero

V
t
+
_

V
_
= 0 (3.15)
but =

V and

V
_
= (

V (

V )

+ (

V (

V )

(3.16)
The rst and last terms are always equal to zero for incompressible inviscid ow. So
equation (3.15) is transformed to

t
+ (

V )

V = 0 (3.17)
or:
D

Dt
= (

V (3.18)
We now consider right-hand side of the former equation:
(
x

x
+
y

y
+
z

z
)(u + v + w

k) = (

u) + (

v) + (

w)

k
54
what represents derivative of the velocity vector

V in the direction of vorticity vecotr

. So equation (3.18) states that the material rate of change of the vorticity is zero
whenever the vorticity is zero. Thus, we can conclude if vorticity of uid element at
any time is equal to zero it is equal to zero all times.
Sommerfeld has proved the theorem for any vector

A that:
D
Dt
(

A ndS) =
_
_

A
t
+

V

A (

V

A)
_
_
ndS
Let us apply this theorem to vorticity vector

:
D
Dt
(

ndS) =
_
_

t
+

V

)
_
_
ndS (3.19)
Since

= (

V ) 0 the former equation is reduced to:

D
Dt
(

ndS) =
_
_

t
(

)
_
_
ndS (3.20)
Expanding the second term on the right-hand side (equation (3.16)), we have
(

) = (

V (

V )

+ (

V (

V )

= (

V )

+ (

V
Substituting previous expression into equation (3.20) we get
D
Dt
(

ndS) =
_
_

t
+ (

V )

V
_
_
ndS (3.21)
or:
D
Dt
(

ndS) =
_
_
D

Dt
(

V
_
_
ndS (3.22)
But right-hand side of the former equation must be zero if equation (3.18) is valid
D
Dt
(

ndS) = 0 (3.23)
Equation (3.23) is very important. If the body forces have potential the material
change of the outow of vorticity through any surface element moving with the uid
is permanently equal to zero. Alternatively we can said outow vorticity through any
surface element moving with the uid remains a constant for all times, so vorticity
is convected with the uid.
Equation (3.23) can also be expressed in terms of the circulation around the surface
element. Denoting by d
C
the circulation around the boundary C of the element
ndS, we have
d
c
=

ndS (3.24)
55
Figure 3.3: Circulation around the same uid particles.
Therefore, equation (3.23) takes the form
D
Dt
(d
c
) = 0 (3.25)
We can formulate similarly the rules already expressed for equation (3.23). The
material change of the circulation around any surface element moving with the uid
is permanently zero if the body forces have potential, or, the circulation around any
surface element moving with the uid remains constant all the times. Theorems
(3.18) and (3.23) are basic theorems to describe vortex motion. In two-dimensional
ow product (

V is identically equal to zero therefore (3.18) reduces to

D

Dt
= 0 (3.26)
In two-dimensional ows of an ideal uid under the action of irrotational body forces,
the vorticity of a uid element remains a constant for all times.
3.7.3 Kelvin Theorem
Let us consider closed curve C which enclose the same uid particles all the times,
and move with them, gure (3.3). Let at the moment t the value of the circulation
around curve C is . During time interval t uid particles enclosed with the curve
C move to a new position C
1
. So C
1
is the position of the curve C at the moment
t + t, and circulation around that curve is
1
. The rate of change in circulation
along C following its motion is then given by the material derivative
D
Dt
= lim
t0

t
(3.27)
If we substitute denition of circulation into former equation we have
D
Dt

D
Dt
_
C

V ds = lim
t0
_
_
_
_
C
1

V
1
ds
1

_
C

V ds
_
_
_ (3.28)
56
Since we are following the same set of uid particles, the limit on the right side of
this equation is the same as the integral
_
C
(D/Dt)(

V ds) along the curve C at the

instant t. Therefore equation (3.28) becomes
D
Dt
=
D
Dt
_
C

V ds =
_
C
D
Dt
_

V ds
_
=
_
C
D

V
Dt
ds +
_
C

V
D
Dt
ds (3.29)
Where D

V /Dt is the acceleration of an arbitrary point A on the curve C, as it is

shown in the gure (3.3). Let us now dene (D/Dt)ds. If ds and ds
1
are small
vectors along curves C and C
1
respectively then
D
Dt
ds = lim
t0
ds
1
ds
t
(3.30)
From the gure (3.3) it is clear that the vector

AB
1
can be expressed in two dierent
ways

AB
1
=

AA
1
+ ds
1
= ds +

BB
1
or
ds
1
ds =

BB
1

AA
1
(3.31)
Since

AA
1
=

V t and

BB
1
= (

V + d

V )t after substitution in equation (3.31) we

have
D
Dt
ds = d

V
It than follows that
_
C

V
D
Dt
ds =
_
C

V d

V =
_
C
d
_
V
2
2
_
= 0 (3.32)
With former relation equation (3.29) becomes
D
Dt
=
_
C
D

V
Dt
ds =
_
C
a ds (3.33)
where a is acceleration vector. Equation (3.33) states that at any instant the rate
of change of circulation around any uid curve is equal to the line integral of the
acceleration around that curve taken at the instant considered. An immediate con-
sequence of equation (3.33) is that if the acceleration is expressible as the gradient of
some (single-valued) scalar function, that is, if the acceleration eld is an irrotational
vector eld, then the integral
_
C
a ds
is zero, and consequently D/Dt is zero. Equation (3.33) is derived on strictly
kinematical basis. We need dynamical considerations in order to evaluate former
integral. If we restrict ourselves to an inviscid uid and use Eulers equation we get
D
Dt
=
_
C
a ds =
_
C

F ds
_
C
p

ds (3.34)
57
If we again assume that body force

F has potential (

F = , it is irrotational) and
use identity d = ds, so closed loop integral of uniquely dened quantity must
be equal to zero
_
d 0, we obtain
D
Dt
=
_
C
p

ds (3.35)
If it is possible to assume that uid is incompressible ( = const) then
_
C
p

ds =
1

_
C
dp = 0
D
Dt
= 0
If the uid is assumed to be either compressible or incompressible and inhomoge-
neous so that is a variable, the integral no longer vanishes automatically for any
arbitrary curve C. However if there is a single-valued relation between the density
and the pressure so that one can express
p

= T
_
C
p

ds =
_
C
T ds =
_
C
dT = 0
D
Dt
= 0
Thus, when we assume that is constant or that there is a single-valued relation
between and p, equation (3.35) becomes
D
Dt
= 0 (3.36)
This equation express the theorem of conservation of circulation. The rate of change
of circulation around any uid curve is permanently zero if the body forces are irro-
tational and if there is a single-valued, pressure-density relation, or, the circulation
around a uid curve remains a constant for all times as the curve moves with the
uid.
Consider now any innitesimal surface element ndS that moves with the uid. Let
d
c
denote the circulation around the boundary c of such a surface element. We
have from equation (3.24)
d
c
=

ndS
and from equation (3.36)
D
Dt
(

ndS ) = 0
which is exactly Hemholtzs theorem, equation (3.23). So we concluded that theo-
rems of Kelvin and Helmholtz are identical. The derivation in this subsection clearly
shows that the theorems are applicable not only to incompressible homogeneous u-
ids but also to compressible uids in which there is a single-valued p relation.
Considering, again, at any instant a closed curve C surrounding a uid, draw an
arbitrary surface S which is bounded by such curve then
=
_
C

V ds =
__
S

ndS
58
Dierentiating former equation, and taking into account (3.36) results
D
Dt
__
S

ndS = 0 (3.37)
Equation (3.37) states that outow of voritcity through any surface bounded by
curve C remains constant for all times as the curve moves the uid. It is clear from
conditions specied during derivation of theorems of Helmholtz and Kelvin that
these theorems are valid only in the case when uid has acceleration potential.
3.7.4 Vortex Line, Surface, Tube, and Filament
The eld lines of voritcity led are called vortex lines. Analytically they are described
by the dierential equation

ds = 0 (3.38)
where ds is an element of a vortex line. Vortex line is represented as shown in
gure (3.4). At any point in the ow eld, the direction of the vorticity vector (or
equivalently of the angular velocity vector) is given by the direction, at that point, of
the vortex line passing through that point. In Cartesian coordinates the components
of vorticity vector are

= (
x
,
y
,
z
)
Equation (3.38) gives

x

y

z
dx dy dz

= 0 ,
dx

x
=
dy

y
=
dz

z
If, at any instant of time, we draw an arbitrary line in the ow eld and draw the
vortex lines passing through that line, a surface is formed. Such a surface is called
a vortex surface, see gure (3.5).
Figure 3.4: Vortex line.
If we consider a closed curve and draw all the vortex lines passing through it, a
tube is formed. Such a tube is called a vortex tube and is represented as shown in
gure (3.6). A vortex tube of innitesimal cross-sectional area is known as a vortex
lament.
59
Figure 3.5: Vortex surface.
Figure 3.6: Vortex tube.
3.7.5 Spatial Conservation of Vorticity
Since the vorticity is the curl of another vector eld, we have

= (

V ) = 0 (3.39)
So vorticity is divergenceless eld.
Consider, at any instant, a region of space 1 enclosed by a closed surface S. We
have __
S

n dS =
__
R
_

d1 = 0 (3.40)
This equation states that the net outow of vorticity through any closed surface is
zero. This is true at every instant of time.
Strength of the Vortex Tube
Let us consider now, at any instant of time, a vortex tube drawn in the ow eld.
Denote by 1 the region of space enclosed between the wall of the tube and any two
surfaces S
1
and S
2
which cut the tube, see gure (3.7). Then according to (3.40)
the outow of vorticity through the surface S of the region 1 vanishes. Therefore
we have __
S
1

n dS +
__
S
2

n dS +
__
S
W

n dS =
__
S

n dS = 0 (3.41)
60
Here S
W
denotes the surface of the wall of the tube in the portion under considera-
tion. On the wall of the tube,

lies in the surface S
W
. Hence the integral over S
W
vanishes __
S
W

n dS = 0
Consequently we obtain
__
S
1

n
1
dS
__
S
2

n
2
dS = 0 (3.42)
where unit vector term n is substituted with proper unit vector from gure (3.7),
which is directed outward with reference to the region 1. Equation (3.42) is equiv-
alent to __
S
1

n
1
dS =
__
S
2

n
2
dS (3.43)
This equation states that the ow of vorticity through any cross-sectional surface S
1
of a vortex tube is equal to the ow of vorticity through any other cross-sectional
surface S
2
of the tube. This is true at any instant of time. If S denotes any cross-
sectional surface of the vortex tube, equation (3.43) may be expressed as
__
S

n dS = const (3.44)
Figure 3.7: Illustrating the derivation of the spatial conservation of vorticity.
At any instant of time it is true that the ow of vorticity through any cross-sectional
surface of a vortex tube is a constant all along the tube. Because vorticity and
circulation are related we can express (3.44) equivalently in terms of circulation.
Let be any closed curve that encloses the vortex tube and lies on its wall, then

=
_ _

n dS
= const (3.45)
This states that at any instant of time circulation around any closed curve embracing
a vortex tube is a constant all along the tube. For a vortex lament of variable cross-
sectional area, this equation takes the form

c
=

n dS = const (3.46)
61
where n dS is any cross-sectional area of the lament and C is the boundary curve
of n dS. If we take n in the direction of former equation is reduced to

c
= dS = const
This shows that vorticity at any cross-sectional area of vortex lament is inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area. Important consequence of the former is that
vortex tube and vortex lament or a vortex line, cannot begin or end abruptly in
a uid. It should either form a closed ring or end at innity or at a solid or free
surface, gure (3.8). The circulation around any closed curve embracing a vortex
tube is the characteristic of the whole vortex tube and is called strength of vortex
tube.
If we consider a vortex lament of variable cross-sectional area and shrink the area
to zero in such a way that the vorticity goes to innity as the area goes to zero,
an the strength of the lament remains constant, we arrive at the conception of a
vortex lament with concentrated vorticity or vortex line.
Figure 3.8: Vortex tube.
3.7.6 Vortex Sheet
Vortex sheet is dened in a manner similar to that of a vortex lament with con-
centrated vorticity. Consider the narrow region of vorticity enclosed between two
neighboring surfaces of vorticity S
1
and S
2
gure (3.9). Let P be a point on an
intermediate vortex surface S. Choose at P an element ndS of surface S and an
elemental cylinder with ndS as the cross section through P and with height equal
to h (the distance at P between S
1
and S
2
. If

(P) denotes vorticity at P, we can
write

(P) d1 =

(P)hdS
where d1 is the volume of the innitesimal cylinder. We now wish to replace spatial
distribution of vorticity with with single surface distribution. We could introduce
the new unknown which represents vorticity per unit surface which is dened as

(P)hdS = dS (3.47)
In this way we shrink the narrow region of vorticity to a single surface on which
the vorticity itself is innite but dened by (3.47) is nite. Such a sheet is called
62
Figure 3.9: Denition of the vortex sheet.
vortex sheet of concentrated vorticity, or simply a vortex sheet, and the strength of
the vortex sheet. The strength has the dimensions of vorticity per unit area.
We now relate with the velocities on either side of the vortex sheet. According to
the denition of curl vector, we have

d1 =

V d1 =
__
S

V dS
where

V denotes uid velocity. We choose d1 as the innitesimal cylinder described
before and write
dS = lim
h0
__
S

V dS
= lim
h0
_
_
_
__
dS
1
n

V dS +
__
dS
2
n

V dS +
__
wall
n

V dS
_
_
_
where dS
1
and dS
2
are respectively the two faces of the cylinder and wall is the
wall of the cylinder. The limit of the sum of the integrals over dS
1
and dS
2
is
n (

V
1

V
2
) dS, and that of the integral over wall vanishes. Hence we obtain
dS = n (

V
1

V
2
) dS
or
= n (

V
1

V
2
) (3.48)
We note that , n and (

V
1

V
2
) form a right-hand system of orthogonal vectors. It
follows that the vector (

V
1

V
2
) is tangential to the vortex sheet. We see that
n =

V
1

V
2
=

V (3.49)
since
n (n

V
. .

) = (n

V
. .
=0
)n (n n
. .
=1
)

V
the rst term on the right-hand side is equal to zero since dot product of two
orthogonal vectors has that value
(

V
1

V
2
) n = 0 or

V
1
n =

V
2
n (3.50)
63
and
[

V
1

V
2
[ = (3.51)
We therefore state that there is a velocity discontinuity across a vortex sheet; the
discontinuity occurs only in the tangential component of the velocity, whereas the
normal component remains continuous; the magnitude of the discontinuity is equal
to the magnitude of the strength of the sheet. A vortex sheet is thus a surface of
tangential discontinuity, and, conversely a tangential discontinuity is a vortex sheet.
Vortex sheets and vortex laments of concentrated vorticity are not physical possi-
bilities. However, they form suitable analytical approximations when the vorticity is
conned to physically narrow regions. The concepts of vortex laments and sheets
are widely applied in wing theory.
We could assume that velocity of arbitrary point at the vortex sheet S is arithmetic
mean of the velocities above and below vortex sheet

V =

V
1
+

V
2
2
(3.52)
if we express

V
2
from this equation we have

V
2
= 2

V
1
, V
2
= 2V

V
1
Where index denotes tangential components of mentioned velocities. Since across
vortex sheet exists discontinuity of velocities only in tangential components to the
surface , we could write equation (3.51) also as
V
1
V
2
=
and nally
V
1
= V

+

2
and V
2
= V

2
(3.53)
If the vortex sheet does not move this equation is also valid in vector form

V
1
=

V +

2
and

V
2
=

V

2
(3.54)
where is unit vector tangential to the vortex sheet and oriented into direction of
average velocity.
Consider at any time vortex sheet drawn in the uid, gure (3.10). At that specic
moment must be

n = 0
for every element n dS of the vortex sheet. Choosing an element of the sheet an
following that element in its motion, we observe that as a consequence of equation
(3.26)

n dS = 0
for all times although

and n dS may change. This means that

n does not
exist for all times for the surface element on the vortex sheet. From this follows a
surface which is a vortex sheet at one instant remains a vortex sheet for all times.
We could also conclude that uid particle which is at one instant part of the vortex
64
sheet remains the part of it for all times. It also follows that uid element which
is at some instance part of the vortex tube, vortex lament, or vortex line remains
part of it for all times. This also implies that the circulation around of vortex tube
(strength of vortex tube) remains a constant for all times as the tube moves around,
regardless of the changes experienced by the vortex tube.
Figure 3.10: Vortex sheet.
3.7.7 Velocity Field due to Vorticity Distribution
If the uid could be considered incompressible than continuity equation for steady
and unsteady ow is reduced to

V = 0 (3.55)
while vorticity is dened as before

V (3.56)
Since

A is another vector we can choose

A such that

V =

A (3.57)
Let us dene another vector

B such that

B =

A +f
where f(x, y, z) is arbitrary dierentiable scalar function chosen such that vector

B
satisfy

B = 0

B =

A +
2
f = 0 (3.58)
Equation (3.57) still holds since (f) 0

B = (

A +f) =

A =

V ,

V =

B
65
If we now substitute instead velocity vector in equation (3.56)

B we have

V = (

B) (

B)
2

B
The rst term on the right-hand side is equal to zero since we have chosen vector

B
to satisfy that condition which yields

B = B
x
+B
y
+B
z

k =

(3.59)
or

2
B
x
=
x
,
2
B
y
=
y
,
2
B
z
=
z
(3.60)
This system of equations allows determination of velocity eld caused by vorticity
distribution form

V =

B.
Figure 3.11: Circulation over potential ow eld.
3.8 The Velocity Potential
Vorticity of the ow eld is dened as:

V =

k
/x /y /z
U V W

or:

=
_
W
y

V
z
_
+
_
U
z

W
x
_
+
_
V
x

U
y
_

k (3.61)
If we neglect vorticity:

= 0

V = 0
upper will be satised always only if

V = :
() 0 (3.62)
Scalar function is called velocity potential. We now nd expression for the circu-
lation of velocity if the velocity has potential,

V = , gure (3.11)
=
B
_
A

V dr =
B
_
A
dr =
B
_
A
d =
B

A
(3.63)
66
Figure 3.12: Circulation for multiply connected bodies.
since dr = d.
It is interesting to nd the value of the circulation for the closed loop curves shown
in the gure (3.12). From the Stokes theorem (3.13) it is clear that any closed
loop integral for the loops wholly immersed in the uid, which surround only uid
particles, must be equal to zero, since ( ) 0. But for the loops which
encompass some bodies in the ow eld, gure (3.12) on the left, we have

i
=
1

2
= 0 =
1
+
2
we needed to introduce the cut in the ow eld by which bodies are connected with
outer boundary, and by which newly created boundary encompass only uid. We
can express former equation generally as
=

i
(3.64)
Consider now right-hand side of the gure (3.12) we have

1
= 0 , =
1
Circulation around curve C is , and around curve C
1
is
1
. Only one point is
missing to close curve C and the same is true for the curve C
2
. Let us denote ending
points of curve C by A and B, gure (3.12). Since only one point is missing we
could write
=
_
C

V dr =
B
_
A
d =
B

A
We conclude that at the cut there is jump in velocity potential values. Since =
1
the jump in the potential is constant along the cut. The way we introduce cut does
not inuence the value of the jump it is always equal to the circulation around the
curve C, =
B

A
= .
3.9 Irrotational Flow
Condition of irrotationality adds one equation more to our system of dierential
equations given i section (3.6). Since number of equations is not increased we can
67
forget one of equations given in section (3.6) and use irrotationality condition in-
stead. According to Croccos theorem irrotational ow is isentropic (s = const), so
we can replace energy equation with:
p
p
o
=
_

o
_

what is equivalent to s = const. So our system of equations now looks:

t
+
_

V
_
= 0

V
t
+
_

V
_

V = p (3.65)
p
p
o
=
_

o
_

Former system is consisted of one vector and two scalar equations what is equivalent
to 5 scalar equations, so we can nd 5 unknowns from such system of PDE-s. These
unknowns are U, V, W, p, and .
We still can use energy equations and equation of state, but that is not necessary
to solve the system. Energy equation in Bernoulli form is given by expression:
U
2
+ V
2
+ W
2
2
+
a
2
1
=
a
2
o
1
(3.66)
If any of additional equations is used it simply replace one of equations of former
system (3.65). For steady ow pressure term can be eliminated from equation of
motion:
p =
_
p

_
s=const
= a
2
(3.67)
Multiplying momentum equation by

V we obtain for the steady case:

U
2
U
x
+ UV
U
y
+ UW
U
z
+ V
2
V
y
+ UV
V
x
+
+V W
V
z
+ W
2
W
z
+ UW
W
x
+ V W
W
y
=
U

p
x

V

p
y

W

p
z
=
a
2

U

x

a
2

V

y

a
2

W

z
The expression on the right-hand side of the last row can be substituted from con-
tinuity equation (

V =

V ) so:
U
2
U
x
+ V
2
V
y
+ W
2
W
z
+ UV
_
U
y
+
V
x
_
+
UW
_
U
z
+
W
x
_
+ V W
_
V
z

W
y
_
= a
2
_
U
x
+
V
y
+
W
z
_
(3.68)
68
or:
_
U
2
a
2
_
U
x
+
_
V
2
a
2
_
V
y
+
_
W
2
a
2
_
W
z
+
UV
_
U
y
+
V
x
_
+ UW
_
U
z
+
W
x
_
+ V W
_
V
z
+
W
y
_
= 0 (3.69)
If we introduce velocity potential :
U =

x
=
x
, , V =

y
=
y
, W =

z
=
z
we have:
(
2
x
a
2
)
xx
+ (
2
y
a
2
)
yy
+ (
2
z
a
2
)
zz
+
+2
x

xy
+ 2
x

xz
+ 2
y

yz
= 0 (3.70)
or:

2
x

xx
+
2
y

yy
+
2
z

zz
+ 2
x

xy
+ 2
x

xz
+ 2
y

yz
= a
2
(3.71)
where:
=
xx
+
yy
+
zz
When a the equation (3.71) reduces to:
=
xx
+
yy
+
zz
= 0 (3.72)
which is called Laplace equation.
3.10 Bernoulli Equation
We start again from Newtons second law of motion which for uids is expressed as

V
Dt
=

F p
or

V
t
+ (

V )

V
. .
(V
2
/2)+

V
=

F
p

If we assume again that body force has potential, (

F = ), what is true in the

case of gravitational force eld, then

V
t
+
_
V
2
2
_
+

V =
p

(3.73)
Assumption that between pressure and density exists unique relationship allow us
to introduce again the quantity T = p/ so we have

V
t
+

V +
_
V
2
2
+T
_
= 0 (3.74)
69
For steady and irrotational ow eld equation (3.74) reduce to
V
2
2
+T = const (3.75)
The value of the potential is the same for whole ow eld. Potential = gz for
the axis z directed upward while the value of potential T depends on the type of
uid we study
T =
_
p/ for = const (incompressible uid).
p/( 1) for p/

= const (compressible uid).

(3.76)
In the case when vectors

and

V are mutually parallel and the ow is steady we
again obtain form equation (3.74) equation (3.75), but the constant of integration
vary from streamline to streamline. Note that vorticity lines and velocity lines
overlap in this case.
There is one case more when equation (3.74) can be integrated. If velocity eld has
potential

V = then after substituting instead of

V gradient of potential we
get
()
t
+
_

2
+T
_
= 0
we can change order of operators /t and in the rst term, the second term in
the equation (3.74) vanishes since

= () 0 which yields

t
+

2
+T
_
= 0 (3.77)
After multiplying this equation by dr we obtain total dierential which after inte-
gration along some path gives equivalently

t
+

2
+T = C(t) (3.78)
constant C(t) is unique for the whole ow eld, but generally is dependent on time.
In the case of the air we can neglect contribution to the former equation from .
Constant C(t), being constant for whole ow eld, can be calculated from the values
of ow parameters at innity

t
+

2
+T =

t
+

2
+T

(3.79)
We use this equation to calculate pressure from pressure function T which can be
expressed as
T =

t
(

) +
V
2

V
2
2
+T

For incompressible unsteady ow we can express pressure in the following way

p

t

V
2
2
(3.80)
For steady incompressible ow derivative with respect to time vanishes
p = const

V
2
2
(3.81)
70
Figure 3.13: Notation for Joukowski theorem.
Figure 3.14: Shading of vortices.
3.11 Joukowski Theorem
We will prove the Joukowski theorem in small for arbitrary three-dimensional non-
stationary motion. Let the innitely thin lifting surface be replaced by a vortex
sheet with strength , continuously distributed over this surface. We will assume
that the medium is perfect and incompressible and that the surface is suciently
smooth and not closed, so that the uid encloses it on both sides. The ow about
the lifting surface will be assumed to be smooth, we will assume that a change with
time of the strength of the bound vortices can only be caused by the formation and
shedding of free vortices. Shedding velocity of free vortices is equal to the velocity
of the uid particles.
The pressure p at any point can be obtained from Bernoullis theorem, (3.81). Close
to the surface but outside of the vortex trail the ow is potential

V =
We observe that velocities above and below the lifting surface are dierent. Let
us denote with

V
+
velocity above the lifting surface and with

V

the velocity below

the lifting surface. The velocity at arbitrary point P is assumed to be

V .
Pressure dierence above and below the lifting surface is obtained from equation
(3.80)
p

=
(
+

)
t
+
V
2
+
V
2

2
(3.82)
71
where
+
and

are the limits of the potential of perturbed velocities obtained by

approaching an arbitrary point P of the lifting surface from above and from below.
We imagine closed curve C intersecting the surface at the single point P, gure
(3.13). Let the circulation of the disturbed velocity about the contour C be then
=
_
C

V dr =
_
C

r
dr =

+
and so
(
+

)
t
=

t
(3.83)
To nd the derivative /t, we consider the variation during the time t in the
circulation around the contour C for a xed point P. A change in the circulation
by an amount can be produced only by the departure of free vortices, some
of which, surrounding the contour C are carried away from the boundaries of this
contour. These free vortices are of a completely non stationary nature and gave
axes parallel to the axes of those bound vortices from which they were shed. In
stationary motion there will be no free vortices of this type.
Let

V be the relative ow velocity at the point P which, in agreement with the
assumption concerning the smoothness of the ow about the lifting surface, is tan-
gential to . The shading velocity of free vortices at each point of the lifting surface
will be also

V . The total strength of the free vortices carried away during the
time t from the limits of the contour C will be V t
n
, where
n
is the component
of the free vortex strength in the direction of the unit vector perpendicular to

V ,
gure (3.14). Hence axes of the free vortices
n
are perpendicular to the velocity

V .
At the point P under consideration, we introduce the rectangular coordinate system
, P, in the plane tangent to the surface . Let the be direction of the bound
vortex at the point P, so there are no component of bound vortices in the direction
of . Let us also denote with + sign the components of the bound vortices,
and with the sign components of the free vortices. The positive direction of

n
is shown in the gure (3.14). The total strength of the vortex sheet will be
calculated form the strength of the bound vortices
+
and free vortices

, where
=
+
+

(3.84)
If we by V

, and V

denote components of velocity

V along the axis of coordinate
system than the unit vector along vector

V is

V
=

V
+

V
where

and

are units vectors in the directions and . We can also express unit
vector in the direction of
n
in terms of unit vectors in the direction and

n
=

V
and so

V
72
and
V
n

So we can write the following for the change in the circulation during the time
t
= (

)t
and so

t
= (

)
On the other side equation (3.53) also holds, only we have to adjust it to current
needs, so
V

+
V

+
V

(3.85)
V

+
+ V

2
= V

+
+ V

2
= V

Now remains only to express the term (V

2
+
V
2

)/2 in the equation (3.82). If we

substitute equations (3.84) into equations (3.85) and multiply these equations colum-
nwise we get
V
2

+
V
2

2
=

V
2

+
V
2

2
= (

+
+

)V

After adding left-hand side and right-hand side of these equations yields
V
2
+
V
2

2
=

. .
/t

+
V

+
V

(3.86)
After replacing this equation, and equation (3.83) into equation (3.82) we nally get
for the pressure dierence across the vortex sheet
p = p
+
p

+
V

(3.87)
where positive direction of

+
is shown in the gure (3.14). It is clear form (3.87)
that the pressure dierence generated on an element of the upper surface is deter-
mined by the linear strength of the bound vortices only. Hence in particular it follows
that on the vortex sheets consisting of free vortices which are formed behind a body
of nite span both in steady and in unsteady motion there are no pressure drops.
Equation (3.87) also shows that any pressure distribution p can be reproduced by
vortex sheet.
3.12 Joukowski Theorem for non-Lifting Surfaces
As in previous section, we consider three-dimensional non-stationary motion of an
innitely thin lifting surface . Again we assume that the medium is perfect and
incompressible uid, and that the surface is suciently smooth over both of its
sides.
73
Figure 3.15: Joukowski theorem for the irrotational ow.
In contrast to section (3.11), however, we investigate here the case of irrotational
ow about the lifting surface. in this case no vortex trail will be formed behind the
body, and the theorem concerning the constancy of the circulation about a closed
uid contour holds because the circulation about any contour containing the lifting
surface will be zero. Hence the vortex layer replacing the lifting surface can be
thought of as a vortex system formed by a combination of closed vortex lines of a
constant strength. This whole vortex system is xed in the surface , and it must
be considered as a system of bound vortices. In ow without circulation about a
lifting surface, we may thus assume that no free vortices are formed either on the
surface or behind it.
We now determine pressure dierence p at an arbitrary point P of the lifting sur-
face , gure (3.15). We retain the same notation for the limiting relative velocities:

V
+
is the limit on the upper surface;

V

is the limit on the lower surface;

V is the
relative velocity at the point P.
With P as origin, we dene arbitrary rectangular coordinate axis P- and P- in
the plane tangent to the surface . The pressure dierence p between the lower
and upper surfaces is, in agreement with Bernoullis theorem given by (3.82). We
express the derivative in terms of the strengths of the vortices which, in the problems
studied below, are determined by the solution of these problems. It is convenient to
consider the contour C shown in the gure (3.15) then

+
=
where, again, is the circulation around the closed curve C which intersects the
lifting surface at P. The circulation can be obtained s the sum of the strengths
of vortices between the trailing edge and the point P. We can thus write

t
=
(
+

)
t
(3.88)
and, from (3.86), we have
V
2
+
V
2

2
=

using this relation, (3.88), and (3.82) yields

p

p
+
= p =
_
V

+

t
_
(3.89)
74
Figure 3.16: Uniform ow and perturbed ow
This formula express Joukowsky theorem for irrotational ow. A comparison of
(3.87) and (3.89) easily shows that the expression for the pressure dierence in the
rst case, for rotational ow, is simpler than in the other case.
This same theorem could also be obtained from the relations of the preceding section
by nothing that

= 0 ,

+
=

, =
lifting
It should be stressed that (3.87) and (3.89) can only be used in the determination
of the normal components of the aerodynamic loads, and that they cannot be used
to obtain the so-called suction force.
In a perfect incompressible medium, the suction forces are generated by ow around
sharp edges of the lifting surfaces, and are in the direction of the tangent to the
surface at the point of the sharp edge under consideration. Their existence is due
to the innitely high velocities and rarefactions in the ow of a perfect uid around
sharp edges.
3.13 Small Perturbation Theory
Let us denote perturbed velocities with u, v, and w. Let us assume also that u/U <<
1, v/U << 1, and w/U << 1. Substituting U +u, v, and w instead of U, V and W
in equation (3.68) we get:
a
2
_
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
_
= (U + u)
2
u
x
+ v
2
v
y
+ w
2
w
z
+(U + u)v
_
u
y
+
v
x
_
+ vw
_
v
z
+
w
y
_
+ w(U + u)
_
w
x
+
u
z
_
(3.90)
The speed of sound can be expressed from (3.66):
(U + u)
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
2
+
a
2
1
=
U
2
2
+
a
2

1
(3.91)
75
or:
a
2
= a
2

1
2
_
2uU + u
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
_
(3.92)
Replacing a
2
in (3.90) by (18) and dividing by a
2

after rearrangement we obtain:

(1 M
2

)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
=
M
2

_
( + 1)
u
U
+
+ 1
2
u
2
U
2
+
1
2
v
2
+ w
2
U
2
_
u
x
+M
2

_
( 1)
u
U
+
+ 1
2
v
2
U
2
+
1
2
w
2
+ u
2
U
2
_
v
y
+M
2

_
( 1)
u
U
+
+ 1
2
w
2
U
2
+
1
2
u
2
+ v
2
U
2
_
w
z
+M
2

_
v
U
_
1 +
u
U
_
_
u
y
+
v
x
_
+
w
U
_
1 +
u
U
_
_
u
z
+
w
x
_
+
vw
U
2
_
w
y
+
v
z
__
(3.93)
This is still exact equation, but written in perturbation component form!
We can simplify this equation if we neglect value of second order of smallness:
(1 M
2

)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
=
M
2

( + 1)
u
U
u
x
+ M
2

( 1)
u
U
_
v
z
+
w
y
_
+
+ M
2

v
U
_
u
y
+
v
x
_
+ M
2

w
U
_
u
z
+
w
x
_
(3.94)
Further reduction is possible if we neglect all terms with perturbed velocities, i.e.
whole RHS:
(1 M
2

)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (3.95)
If we introduce perturbed potential :
u =

x
, v =

y
, w =

z
,
then:
(1 M
2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 (3.96)
For M

= 0:

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 (3.97)
For incompressible ow small disturbance equation (3.97) and full potential equation
(3.72) have the same form!
The pressure coecient is dened as:
C
P
=
p p

1
2

U
2
=
2
M
2

p p

(3.98)
76
Figure 3.17: Eect of coordinate transformation from x to x

.
If we eliminate pressure with velocities:
C
P
=
2
M
2

_
_
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2

_
1
(U + u)
2
+ v
2
+ w
2
U
2
__
/(1)
1
_
_
_
or after simplication:
C
P
=
_
2u
U
+ (1 M
2

)
u
2
U
2
+
v
2
+ w
2
U
2
_
(3.99)
For 2D bodies it is sucient to write:
C
P
=
2u
U
(3.100)
but for axially symmetric bodies we must retain additional terms:
C
P
=
2u
U

v
2
+ w
2
U
2
(3.101)
Equation (3.96) can be written in Laplace equation form. Let us dene variable :

2
=
_
1 M
2

, M

< 1
M
2

1 , M

> 1
Then equation (3.96) looks:

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

< 1
(3.102)

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

> 1
Since
2
= const we can make coordinate transformation x = x

so dx = dx

and
x
2
=
2
x

2
. If we substitute this into equation (3.102) we obtain:

2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

< 1
(3.103)

2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

> 1
We will drop

further on for convenience. In the gure (3.17) is shown eect of
coordinate transformation from x to x

.
77
The rst of equations (3.103) is elliptic Laplace equation, but the second is of hy-
perbolic nature called the second order wave equation. Both equations are linear
thus they allow superposition of elementary solutions!
It is interesting to note that equation (3.103) can be directly obtained from equation
(3.102) when = 1. Two values of Mach number give = 1 for subsonic ow
M

= 0, and for supersonic ow M

2.
3.14 Boundary Conditions
Let us assume undisturbed velocity of the uid to be

W

. Let the body of interest

have translational velocity

V and angular velocity

about some point O. Figure
(3.18) illustrate former notations. Let also

W

=

W

+ w

be the vector of absolute

Figure 3.18: Derivation of boundary conditions.
particle velocity, where w

denotes perturbed velocity. Let also

W

be the vector of
velocity of the point at the body:

=

V +

r

(3.104)
then B.C. at the point can be specied as:
_

_
n

= 0 (3.105)
or:
_

+ w

_
n

= 0
If

W

,

V , and

are given in advance, the former system can be rearranged into
form:
w

=
_

V +

r

_
n

, = 1, 2, . . . , n (3.106)
Equation (3.106) represents the general boundary condition case. If boundary
coordinate system is xed to the body, and if body does not rotate than equation
(3.106) is reduced to:
w

, = 1, 2, . . . , n (3.107)
78
where, again, w

is the vector of perturbed velocities at point :

w

= u

+ v

+ w

k
If the perturbed velocity w

has potential than:

w

(3.108)
Boundary condition (3.107) can be expressed also:

(3.109)
or:

(3.110)
Figure 3.19: Terms appearing in Green theorem.
3.15 Greens Second Formulae
From Gauss theorem which, for arbitrary vector function

A, is expressed as:
_
S

A ndS =
_ _
V
_

Ad1 (3.111)
if vector

A is assumed to be:

A =
1

2
, we obtain the following:
_
S

2
n
. .

2
n
dS =
_ _
V
_
(
1

2
) d1
=
_ _
V
_
_

2
+
1

2
_
d1 (3.112)
where dS is elementary surface, 1 is volume of the region, and n is unit normal to the
elementary surface, as it is shown in the gure (3.19). If we now dene

A =
2

1
than equation (3.112) looks:
_
S

1
n
dS =
_ _
V
_
_

1
+
2

1
_
d1 (3.113)
79
Equations (3.112) and (3.113) are valid for any scalar functions
1
and
2
! If we
now subtract from equation (3.112) equation (3.113) we obtain:
_
S
(
1

1
) ndS =
_ _
V
_
_

1
_
d1 (3.114)
Equations (3.112) and (3.113) are called Greens rst formulae, while equation
(3.114) is known as Greens second formulae. In former formulas, when problems of
aerodynamics are concerned, the surface S, gure (3.20), is consisted of:
S = S
B
+ S

+ S
W
(3.115)
where S
B
is the surface of the solid body, S

is the boundary of a uid at innity,

and S
W
is the vortex wake downwind of the solid body.
3.16 The General Solution of Laplace Equation
Let n points outside of the region of interest, and S

, S
B
, S
W
, and S

denote bound-
ary of the region at far-eld, body, wake, and about arbitrary point P respectively,
see gure (3.20) Let r be the distance from an arbitrary point P(x, y, z) to some
Figure 3.20: Typical boundaries of an aerodynamics problem
point on boundary S and let the point P be outside volume 1. Let us also assume
that:

1
=
1
r
and:
2
=
where r denotes the distance between point P and arbitrary point on the boundary.
Let also satisfy Laplace equation
2
= 0. Since
2
(1/r) 0 we obtain from
equation (3.114):
_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS = 0 (3.116)
If point P is inside region 1 than we must introduce additional boundary (small
sphere) S

which is innitely close to the point P, i.e. = r 0, otherwise we

80
have in our expression term 1/r which is not dened when r = 0. So potential
is singular at point P. Since our point P is again outside volume 1 we can apply
formulae (3.116):
_
S

+S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS = 0 (3.117)
or:
_
S

_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS +
_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS = 0 (3.118)
To integrate about small sphere enclosed by S

we need to introduce spherical co-

ordinate system at point P. Since n points toward P (outside 1) then n = r

,
and:
n =

r
,
_
1
r
_
=
r

r
2
We can assume that and /n do not vary too much within innitesimal sphere,
and since dS

= 4
2
we could replace the rst integral in equation (3.118) with:

_
1

(P)
r
+
(P)

2
_
4
2
+
_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS = 0
When 0 the former equation is reduced to:
(P) =
1
4
_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS (3.119)
Note that r is the distance from the point P inside volume 1 to the arbitrary point
on the boundary. Unit normal n is dened for the same point on the boundary to
which vector r is pointing. Expression (3.119) determine the value of the potential
at the point P inside the volume 1 in terms of the values of potential and gradient

n
on the boundary S!
If the point P is exactly at the boundary S than we cannot construct whole sphere,
but semi-sphere instead, as it is shown in gure (3.21). For this special case equation
S

=
4
2

2
= 2
2

Figure 3.21: Point P on the boundary of the problem.

81
(3.119) looks:
(P) =
1
2
_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS (3.120)
We can imagine some specic boundaries such as those shown in gure (3.22). For
S

=
4
2

4
=
2
S

=
4
2

2
=
2
/2
Figure 3.22: Point P on specic type of boundaries.
the quarter of sphere (left illustration) formulae (3.119) looks:
(P) =
1

_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS (3.121)
while for the illustration on the right in gure (3.22) follows:
(P) =
2

_
S
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS (3.122)
3.16.1 Internal Potential
Let us now consider volume bounded by the surface S
B
, gure (3.23) this volume
is outside the volume 1. Let the potential of the volume enclosed by S
B
is denoted
by
i
. Point P inside 1 is outside of the volume enclosed by S
B
so must be:
1
4
_
S
B
_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS = 0 (3.123)
If we add equation (3.123) to equation (3.119) we get:
(P) =
1
4
_
S
B
_
1
r
(
i
) (
i
)
1
r
_
ndS +
1
4
_
S
W
+S

_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS
(3.124)
The sign comes from dierent orientations of unit normal n!
82
Figure 3.23: Denition of the internal potential.
3.16.2 Contribution from S

Exact value of the potential depends on selected coordinate system. If we choose

stationary uid at innity and body which moves through it, then

(P) can be
selected to be constant. Otherwise:

(P) =
1
4
_
S

_
1
r

1
r
_
ndS (3.125)
3.16.3 Contribution from S
W
Generally normal component of velocity is continuous through wake ( n =
/n), so:
_
S
1
r
ndS 0
Then we nally obtain the expression for potential at arbitrary point P:
(P) =
1
4
_
S
B
_
1
r
(
i
) (
i
)
1
r
_
ndS
1
4
_
S
W
n
1
r
dS +

(P) (3.126)
Let us denote:
=
i
, =

n


i
n
(3.127)
then equation (3.126) is transformed to:
(P) =
1
4
_
S
B
_

r
n
1
r
_
dS
+
1
4
_
S
W
n
_
1
r
_
dS +

(P) (3.128)
if we take into account that ( n /n) then:
(P) =
1
4
_
S
B
_

r


n
_
1
r
_
_
dS +
1
4
_
S
W

n
_
1
r
_
dS +

(P) (3.129)
83
Equation (3.129) is general solution of Laplace equation, but it does not specify
unique distribution of values for and . Choice for the values of and is based
on physical reasoning.
It is possible to require that
i
/n = /n on S
B
what gives = 0, equation
(3.127). In that case source term vanish and only doublet distribution remains.
Also it is possible to specify
i
= on S
B
, so that solution will be consisted only of
source distribution along boundary.
3.17 Biot-Savarat Law
We already have derived, equation (3.60), that the following expressions hold

B =

(r)

2
B
x
=
x
(r)

2
B
y
=
y
(r)

2
B
z
=
z
(r)
(3.130)
We assume that the eld

B vanishes suciently strongly at innity. This vague
assumption will be dened later. It is necessary only to consider the solution of one
of the equations of the system (3.130). To construct the solution we use Greens
second theorem, equation (3.114)
_
S
(
1

1
) ndS =
_ _
V
_
_

1
_
d1
Let us assume
1
= B
x
(r), and

2
=
1
[r r
1
[
then

2
=
x
(r) , = B
x
(3.131)

2
= 0 ,
2
=
r r
1
[r r
1
[
3
The last equation is valid at any point except at point r = r
1
where potential is
not dened. Again we construct small sphere around arbitrary point P and apply
Greens second formulae to the region between small sphere and outer boundary
which is moved to innity, gure (3.24). After applying Greens second theorem and
relations given by (3.131) we have
__
R
_

x
(r)
[r r
1
[
d1 = lim

__

_
B
x
r r
1
[r r
1
[
3
+
B
x
[r r
1
[
_
n dS
lim
0
__
S

_
B
x
r r
1
[r r
1
[
3
+
B
x
[r r
1
[
_
n dS (3.132)
84
Figure 3.24: Computation of vector potential component.
The rst integral over is equal to zero since we choose B such that it dies suf-
ciently fast. The second integral on the right-hand side can be calculated using
mean value theorem
lim
0
__
S

_
B
x
r r
1
[r r
1
[
3
+
B
x
[r r
1
[
_
n dS = 4B
x
(r
1
)
where dS = 4
2
. So complete right-hand side of the equation (3.132) is equal to
4B
x
(r
1
) or
4B
x
(r
1
) =
__
R
_

x
(r)
[r r
1
[
d1
We can now switch the role of variables r and r
1
, and write
B
x
(r) =
1
4
__
R
_

x
(r
1
)
[r r
1
[
d1 (3.133)
where r
1
is a new variable of integration. Solutions for B
y
and B
z
are similar to
solution for B
x
. From these we conclude that the solution for

B(r, t) is given by

B(r, t) =
1
4
__
R
_

(r
1
, t)
[r r
1
[
d1 (3.134)
It could be easily shown by choosing to be sphere of large radius R, that B must
decay faster than 1/R. Note also that integration is taken over vorticity distribution.
Velocity eld can be calculated from

V =
1
4

__
R
_

(r
1
, t)
[r r
1
[
d1 (3.135)
If we denote by

B the contribution to

B at r due to the vortex element

d1 placed
at r
1
and similarly by

V the contribution to

V at r, we have

B(r, t) =
1
4

(r, t)
[r r
1
[
d1 (3.136)
85

V (r, t) =
1
4

(r, t)
[r r
1
[
d1 (3.137)
where
r
emphasize that the curl is to be taken with respect to the coordinates of
the point r.
Figure 3.25: Illustration for Biot-Savart law.
Consider a vortex lament of strength . Choose a volume element 1of this lament
as the cylinder formed by a cross-sectional surface ndS and an element of length d

along the lament, gure (3.25). Then the contribution to the vector potential

B
at a eld point r, from the vortex element r
1
is given by

B(r) =
1
4

(r
1
)
[r r
1
[
(ndS d

) (3.138)
Since we have
d

d
and

n dS =
equation (3.138) may be rewritten as

B(r) =

4
d

[r r
1
[
(3.139)
The contribution to the velocity at the point r from the element of the lament is
then given by

V (r) =
r

4
d

[r r
1
[
(3.140)
In carrying out the curl operation we keep d

and r
1
xed. Equation (3.140) reduces
to

V (r) =

4
d

(r r
1
)
[r r
1
[
3
(3.141)
86
where d

= dx
1
+ dy
1
+ dz
1

k. This expression is known as the Biot-Savart law.

The velocity at r due to the whole vortex lament is obtained by integration of the
expression (3.141) over the length of the lament. We thus have

V (r) =

4
_
d

(r r
1
)
[r r
1
[
3
(3.142)
Figure 3.26: Induced velocity due to vortex lament.
Since is the strength of the lament, it is a constant and hence appears outside the
integral. We now assume that vortex line, gure (3.26), is dened parametrically
x
1
= x
1
() dx
1
=
dx
1
d
d
y
1
= y
1
() dy
1
=
dy
1
d
d
z
1
= z
1
() dz
1
=
dz
1
d
d
d

=
_
dx
1
d
+
dy
1
d
+
dz
1
d

k
_
d
The distance between vortex line element d

and arbitrary point M(x, y, z) is

= [r r
1
[ =
_
(x x
1
)
2
+ (y y
1
)
2
+ (z z
1
)
2
while
d

(r r
1
) =

k
dx
1
d
d
dy
1
d
d
dz
1
d
d
x x
1
y y
1
z z
1

87
After replacing former expressions into equation (3.142) we obtain the following
components of induced velocity
u(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
dy
1
d
(z z
1
)
dz
1
d
(y y
1
)
_
d

3
, (3.143)
v(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
dz
1
d
(x x
1
)
dx
1
d
(z z
1
)
_
d

3
, (3.144)
w(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
dx
1
d
(y y
1
)
dy
1
d
(x x
1
)
_
d

3
. (3.145)
where
1
and
2
are starting and ending values of the parameter .
Figure 3.27: Solution at point P on 2D boundary.
3.18 2D General Solution
Let us start again from Greens formula (3.114), and let us choose
1
= ln r and

2
= . Integration around point P is now about circle instead of sphere so equation
(3.114) becomes:

_
ln r

r


r
_
dS +
_
S
(ln r ln r) ndS = 0 (3.146)
The circumference of the small circle is 2 so value of the potential at point P is
expressed through equation:
(P) =
1
2
_
S
(ln r ln r) nds (3.147)
If the point P lies on the boundary then integration is around semicircle, gure
(3.27), thus:
(P) =
1
1
_
S
(ln r ln r) nds (3.148)
Two-dimensional version of equation (3.129) is:
(P) =
1
2
_
S
B
_
ln r

n
(ln r)
_
dS
1
2
_
S
W

n
(ln r) dS +

(P) (3.149)
88
Figure 3.28: Denition of a streamline.
3.19 Stream Line and Stream Function
3.19.1 Some Denitions
Let us rst give some denitions to clarify terminology.
Steady Flow
If at various points of the ow eld all quantities (such as velocity, density, pressure
etc.) associated with the uid ow remain unchanged with time, the motion is said
to be steady; otherwise it is called unsteady. Thus various ow parameters are only
functions of position.
Path Line
The curve described in space by a moving uid element is known as its trajectory or
path line. Such a line is obtained by giving the position of an element as a function
of time. The dierential equation of path line is dened as:
dx
dt
= u ,
dy
dt
= v ,
dw
dt
= w (3.150)
Streak Line
The Streak Line is the curve of all uid particles which at some time have coincided
with a particular xed point of space. The streak line is observed when naturally
buoyant marker uid is continuously injected into the ow at a xed point of space.
The marker uid may be smoke if the main ow involves a gas such as air, or a dye
if the main ow involves liquid such as water. When the ow is steady path lines,
streak lines and stream lines coincide.
89
Figure 3.29: Stream surface.
3.19.2 Streamlines
If we draw a curves such that each curve is tangent at each point to the velocity
direction at that point, we obtain streamlines. Let us consider a certain instant of
time, at any point r, let ds be an element of the streamline passing through the
point an let

V denote the velocity vector at that point at that instant gure (3.28).
Then in view of the denition of a streamline, we state that the direction of ds is
the same as that of

V , that is: ds is parallel to

V ! Since the cross product of two
parallel vectors is equal to zero, we have:
ds

V = 0 (3.151)
what is dierential equation of the streamline. Let the components of ds be ds =
dx + dy + dz

k then:
ds

V =

k
dx dy dz
u v w

= (wdy v dz) + (udz wdx) +

k (v dx udy) = 0
(3.152)
This vector equation is equivalent to three scalar equations:
w dy v dz = 0
u dz w dx = 0 (3.153)
v dx u dy = 0
which can be put in the symmetric form:
dx
u
=
dy
v
=
dz
w
(3.154)
Note that u, v, and w are functions of (x, y, z, t). Equations (3.153) and (3.154) are
Cartesian form of the dierential equations for a streamline.
At each instant of time we can construct a picture of the streamlines. If the motion
is unsteady, the streamline picture will change from instant to instant. If the motion
90
Figure 3.30: Stream tube.
is steady, the picture remains the same for all times. In this case path lines, streak
lines and streamlines are identical. A picture of the streamlines helps us to see,
as it were, the ow eld and therefore plays an important part in the analysis and
understanding of uid ow problems.
3.19.3 Stream Surfaces and Stream Tubes
If at any instant of time we draw an arbitrary line in the uid region and draw the
streamlines passing through the line, a surface is formed. Such surface is called a
stream surface, gure (3.29). If we consider closed curve and draw all the streamlines
passing through it, a tube called a stream tube is formed, gure (3.30). In unsteady
motion, the shape of a stream surface drawn through an arbitrarily chosen curve
and the shape of a stream tube drawn through a chosen closed curve will change
with time. In steady motion stream surfaces and stream tubes once drawn remain
unchanged. No uid can cross a stream surface or the walls of a stream tube, for the
walls and the stream surface are always parallel to the uid velocity everywhere. For
steady ow, a stream tube behaves like one with rigid boundaries inside which uid
ows. It follows that in steady ow, an impermeable solid-uid boundary, across
which there cannot be any ow of uid, would be a stream surface.
3.19.4 Stream Functions
Let us again consider integration of the equation (3.151) for a streamline:
ds

V = 0
Although

V =

V (r, t), the integration of former equation involves only the space
variables. As such, in what follows, we shall not exhibit explicitly the dependence
on time. Bear in mind, however, that the results obtained hold at every instant
of time. From the system (3.154) we can construct two independent system of
equations whose general form is represented by:
a
1
(x, y, z) dx + b
1
(x, y, z) dy + c
1
(x, y, z) dz = 0
91
Figure 3.31: Stream function and stream line.
(3.155)
a
2
(x, y, z) dx + b
2
(x, y, z) dy + c
2
(x, y, z) dz = 0
The general solution of former system of equations is given in the form:
(x, y, z) = c (3.156)
where c is constant. Equation (3.156) represents family of surfaces. We thus con-
clude that the solution of the system (3.155) is presented in the form:

1
(x, y, z) = c
1
,
2
(x, y, z) = c
2
(3.157)
where c
1
and c
2
are constants. Such conclusion could have been reached immediately
from the observation that a line in space, such as a streamline, may be described as
the curve of intersection of two surfaces.
The functions
1
and
2
should naturally be related to the velocity components u,
v, and w. In the gure (3.31) is shown streamline which belongs simultaneously to
two stream surfaces. Velocity vector

V (r) is tangent to streamline, and belongs to
both surfaces
1
= c
1
and
2
= c
2
. Normal vectors to stream surfaces are obtained
from
1
and
2
so:

V
1
= 0 ,

V
2
= 0
This shows that vector

V is normal to plane built by vectors
1
and
2
, i.e. that
vector

V is parallel to the cross product of two normal vectors:
(r)

V =
1

2
(3.158)
where (r) is scalar function of position. Knowing that:
(
1

2
) = 0
and applying operator to the equation (3.158) we conclude that function (r)
should satisfy the condition:
(

V ) = 0 (3.159)
92
Function have extremely simple form in the case of incompressible ow when
(r) 1. In the case of steady compressible ow we have (

V ) = 0, so (r) = (r).
Solving uid ow problems by use of two stream functions when such use is possible
has not received much attention so far. In certain problems where only two velocity
components appear, the third being zero, there would be only one single unknown
stream function instead of two.
If ow velocity have potential (

V = ) it is clear from equation (3.158) that

potential surface must be orthogonal to stream surfaces since gradients of stream
surfaces are orthogonal to gradient of potential. In two-dimensional case surfaces are
reduced to lines, so potential lines and stream function lines are mutually orthogonal.
3.19.5 Stream Function for 2D space
If the ow pattern and various ow parameters are independent of one dimension
(for example z) we said that the uid motion is two-dimensional or planar. In that
case:

z
( ) = 0
for any parameter instead of parenthesis, the motion in all planes normal to z-axis
are the same. In Cartesian coordinate system we have:
ds = dx + dy + dz

V = u + v
u = u(x, y) (3.160)
v = v(x, y)
Equation of the streamline is now in the form:
dx
u(x, y)
=
dy
v(x, y)
=
dz
0
from which immediately follows that:
dz = 0 , z = const
Thus, one of the stream function is simply z. The other stream function is only
unknown function. Let us denote it by (x, y). From equation (3.158) follows:
(r)

V = z =

y
0
0 0 1

(3.161)
From former equation we obtain:
u =

y
, v =

x
(3.162)
note again that = 1 for incompressible ow, and = for compressible ow.
From the denition of velocity potential:
u =

x
, v =

y
93
Figure 3.32: Examples of streamline patterns at a stagnation point in two-
dimensional ow.
it follows:

x
=

y
,

y
=

x
(3.163)
in the case of incompressible ow, and:

x
=
1

y
,

y
=
1

x
(3.164)
for the case of compressible ow.
3.19.6 Stagnation Points
Points in the ow elds where the velocity becomes zero are known as stagnation
points. In terms of the components of the velocity, this means that at a stagnation
point all the velocity components are zero. If we express streamline equations in
Cartesian coordinates:
dy
dx
=
v(x, y, z)
u(x, y, z)
,
dz
dx
=
w(x, y, z)
u(x, y, z)
(3.165)
At stagnation points these equations become
dy
dx
=
0
0
,
dz
dx
=
0
0
Figure (3.32) shows streamline patterns for various types stagnation points.
3.20 Elementary Solutions of Laplace Equation
We will express Laplace equation in various coordinate systems. Laplace operator
is dened as:
=
2
= (3.166)
94
Cartesian form of this operator is given:
=

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 (3.167)
In cylindrical coordinate system (r, , z), gure (3.33), this operator is expressed in
the form:
=
1
r

r
_
r

r
_
+
1
r
2

2
+

2

z
2
(3.168)
Figure 3.33: Cylindrical coordinate system.
In spherical coordinates r, , and it has the form:
=
1
r
2
sin
_

r
_
r
2
sin

r
_
+

_
sin

_
+

_
1
sin

__
= 0 (3.169)
Solution of Laplace equation which exists everywhere is of the form:
=

V

r = U

x + V

y + W

z (3.170)
since:

V =

V =

V

(3.171)
it appears that potential , (3.170) is the potential of uniform ow.
Let us now nd solution of equation (3.168) which depends only on distance r, so
all derivatives with respect to z and are equal to zero, thus:
=
1
r
d
dr
_
r
d
dr
_
= 0 (3.172)
After integration we obtain:
= ln ([r r
o
[) (3.173)
where constant of integration is embedded in r
o
. In gure (3.34) it is shown the
sense of the .
We can obtain from equation (3.168) solution which depends only on coordinate :
d
2

d
2
= 0 = A + B
95
Figure 3.34: Cylindrical coordinate system.
or:
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
(3.174)
where x
o
and y
o
are constants of integration. Physically they represent the point
through singularity pass parallel with z axis. Velocity eld of such potential is
dened as:
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
=

2
r r
o
[r r
o
[
2

k (3.175)
In 3D space we search solution again which depends only on distance r. From
equation (3.169) follows:
d
dr
_
r
2
sin
d
dr
_
= 0
which after integration gives:
=

[r r
o
[
(3.176)
3.21 Uniqueness of the solution
Let us specify the problem:

2
= 0

n
= n

V
B
(3.177)
0 , r
This is the Neuman exterior problem. It is necessary to answer the question of
uniqueness of the solution for the problem (3.177).
The answer is dierent for simply and multiply connected regions. Let us nd rst
the answer for simply connected region, i.e. the region which is consisted only of the
ow-eld without any bodies. Assume that there are two independent solutions
1
96
and
2
. Dierence of these two potentials must also satisfy Laplace equation since
that equation is linear:

2
(
1

2
) =
2

2
0
Let us apply now Green rst formula to the function :
_ _
V
_
d1 =
_
S

n
dS (3.178)
where S = S
B
+S

. But at the S

velocity is equal zero, as it is specied in (3.177).

Since:

n
= n, when: r ,

n
0
_
S

n
dS = 0
If we now substitute with
1

2
into equation (3.178) we obtain:
_ _
V
_
(
1

2
)(
1

2
) d1 =
_ _
V
_
[(
1

2
)]
2
d1 = 0
Function under integral is always positive function, so integral could be equal zero
only if the function is equal to zero in each point of the space. That means that
dierence between solutions
1
and
2
is constant:
(
1

2
) = 0 ,
1

2
= const
We can conclude that Neuman exterior problem is unique to within constant for
simply connected regions.
Let us now consider doubly connected region exterior to body B. We could construct
simply connected region by introducing the cut which connects outer boundary

with the boundary which surrounds the body (S

B
). Cut introduces two line
segments (C
+
and C

) which form the new boundary and along which we dont

know boundary conditions. We only know that velocities at corresponding points
at the cut must be the same, so velocity normal to this cut must be the same also.
Let us assume again that there exists two dierent solutions
1
and
2
, and form
dierence
D
=
1

2
. Let us again apply Greens rst formula for the problem
sketched in the gure (3.35).
_ _
V
_

D

D
d1 =
_
S
B

D
n
dS +
_
S

D
n
dS
+
_
C

D
n
dS
_
C
+

D
n
dS (3.179)
the rst two terms on the right-hand side are equal to zero, as before. The last two
terms Are not equal to zero. Let us denote with
D
the value of the potential at
the boundary C

, and with
D
+ the value of the potential at the boundary C
+
,
than:
_ _
V
_
(
D
)
2
d1 =
_
C

n
dS
_
C
+

D
+

D
+
n
dS (3.180)
97
Figure 3.35: Multiply connected region.
The normal derivative across cut is constant so we can write former equation:
_ _
V
_
(
D
)
2
d1 =
_
C
(
D

D
+)

D
n
dS (3.181)
If we restore the values of
D
:

D

D
+ =

1

+
1
. .

1
+
+
2

2
. .

2
so:
_ _
V
_
(
D
)
2
d1 = (
1

2
)
_
C

D
n
dS (3.182)
In general we could not require that integral on right-hand side is equal to zero. So
if we want unique solution circulation about body for both solutions
1
and
2
must
be the same, in that case
1

2
0. The value of circulation cannot be specied
completely on mathematical grounds! We have to consider physical properties of
the problem to correctly specify the value of the circulation.
3.22 Elementary Solutions of Small Disturbance
Equation
Small disturbance equation is given with equation (3.102):
(1 M
2

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

< 1 (3.183)
(M
2

1)

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

> 1 (3.184)
98
Equation (3.183) is similar to Laplace equation so elementary solution for such
equation is:
=
1
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (1 M
2

) [(y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
(3.185)
Everything said so far for the uniqueness of Laplace equation is also valid for equation
(3.183). Elementary solution of equation (3.184) is little bit dierent:
=
1
_
(x x
o
)
2
(M
2

1) [(y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
(3.186)
Uniqueness of the solution is much more dicult to prove since besides singularity
at point (x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) elementary solution posses singularity at the surface:
x x
o
=
_
M
2

1
_
(y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
(3.187)
what represents the cone sketched in the gure (3.36)
Equation (3.187)
Figure 3.36: Dependence and inuence regions.
To ensure uniqueness it is important to introduce the nite part of integral. This
will be illustrated by calculating mass ux from the source through cylinder shown
in the gure (3.37). Let us introduce the following variables:

2
= M
2

1
r
2
= (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
(3.188)
=
1
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
r
2
The volume ux through S

is given by:
J() =
_
S

V ndS =
_
S

ndS (3.189)
99
Figure 3.37: Calculating nite part of the integral.
where:
=
1

x
2

2
r
2
, and: n =

x
(3.190)
so:

x
1

x
2

2
r
2
=
x
_
(x
2

2
r
2
)
3
at x = a gradient in x-direction is:
n =
a
_
(a
2

2
r
2
)
3
, while: dS = 2r dr
After substituting the former into equation (3.189) we obtain:
J() =
r

_
0
a
_
(a
2

2
r
2
)
3
2r dr (3.191)
We use denitions in gure (3.38) to calculate nite part of integral (3.191).
It is clear from the gure (3.38) that:
r
a
= a tan =
a

and:
r

= r
a

cos
=
a

So our problem is to nd integral:

J() = 2a
a/M

/
_
0
rdr
(a
2

2
r
2
)
3/2
100
Figure 3.38: Denitions for calculating nite part of the integral.
Let us introduce substitution:
Z
2
= a
2

2
r
2
, rdr =
Z dZ

2
which results in change of the limits:
r = 0 Z = a
and:
r =
a

, Z =
_
2aM

(M

)
2
After performing integration we have:
J() =
2a

2M

2
M
2

_
a
dZ
Z
2
=
2

2

2a

2
_
2aM

2
M
2

Note that rst term on the right-hand side does not depend on the value a i.e. on
the radius of cylinder r
a
. So we have nite part which is constant and singularity
(last term). If we modify expression for mass ux:
J

= J() +
2a

2
_
2aM

2
M
2

(3.192)
we have always nite expression for mass ux. Potential of supersonic source of unit
intensity is dened thus:
=

2
2
1
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
r
2
(3.193)
The constant
2
/2 can be included in the arbitrary source strength! Uniqueness
of the supersonic potential ow can be proved the same way as the uniqueness of
subsonic potential solution when we take into account only nite part of mass ux
of the supersonic source.
101
3.23 Physical Interpretation and Basic Solutions
3.23.1 Point Source
Let the strength of the point source be than at some point away of the point the
velocity is calculated by:
V =

4d
2
(3.194)
where d is distance between source and arbitrary point, and is intensity of the
source. Figure (3.39).
Figure 3.39: Point source.
Velocity is in the radial direction from the source outwards:

V =

4 [r r
o
[
2
. .
d
2

r r
o
[r r
o
[
. .
unit vector
(3.195)
We can obtain potential of the velocity by formally integrating velocity since it is
in radial direction. When the source is in the coordinate origin we have:

r
=

4r
2
=

4r
(3.196)
It is clear that for r = const, [

V [ = const, and = const. Velocity drops with the

square of the distance r from origin. When r , [

V [ 0. Mass ux through
any sphere with center in the source is constant.
Let us review:
=

4[r r
o
[

V =

4
r r
o
[r r
o
[
3
(x, y, z) =

4
1
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
(3.197)
u(x, y, z) =

x
=

4
x x
o
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3/2
102
v(x, y, z) =

y
=

4
y y
o
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3/2
w(x, y, z) =

z
=

4
z z
o
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3/2
Elementary source can be distributed along line, surface or volume. The potential
for these three cases gure (3.40) can be expressed as:
(x, y, z) =
1
4
_

(x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) d
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
for line (3.198)
(x, y, z) =
1
4
__
S
(x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) dS
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
for surface(3.199)
(x, y, z) =
1
4
__
V
_
(x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) d1
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
for vol. (3.200)
Velocities at point (x, y, z) can be obtained by dierentiating expressions for velocity
Figure 3.40: Singular solution distributions.
potential given by equations (3.198) to (3.200):
(u, v, w) =
_

x
,

y
,

z
_
(3.201)
3.23.2 Point Doublet
It is clear from equations (3.128) and (3.129) it is clear that exist the second basic
solution given the form:
n
_
1
r
_
=

n
_
1
r
_
(3.202)
Since = /r is potential of the source, and comes from the fact that ow-eld
is on the opposite side of the unit vector n orientation. It can be said that:

doublet
=

n
(
source
) (3.203)
103
Figure 3.41: Point doublet.
This suggest that point doublet can be obtained from sources. Figure (3.41) illus-
trates the source at origin and sink at position

. Potential at point P(x, y, z) due
to sink and source is:
=

4
_
1
[r[

1
[r

[
_
(3.204)
what again represents superposition of elementary solutions, or:
=

4
[r

[ [r[
[r[ [r

[
(3.205)
Let us also choose such that when 0. Then when 0 :
[r[ [r

[ r
2
, [r

[ [r[ cos
So potential becomes:
=

4
cos
r
2
(3.206)
The angle is the angle between position vector r and orientation of the doublet:
cos =
r
[r[
(3.207)
and potential is nally expressed as:
=
r
4 r
3
(3.208)
Vector points from sink to source direction. From equation (3.202) it is clear that
surface normal n dene the orientation of the doublet element:
(x, y, z) =

4
n
_
1
[r r
o
[
_
=

4

n
_
1
[r r
o
[
_
(3.209)
where r
o
denotes position of the doublet if it is not placed at coordinate origin.
Taking /n to be in x, y, or z direction yields:
(x, y, z) =
1
4
_
_
_

z
_
_
_
1
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
(3.210)
After performing dierentiation we obtain:
104
If =
x
:
(x, y, z) =

x
4
x x
o
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
(3.211)
If =
y
:
(x, y, z) =

y
4
y y
o
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
(3.212)
If =
z

k:
(x, y, z) =

z
4
z z
o
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
(3.213)
We can obtain velocity components after dierentiation of equations (3.211) to
(3.213). If for short we use r
2
= (x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
we obtain:
For x-direction
u
1
=

x
4
r
2
3(x x
o
)
2
r
5
v
1
=
3
x
4
(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
r
5
(3.214)
w
1
=
3
x
4
(x x
o
)(z z
o
)
r
5
For y-direction
u
2
=
3
y
4
(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
r
5
v
2
=

y
4
r
2
3(y y
o
)
2
r
5
(3.215)
w
2
=
3
y
4
(y y
o
)(z z
o
)
r
5
For z-direction
u
3
=
3
z
4
(x x
o
)(z z
o
)
r
5
v
3
=
3
z
4
(y y
o
)(z z
o
)
r
5
(3.216)
w
3
=

z
4
r
2
3(z z
o
)
2
r
5
If the doublet has general orientation, i.e. =
x
+
y
+
z

k the total velocities

component are obtained after summing corresponding velocities:
u = u
1
+ u
2
+ u
3
v = v
1
+ v
2
+ v
3
(3.217)
w = w
1
+ w
2
+ w
3
105
Doublets also can be distributed along line, surface or volume. Potential for men-
tioned distributions is expressed as:
(x, y, z) =
1
4
_

x
(x x
o
) +
y
(y y
o
) +
z
(z z
o
)
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
d
(x, y, z) =
1
4
__
S

x
(x x
o
) +
y
(y y
o
) +
z
(z z
o
)
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
dS (3.218)
(x, y, z) =
1
4
__
V
_

x
(x x
o
) +
y
(y y
o
) +
z
(z z
o
)
_
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
3
d1
In the rst integral is doublet strength per unit length, in the second strength per
unit surface and in the last strength per unit volume!
Using vector identity

A (

B

C) =

B(

A

C) (

A

B)

C
we could write

_

_
r
r
3
__
=
_

_
r
r
3
__
( )
_
r
r
3
_
where

A = ,

B = , and

C = r/r
3
, from this equation we could express

_

_
r
r
3
__
=
_

_
r
r
3
__
+ ( )
_
r
r
3
_
(3.219)
Since

_
r
r
3
_
=
_

1
r
3
_
r +
1
r
3
r 0
we nally get

_

_
r
r
3
__
= ( )
_
r
r
3
_
(3.220)
Velocity eld is obtained from equation (3.208) as

V = =
1
4

_

_
r
r
3
__
(3.221)
or after (3.220)

V =
1
4
( )
_
r
r
3
_
=
1
4
_

x
+
y

y
+
z

z
_
_
_
(x x
o
) + (y y
o
) + (z z
o
)

k
r
3
_
_
(3.222)
what is vector expression equivalent to expressions (3.214) to (3.216).
106
Figure 3.42: Uniform ow eld.
3.23.3 Uniform Flow
Linear combination of coordinate directions:
= Ax + By + Cz
must be solution of Laplaces partial dierential equation since that equation is of
the second order. Velocity components of such potential are:
U

=

x
= A , V

=

y
= B , W

=

z
= C (3.223)
We can thus write potential also in the following form:
= U

x + V

y + W

z (3.224)
Since velocity components are constant at any point of the space ow eld described
by potential (3.224) is uniform, gure (3.42)
3.24 Two-Dimensional Version of Basic Solutions
We develop now two-dimensional versions of basic solution. The dierence between
two versions come from the fact that two-dimensional solutions have logarithmic
singularity while three-dimensional solutions have fractional singularity.
3.24.1 Source
In 2D version of unit source intensity of radial velocity is constant on the circle
imagined around source. Let on some distance r the velocity is equal to:
V
r
=

r
=

2r
(3.225)
where 2r is the circumference of the circle. Than:
=

2
ln r (3.226)
107
or if the point is not in the coordinate origin:
=

2
ln
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.227)
Two-dimensional components of velocity (u, v) is obtained from former equation
(3.227) by dierentiating it with respect to x and y:
u =

x
=

2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.228)
v =

y
=

2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.229)
Stream function expression could be obtained similarly
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
(3.230)
3.24.2 Doublet
What is said for three-dimensional point doublet is also true for two-dimensional
point doublet. So potential of the point doublet is determined by dierentiating
potential for source (3.209) and (3.210):
(r) =

n
_

2
ln r
_
(3.231)
(x, y) =
1
2
_

x

y
_
ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
_
(3.232)
where source strength is replaced by doublet strength . Taking n to point in
x-direction vector is reduced to
x
= and
y
= 0, so:
(x, y) =

2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
or:
(r, ) =

2
cos
r
(3.233)
Two-dimensional components of velocity are also obtained by dierentiating expres-
sion for potential with respect to x and y:
u =

x
=

2
(x x
o
)
2
(y y
o
)
2
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2
(3.234)
v =

y
=

2
2(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2
(3.235)
Starting from the expressions for velocity components we can integrate to obtain
stream function
=

2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
or: =

2
sin
r
(3.236)
Similar to equations (3.233) and (3.236) can be obtained for = .
108
Figure 3.43: Vortex.
3.24.3 Uniform Flow
Uniform ow in two-dimensions is simply obtained from uniform ow in three-
dimensions by simply dropping z-component:
= U

x + V

y (3.237)
It is obvious that:
u = U

, and: v = V

Stream function formulation is given by

= U

y V

x (3.238)
3.24.4 Vortex
Let us consider circular ow about some point in the ow-eld, gure (3.43). Let
also velocity at some distance r be constant and tangent to a circle drown about
vortex. Intensity of the velocity should satisfy:
V =

2r
(3.239)
so that circulation about any circle is constant and does not depend on the distance
r.
Velocity vector is tangential to the circle at point at which vector r is pointing. We
can obtain velocity vector by the following expression:

V =

2r

k r
r
(3.240)
minus comes from the fact that the positive value of the circulation is in opposite
sense to mathematical positive sense. Vector

k is unit vector normal to the plane of
the vortex (z-direction):

V =

2

k
0 0 1
x x
o
y y
o
0

(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.241)
109
where (x
o
, y
o
) are coordinates of the vortex. Cartezian components of the velocity
vector are given by:
u =

x
=

2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.242)
v =

y
=

2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(3.243)
Expression for potential can be obtained either integrating rst equation (3.242)
with respect to x, or the second equation with respect to y. Arbitrary constant of
integration can be chosen such that both expressions are equivalent:
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
(3.244)
Knowing that potential lines and stream lines are mutually orthogonal, and compar-
ing the expression for stream function for the source, (3.227) and expression (3.244),
we conclude that expression for vortex stream function must be similar to expression
for source potential
=

2
ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
_
. (3.245)
3.24.5 Two-Dimensional Singularity Distributions
We give now expressions for velocities, potential, and stream function for singularity
distributions over line and surface. Figure (3.44) illustrates singularity distributions
over two-dimensional line and over two-dimensional surface.
Figure 3.44: Singularity distributions over two-dimensional line and surface.
Source distributions
Let us give, rst, expressions for source line distributions. With (d/d) d we denote
source strength of the innitesimally small element of length d, as it is shown in the
gure (3.44). Expressions for velocities, and velocity potential, and stream function
110
are obtained by summing contributions from whole line
u
P
=
_
L
d/d
2

x x
o
()
(x x
o
())
2
+ (y y
o
())
2
d
v
P
=
_
L
d/d
2

y y
o
()
(x x
o
())
2
+ (y y
o
())
2
d
(3.246)

P
=
_
L
d/d
2
ln
_
(x x
o
())
2
+ (y y
o
())
2
d

P
=
_
L
d/d
2
arctan
y y
o
()
x x
o
()
d
Inuence of the source distributions in the x-yplane can be considered similarly.
Now d/dS represents intensity of the source per area. Velocities, velocity potential,
and stream function are calculated as
u
P
=
_
L
d/dS
2

x x
o
(x x
o
))
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
dS
v
P
=
_
L
d/dS
2

y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
dS
(3.247)

P
=
_
L
d/dS
2
ln
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
dS

P
=
_
L
d/dS
2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
dS
where (x
o
, y
o
) are coordinates of elementary surface dS.
Doublet Distributions
We now proceed with giving expressions for calculating velocities, velocity potential,
and stream function for line and surface distributions of two-dimensional doublets.
Again we use expressions for point singularity for arbitrary doublet orientation =

x
+
y

u
P
=
1
2
_
L
1
r
4
_
d
x
d
(x x
o
)
2

d
x
d
(y y
o
)
2
+ 2
d
y
d
(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
_
d
v
P
=
1
2
_
L
1
r
4
_
d
y
d
(y y
o
)
2

d
y
d
(x x
o
)
2
+ 2
d
x
d
(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
_
d

P
=
1
2
_
L
1
r
2
_
d
x
d
(x x
o
) +
d
y
d
(y y
o
)
_
d (3.248)

P
=
1
2
_
L
1
r
2
_
d
x
d
(y y
o
)
d
y
d
(x x
o
)
_
d
111
where r =
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
, and x
o
, y
o
, and z
o
are functions of line segment
length . We are not giving here expressions for surface distribution of doublet since
expressions are similar we need only to substitute d
x
/d and d
y
/d with d
x
/dS
and d
y
/dS and to integrate over whole surface S. So we need to replace d with dS.
Coordinates of the point P are (x, y), and they have to be considered as constant in
calculations of integrals in equations (3.248). Doublet distributions d
x
/d, d
y
/d,
d
x
/dS, and d
y
/dS are, in general, functions of position and cannot be extracted
in front of the integrals.
Vortex Distribution
Vortex distribution per unit surface is called vorticity and is denoted with , we use
this symbol even for the distribution of vortex along arbitrary line L. Intensity of
the vorticity is dependent on position on the line L or surface S, so it should be
considered as variable in integrations. As in previous discussions we start from the
expressions for point vortex and obtain
u
P
=
1
2
_
L
() (y y
o
)
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
d
v
P
=
1
2
_
L
() (x x
o
)
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
d

P
=
1
2
_
L
() arctan
y y
o
x x
o
d (3.249)

P
=
1
2
_
L
() ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
_
d
where x
o
and y
o
are functions of position, and (x, y) are constants and represent
coordinates of the point P. Vorticity is also function of position along the curve
L. Again we do not write here expression for surface distribution since only d have
to be substituted with dS. Now is really vorticity i.e. vortex strength per unit
area.
3.25 Complex Variables Expressions
3.25.1 Elements
It is customary to denote with z arbitrary complex variable z = x +y, ( =

1),
and with J complex function of complex variable z: J = J(z). The special class
of complex functions are called analytic functions. Function J(z) is called analytic
inside some circle in the plane of complex variable z if it satisfy any of the following
conditions:
a) For function J(z) exists derivative J

(z) at any point of the circle.

b) If J(z) = |(x, y) + 1(x, y), where |(x, y) and 1(x, y) are real functions of
112
real variables x and y and if these functions satisfy Laplace equation:

x
2
+

2

y
2
= 0
and if among these functions exist the following relation:
|
x
=
1
y
,
|
y
=
1
x
(3.250)
c) The function J(z) is continuous inside circle and integral taken around any
closed curve within the circle is equal to zero.
d) Inside any smaller concentric circle within the largest circle function J(z) can
be approximated with arbitrary accuracy.
The theory of analytic functions can be based on any of the former statements. If
we compare equation (3.250) to the equation (3.163) we note the same expression,
so we can construct analytic function using velocity potential () instead of the
real function |, and stream function () instead of the real function 1, for two-
dimensional ow eld:
F = + (3.251)
Both equations (3.163) and (3.250) require:

x
=

y
, and:

y
=

x
If we dierentiate the rst equation with respect to x, and second with respect to y
and add them side by side we obtain Laplace partial dierential equation:
=
2
=

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
= 0 .
Dierentiation of the rst equation with respect to y and the second equation with
respect to x and after subtraction of the second equation from the rst we again
obtain Laplace equation:
=
2
=

2

x
2
+

2

y
2
= 0 .
As it is concluded in the subsection (3.19.4) equipotential lines (x, y) = const
and streamlines (x, y) = const are mutually orthogonal set of curves. The similar
property is exhibited by the velocity components, for we have:
u
x
=
v
y
incompressibility condition
u
y
=
v
x
irrotationality condition
and also:

2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
= 0 ,

2
v
x
2
+

2
v
y
2
= 0 .
113
Curves u = const and v = const are also mutually orthogonal. Relation between
real and imaginary part of some complex variable J is exactly the same as relation
between velocity potential lines and streamlines. So we can conclude that real and
imaginary part of some analytic function represent velocity potential and stream
function of some two-dimensional ow. It is customary to combine velocity potential
and stream function into one analytic function and call it the complex potential.
Let us denote it by F(z), than we could write:
F(z) = (x, y) + (x, y) (3.252)
The x, y-plane in this context becomes the plane of the complex variable z. The
derivative of the complex potential should not be dependent on the direction it is
calculated, thus
F

(z)
dF
dz
=

x
+

x
=

y

y
= u(x, y) v(x, y) (3.253)
Comparing expressions for the derivative dF/dz we again arrive to the condition:

x
=

y
,

y
=

x
which must be satised in order to derivative be independent on the way derivative
is calculated. This condition is called Cauchy-Riemann condition. Right-hand side
of the equation (3.253) is the complex conjugate of u + v which is the velocity
vector. It has, however, become customary to call the conjugate u v the complex
velocity. It is usually denoted by W(z). We thus have
W(z) u(x, u) v(x, y) =
dF
dz
=

V (3.254)
3.25.2 Some Elementary Flows
We said that any analytic function can represent some two-dimensional ow. We
will examine the ows represented by some simple functions. Let us consider the
ow represented by the complex velocity of the form
W(z) = Az
n
where A is complex constant. Velocity potential is obtained then:
F(z) =
_
Az
n
dz =
_
A
n+1
z
n+1
n ,= 1
Aln z n = 1
(3.255)
Uniform Flow
Let complex constant A be A = U

, and let n = 0. In that case complex

velocity corresponds to homogeneous two-dimensional ow, while complex potential
F is expressed as:
F(z) = Az = (U

) z (3.256)
It is obvious that former equation represents uniform ow whose direction is deter-
mined by constants U

and V

.
114
Source and Vortex
Let us now assume n = 1 and that A is real and positive. Then we have
u v = W(z) =
A
z
= Ar(cos sin ) = Are

(3.257)
where z = re

represents polar form of a complex number. Velocity potential is

obtained by integrating former equation:
+ = F(z) = Aln z = Aln r + A (3.258)
we conclude that ow corresponds to the source at the origin. The strength of the
source is given by:
= 2A
Consider next that A is purely imaginary, equal, say, to b with b > 0. We then have
u v = W =
b
z
=
b
r
(cos sin )
After integrating of the former equation we obtain:
+ = F(z) = ib ln z = b + b ln r (3.259)
We conclude that the ow is that due to a vortex at the origin. The circulation of
the vortex is given by
= 2b , b =

2
We thus observe that the complex potentials for the source and vortex ows are of
the form
F(z) = Aln z
where A, in general, is a complex coecient. If A is purely real we obtain a source
ow, whereas if A is purely imaginary we have a vortex ow, thus A = ( )/2.
In this sense the source and vortex belong to the same class of singular ows.
Doublet
If we now assume n = 2 and coecient A to be real and positive we have
u v = W =
A
z
2
=
A
r
2
e
2
After integrating the former equation we obtain
+ = F =
A
z
= A
cos
r
+ A
sin
r
(3.260)
We conclude that the ow is that due to a doublet situated at the origin. The axis
of the doublet is in the direction of x and strength of the doublet is given by
= 2A
Proceeding this manner we may obtain the corresponding ows for n < 2. All
these ows are singular ows with the singularity at the origin.
115
Table 3.1: Elementary solutions in complex variable formulations.
Elementary solution Complex potential Velocity potential Stream function
Homogeneous ow V
o
e

V
o
(xcos + y sin ) V
o
(y cos xsin )
under to x-axis
Source or sink

2
ln(z z
o
)

2
ln r

at point z
o
Doublet directed
e

2(zz
o
)

2r
cos( )

2r
sin( )
under to x-axis
Vortex of intensity

2
ln(z z
o
)

2
ln r
at point z
o
Vortex and source

2
ln(z z
o
)
ln r
2
+ln r
2
at point z
o
3.25.3 Elementary Flows in Tabular Form
Let us shortly review all what is said about elementary ows expressed through
complex variables. Table (3.1) shows the most important elementary solutions of
two-dimensional inviscid incompressible equations of motion. Both complex poten-
tial and its real and imaginary part (which represents velocity potential and stream
function) are given. We use in the next chapter these elementary solutions and
combine them to satisfy boundary conditions. In the expressions for r in the table
(3.1) it is assumed that
r = [z z
o
[ =
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=
_
(z z
o
)( z z
o
)
Also angle is calculated from
= arctan
y y
o
x x
o
It is said that there are two class of problems which can be solved using singularity
method. The rst class of problems determine the ow patterns about arbitrary
distributed singularities. The second class of problems require determination of
strength of the singularities distributed in some portion of the ow eld to satisfy
some additional conditions.
3.26 Theorem of Blasius
Let F(z) be the complex potential of a two-dimensional inviscid ow past a body
of any given shape. Let X and Y be the components in the x and y direction
116
respectively of the force per unit span on the body. Let M be the anti-clockwise
moment per unit span about the point z = 0. Then
X Y =

2
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
and
M = '
_
_

2
_
C
z
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
_
_
where C is the curve representing the boundary of the body, and W = u v =
dF/dz is complex velocity. This result is known as the Theorem of Blasius, and
may be proved as follows, by considering a solid body in general ow, as depicted
in gure (3.45). Consider the small element s in the boundary of the solid. Then
x = sin s and y = cos s, while
X = p s cos = p y
Y = p s sin = p x
Then
X Y =
_
C
p( dx + dy) =
_
C
p(dx dy) (3.261)
Note that _
C
dx =
_
C
dy = 0
so that _
C
const(dx dy) = 0
Figure 3.45: Derivation of Blasius theorem.
Also from Bernoullis Theorem equation (3.81)
p = const
V
2
2
117
follows _
C
p(dx dy) =
_
C
const(dx dy)

2
_
C
V
2
(dx dy) .
Equation (3.261) then becomes
X Y =

2
_
C
V
2
(dx dy) (3.262)
Observe now that d z = dx dy = (dx + dy) 2 dy = dz 2 dy and that
V
2
= u
2
+ v
2
. Applying former to the terms in equation (3.64) we have
V
2
(dx dy) = (u
2
+ v
2
)(dx dy)
= (u
2
+ v
2
)dz 2 (u
2
+ v
2
)dy
= (u
2
v
2
)dz + 2v
2
dx 2 u
2
dy
= (u v)
2
(dx + dy) + 2v(v + u)dx 2u(v + u)dy
But the contour C is a streamline of the ow, so that, on C, vdx = udy, and
2vdx(v + u) = 2udy(v + u). Thus equation (3.262) becomes
X Y =

2
_
C
(u v)
2
(dx + dy) =

2
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz . (3.263)
Similarly, if M is measured anti-clockwise, the we can write M = X y +Y x.
Thus
M =
_
C
p(xdx + ydy) =

2
_
C
V
2
(xdx + ydy) , (3.264)
since, again
p = const

2
V
2
and _
C
const(xdx + ydy) = 0
we could expand, now, the term z(dF/dz)
2
x
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz = (u v)
2
(x + y)(dx + dy)
= (u
2
v
2
2 uv)(xdx ydy + ydx + xdy)
so that
'
_
_
z
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
_
_
= (u
2
v
2
)(xdx ydy) + 2uv(xdy + ydx) (3.265)
Again, since C is a streamline, on C we have vdx = udy, so that the second term
on the right-hand side of equation (3.265) is equal to
2uv(xdy + ydx) = 2v
2
xdx + 2u
2
ydy
118
Equation (3.265) thus becomes
'
_
_
z
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
_
_
= (u
2
+ v
2
)(xdx + ydy) = V
2
(xdx + ydy)
so that equation (3.264) now gives
M =

2
'
_
_
_
C
z
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
_
_
(3.266)
which, together with equation (3.263) constitutes the theorem of Blasius.
3.26.1 Extension of the Theorem of Blasius
We now extend the theorem of Blasius to unsteady ow. From equations (3.261)
and (3.264) we have
dX dY = p d z , dM + dN = pz d z
Now let dz = ds e

and therefore d z = dz e
2
. Therefore
X Y =
_
C
p e
2
dz , M + N =
_
C
pz e
2
dz (3.267)
For unsteady ow we can express T from equation (3.78)
T = C(t)

t


2
+
For the incompressible ow this equation is reduced to
p =

_
C(t)

t


2
+
_
For each instant of time C(t) is unique for the whole ow-eld so circle integral of
it is equal to zero. It is customary to neglect inuence of gravitational forces for air
so we drop form the equation also, thus
p =

_
C(t)

t

W W
2
_
(3.268)
If we now substitute this value for pressure p into expression for Blasius force, and
if we substitute = (F +

F)/2 we get
X Y =

2
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz

2
_
C
_
F
t
+


F
t
_
d z (3.269)
The same way we obtain
M =

2
'
_
_
_
C
z
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
_
_
+

2
'
_
_
_
C
z
_
F
t
+


F
t
_
dz
_
_
(3.270)
119
3.27 Lagallys Theorem
Consider a uniform stream whose complex potential is (UV )z and a source placed
at point a of a strength . Complex potential of the combined ow-eld is thus
F(z) = (U V )z +

2
ln(z a)
If we introduce closed contour into the ow eld C the complex potential is dis-
Figure 3.46: Derivation of Lagallys theorem.
turbed by the addition of a function which must vanish at innity, for the presence
of the nite body cannot aect the distant parts of the uid. To make the case gen-
eral, suppose there is a circulation of strength about the body C, where positive
value is considered to be clockwise . Then the complex potential at great distances
will be of the form
F(z) = (U V )z + mln(z a) +ln z +
A
z
+
B
z
2
+ (3.271)
where m = /2 and = /2. The last terms take into account circulation and
eects of introduced body C into ow eld .
The complex velocity is then given by
W =
dF(z)
dz
= (U V ) +
m
z a
+

z
+
A
z
2
+
B
z
3
+ (3.272)
where constants A, B, . . . are changed to avoid writing new constants besides arbi-
trary constants.
To nd the force on the body, we have, form the theorem of Blasius,
X Y =

2
_
C
_
dF(z)
dz
_
2
dz .
Now let S be a circle of great radius which includes both the cylinder and the source.
From the conclusion (3.64) we could enlarge contour S arbitrary and we may write
for any single valued function the the same expression. Thus
_
S
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz =
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz +
_

_
dF
dz
_
2
dz
120
where is small contour drawn round the source. Thus
X Y =

2
_
S
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz

2
_

_
dF
dz
_
2
dz (3.273)
Now on the circle S, sice [z[ is large, we can expand 1/(z a) in powers of 1/z, and
therefore from (3.272),
dF
dz
= (U V ) +
m
z
_
1 +
a
z
+
a
2
z
2
+
_
+

z
+
A
z
2
+
B
z
3
+
and hence
_
dF
dz
_
2
= (U V )
2
+ 2
(U V )(m + )
z
+
A

z
2
+
B

z
3
+ ,
where A

, B

,. . . are certain constants. Thus by the residue theorem,

2
_
S
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz = 2(U V )(m + ) . (3.274)
To calculate the second integral in (3.273), we see from (3.272) that
dF
dz
= f(z) +
m
z a
where
f(z) =
d
dz
[F mln(z a)]
what is the complex velocity obtained by omitting the contribution from the source
at a, now
_
dF
dz
_
2
= f
2
(z) +
m
2
(z a)
2
+
2mf(z)
z a
(3.275)
By the Taylors theorem
f(z) = f[(z a) +a] = f(a) + (z a)f

(a) +
Hence the residue of (dF/dz)
2
at z = a is 4mf(a). Thus

2
_

_
dF
dz
_
2
dz = 2mf(a)
Now f(a) is the complex velocity induced at a by the remaining part of the complex
potential when we omit he source m. Thus calling this induced velocity u
m
v
m
,
we have nally
X Y = 2(U V ) 2m(U V + u
m
v
m
) (3.276)
this result is called Lagallys theorem.
Lagallys theorem is reduced to simpler form when there is no free stream and
circulation. In such case we have
X Y = 2m(u
m
v
m
)
121
Chapter 4
Principle of Superposition
4.1 Basic Principle
Let
1
,
2
,. . . ,
n
are solutions of Laplace equation

1
= 0 ,
2

2
= 0 , . . .
2

n
= 0
then linear combination of former solutions is also solution of Laplaces partial dif-
ferential equation
=
n

i=1
c
i

i
,
2
= c
1

1
. .
=0
+c
2

2
. .
=0
+ + c
n

n
. .
=0
= 0
where c
1
, c
2
, . . . , c
n
are arbitrary constants, shorter this equation can be written in
the form

2
=
n

i=1
c
i

i
= 0 (4.1)
Explained property is characteristics of linear equations to which Laplace equation
belongs. Constants c
i
could be selected to satisfy some additional requirement, such
as boundary conditions of the problem.
4.2 Rankines Oval
Consider the two-dimensional ow resulting from superimposing a uniform ow par-
allel to the x-axis with velocity U

, a source with a strength at x = x

o
, and a
sink with a strength at x = x
o
, gure (4.1). The velocity potential for this ow
will be
(x, y) = U

x +

2
ln
_
_
(x + x
o
)
2
+ y
2
_

2
ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
_
(4.2)
where constants from equation (4.1) are c
1
= U

, c
2
= , and c
3
= , while

1
= x,
2
=
1
2
ln
_
_
(x + x
o
)
2
+ y
2
_
,
3
=
1
2
ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
_
122
Figure 4.1: Superposition of uniform ow, source, and sink.
Since the stream function also satisfy Laplace equation, we can construct the stream
function by superimposing expressions for stream function of each component
(x, y) = U

y +

2

1

2

2
(4.3)
where

1
= arctan
y
x + x
o
and
2
= arctan
y
x x
o
or, after substitution
(x, y) = U

y +

2
arctan
y
x + x
o

2
arctan
y
x x
o
(4.4)
The velocity eld due to this potential is obtained by dierentiating either the
velocity potential or the stream function:
u =

x
= U

+

2
x + x
o
(x + x
o
)
2
+ y
2


2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
(4.5)
v =

y
=

2
y
(x + x
o
)
2
+ y
2


2
y
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
(4.6)
Because of the symmetry about the x axis the stagnation points are located along
the x axis, at points further out than the location of the source and sink, say at
x = a. The distance a is then found by setting the u component of the velocity to
zero
u(a, 0) = U

+

2
1
a + x
o

2
1
a x
o
= U

x
o
a
2
x
2
o
= 0
and a is
a =

x
o
U

+ x
2
o
(4.7)
Consider the stagnation streamline (which pass through the stagnation points). The
value for the stagnation streamline can be found by observing the value of equation
(4.3) on the left side stagnation point (where
1
=
2
= , and z = 0). This results
in = 0, which can be shown to be the same for the right-hand side stagnation
123
Figure 4.2: Streamlines for Rankine oval.
point as well (where
1
=
2
= 0). The equation for the stagnation streamline is
therefore
(x, y) = U

y +

2
arctan
y
x + x
o

2
arctan
y
x x
o
(4.8)
The streamlines of this ow, including the stagnating streamline, are sketched in
gure (4.2). Note that the stagnating streamline includes a closed oval shape, called
Rankines oval. Note that adding in the uniform ow source and sink of equal
strengths generate closed streamline. Since there is no cross-ow through stream
line we can consider any streamline as the surface of some body. Closed streamlines
are of particular interest since they represent nite bodies.
4.3 Source in a Uniform Stream
Let us now apply principle of superposition on the solutions which represents ho-
mogeneous ow parallel to the x axis, for which stream function looks

1
= U

y
and source placed at coordinate origin

2
=

2
arctan
y
x
where is the strength of the source, (x, y) are coordinates of the arbitrary point
in the ow-eld. Stream function for the former combination is obtained by simple
addition
=
1
+
2
= U

y +

2
arctan
y
x
(4.9)
Similarly we could obtain potential of the combination
(x, y) = U

x +

2
ln
_
_
x
2
+ y
2
_
(4.10)
124
Constants c
i
are now c
1
= U

, and c
2
= . Figure (4.3) shows streamlines for
this problem. It is obvious that generated body is of innite size. To obtain closed
contour we must have additional sinks of equal strength distributed within uniform
ow.
We can calculate velocity components at arbitrary point (x, y) by denition
u =

x
= U

+

2
x
x
2
+ y
2
(4.11)
v =

y
=

2
y
x
2
+ y
2
(4.12)
Figure 4.3: Source in uniform stream.
4.4 Sources in Uniform Flow
We could apply any number sources (and sinks) in the uniform ow. We could
construct stream ow patterns similarly, as before. Let us nd potential of n sources
(some of them could be actually sinks) distributed at points (x
i
, y
i
), let also the
strengths to be
i
. If we wish to obtain closed contour in the ow-eld it must be
satised

i
= 0. Thus
(x, y) = U

x +
1
2
n

i=1

i
ln
_
_
(x x
i
)
2
+ (y y
i
)
2
_
(4.13)
and
(x, y) = U

y +
1
2
n

i=1

i
arctan
y y
i
x x
i
(4.14)
125
Figure 4.4: Three sources in uniform stream.
The velocity components are obtained by dierentiating expression (4.13) with re-
spect to x and y
u =

x
= U

+
1
2
n

i=1
x x
i
(x x
i
)
2
+ (y y
i
)
2
(4.15)
v =

y
=
1
2
n

i=1
y y
i
(x x
i
)
2
+ (y y
i
)
2
(4.16)
We illustrate now the former by combining three sources in the uniform ow eld.
One of the sources is placed at the coordinate origin, while other two are placed
on the y-axis symmetrically with respect to x-axis. Figure (4.4) shows stream lines
when the strength of each source is equal to 5, and when U

= 1, and V

= 0.
Picture shows clearly that the line pattern is similar to one obtained for the single
source.
Three dark, horizontal, lines from the sources to the left require explanation. Stream-
lines are obtained requiring iso-lines plot from the software used to prepare pictures.
But source has double sheet property for stream function, i.e. stream function has
along some line jump between 0 and some nite value, resulting in many isolines
between two close points where jump is occurred. We could, thus, neglect these
dark lines.
Function arctan has jump when y 0. Little bit above x-axis function arctan has
the value , and little bit below it has the value , as it is shown in the gure
(4.5).
Figure (4.6) shows two sources, one above x-axis, and one below symmetrically
placed with respect to x-axis. The strength of the third source and uniform velocity
are zero. We see that x-axis is the line of symmetry and also the streamline. Since
any streamline can be treated as solid boundary we discovered the way how to ob-
tain the ow-eld in the neighborhood of solid planes. Method by which singularities
are distributed symmetrically about some line is called method of images.
126
Figure 4.5: Double sheet property of stream function for the source.
Final example with three sources is shown in the gure (4.7). Again sources are
placed along y-axis. The source below x-axis is placed at (0, a) with strength
. The second source is placed at coordinate origin with strength also , and third
source is actually sink placed at (0, a) with strength 2. As it is clear total strength
of distributed sources is zero so we could expect closed contour if uniform ow comes
in proper direction. The proper direction for such distribution of singularities is
vertical upward, i.e. U

= 0 and V

,= 0.
4.5 Doublet in Uniform Flow
4.5.1 Cauchy Integral Formula
What follows require application of Cauchy integral formula. We mention here the
most important results. If the function f(z) is analytic everywhere within and on a
simple closed contour C taken in the positive sense, and if z
o
is any point interior
to C, then
f(z
o
) =
1
2
_
C
f(z)
z z
o
dz (4.17)
This formula is called Cauchy integral formula. It tell us that if a unction f is to be
analytic within and on a simple closed contour C, then values of f interior to C are
completely determined by the values of f on C. Proof of this theorem can be found
127
Figure 4.6: Two sources without uniform ow.
in any book about complex analysis. It can be proven that
f

(z
o
) =
1
2
_
C
f(z)
(z z
o
)
2
dz
we could prove this by formal dierentiation of equation (4.17) with respect to z
o
.
According to formula (4.17) we have
f(z
o
+ z
o
) f(z
o
)
z
o
=
1
2
_
C
_
1
z z
o
z
o

1
z z
o
_
f(z)
z
o
dz
=
1
2
_
C
f(z) dz
(z z
o
z
o
)(z z
o
)
when z
o
0 the left-hand side tends to f

(z
o
) obtaining
f

(z
o
) =
1
2
_
C
f(z)
(z z
o
)
2
dz (4.18)
It can be generalized that
f
(n)
(z
o
) =
n!
2
_
C
f(z)
(z z
o
)
n+1
dz (4.19)
where
(n)
means n-th derivative.
128
Figure 4.7: Sources and sink in uniform ow.
4.5.2 Flow about Cylinder
We could proceed the same way as before using equations (3.236) and (3.238) to con-
struct such ow. But we will illustrate the same using complex variable formulation.
In the sub-section (3.25.2) we have derived the following expressions
W(z) =

2
1
z
2
, F(z) =

2
1
z
(4.20)
for doublet oriented in positive x-direction and
W

(z) = U

, F(z) = ( U

) z (4.21)
for uniform ow. Adding two expressions for complex potential (when uniform ow
is parallel to the x-axis, and doublet oriented in x direction) we get
F(z) = U

z +

2
1
z
(4.22)
If the strength of the doublet is chosen to be = 2R
2
U

then
F(z) = U

_
z +
R
2
z
_
, W(z) = U

_
1
R
2
z
2
_
(4.23)
Velocity potential and stream function are obtained from complex potential
= '(F(z)) , = (F(z)) (4.24)
129
Figure 4.8: Doublet in uniform stream.
So
= (F(z)) =
_
U

_
z +
R
2
z z
z
__
= U

_
y
R
2
[z[
2
y
_
when = 0 we get
[z[
2
= R
2
, and y = 0
what is the equation of the zero-th streamline. Former expressions say that zero-
th streamline is circle [z[ = R and line y = 0 what is x-axis. Figure (4.8) shows
streamlines for the combination of uniform ow and doublet when U

= 2R
2
.
Again we have inner and outer ow. Flows are separated with zero-th streamline.
The other equation y = 0 simply say that the ow-eld is symmetrical about x axis.
We now calculate force acting on the circle R, from Blaisus theorem, (3.263), we
have
X Y =

2
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz =
U
2

2
_
C
_
1
R
2
z
2
_
2
dz
=
U
2

2
_
C
_
1 2
R
2
z
2
+
R
4
z
4
_
dz (4.25)
If we apply Cauchy integral formula to the former equation we have
X Y =
U
2

2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
C
f
1
dz
_
C
f
2
(z 0)
2
dz
. .
=f

2
(0)=0
+
_
C
f
3
(z 0)
4
dz
. .
=f

3
(0)=0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
where f
1
(z) = 1, f
2
(z) = 2R
2
= const, and f
3
(z) = R
4
= const. The rst integral is
not Cauchy integral it is integral of analytic function. Any integration of analytic
function along closed contour is equal to zero since value of the integral does not
130
Figure 4.9: Contour integral of analytic function.
depend on integration path. Let us imagine any two distinct points on some closed
contour, gure (4.9), then
_
C
f
1
(z) dz =
B
_
A
f
1
(z) dz +
A
_
B
f
1
(z) dz =
B
_
A
f
1
(z) dz
B
_
A
f
1
(z) dz = 0 .
It is obvious that X Y 0. We, thus, concluded that there is no force acting on
the cylinder when only doublet singularity is used to form the cylinder.
4.6 Flow around Cylinder with Circulation
We now add circulation about the cylinder obtained in previous section. Our super-
position has now three components: uniform ow, doublet oriented in x direction,
and vortex. We place both doublet and vortex at coordinate origin, thus
F(z) = (U

)z +

2
1
z
+
0 +
2
ln z (4.26)
Let us again assume that the uniform ow is parallel to the x-axis, (V

= 0). Than
complex velocity W is obtained by dierentiating equation (4.26) with respect to z
W(z) =
dF
dz
= U

+

2
1
z
2
+

2
1
z
(4.27)
where = 2R
2
U

. To calculate the force we need W

2
(z)
W
2
(z) = U
2

+
_

2
_
2
1
z
4

_

2
_
2
1
z
2
+
U

1
z
2
+
U

1
z
+

2
2
1
z
3
or
W
2
(z) = f
1
(z) +
f
2
(z)
z
+
f
3
(z)
z
2
+
f
4
(z)
z
3
+
f
5
(z)
z
4
where all f
i
are constants. For integration around circle [z[ = R we need to consider
only the second term since all other are equal to zero based on the same argument
as in the previous section, thus
X Y =

2
_
|z|=R
U

/
z 0
dz = U

1
2
_
|z|=R
1
z 0
dz
. .
=1
(4.28)
131
Figure 4.10: Flow about cylinder with circulation.
thus
X = 0 , Y = U

(4.29)
As we see circulation generates vertical force component (lift), but horizontal force
component is still equal to zero. Reality deny this conclusion since potential ow
neglects inuence of viscosity. Measurements conrm that pressure distribution
around cylinder is in a good agreement for the front part of cylinder but considerably
diers on the rear side. We obtain streamlines taking imaginary part of complex
potential (4.26)
=
_
(U

)z +

2
1
z
+
0 +
2
ln z
_
(4.30)
Streamlines are shown in the gure (4.10). If we add one singularity more to this
problem, such as one additional vortex, circular shape is destroyed as it is shown
in the gure (4.11). We need special treatment if we wish to preserve circular
shape. Preservation of circular shape is important because we could apply conformal
mapping which map circular shape to other shapes.
Example 4.1:
Write program by which it is possible to generate data for plotting gures such as
(4.11). Program should read undisturbed velocity components U and V , the number of
singularities in the ow-eld, and for each singularity:
1. Type of singularity: 1 Source or sink, 2 Vortex, and 3 Doublet.
2. Strength of the singularity. Note that for source minus sign mean sink.
3. Coordinate where the singularity is placed.
The program should record the values of the stream function in the rectangular grid.
Solution 4.1:
132
Figure 4.11: Streamlines obtained when one more singularity is added in the ow-
eld shown in the gure (4.10).
module data_structure
type singl
integer tip ! type of the singularity =1 source or sink;
!=2 vortex;
!=3 doublet
real strength ! strength of the singularity
real xo,yo ! location of the singularity
end type
!
end module data_structure
! **************************************************************
program Singul
use data_structure
type(singl) s(20)
integer, parameter :: Nx=100, Ny=100
real psi(Nx,Ny)
! Read input data
Call ReadInput(U,V,s,N)
! Set ploting parameters
xmax = 5.0
ymax = 3.0
dx = 2*xmax/(Nx-1)
dy = 2*ymax/(Ny-1)
!
! Record results into *.dat file
! ready to be ploted by TECPLOT (C)
open(unit=1,file=sing.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) Nx,Ny
101 format(variables= "x", "y", "psi"/zone i=,i4, j=,I4, f=point)
133
!
do j = 1, Ny
y = (j-1)*dy - ymax
do i = 1, Nx
x = (i-1)*dx - xmax
psi(i,j) = CalculatePsi(U,V,s,N,x,y)
write(1,102) x,y,psi(i,j)
end do
end do
102 format(3F12.3)
!
stop Singul - End of run!
end program Singul
! **************************************************************
function CalculatePsi(U,V,s,N,x,y)
use data_structure
type(singl) s(20)
integer sitype
real, parameter:: pi=3.14159265
Psi = U*y-V*x ! Uniform flow
do i = 1, N
xo = s(i)%xo
yo = s(i)%yo
si = s(i)%strength
sitype = s(i)%tip
Check_Singularity_Type: select case (sitype)
case(1)
Psi = Psi + si/(2*pi)*atan2(y-yo,x-xo)
case(2)
r = sqrt((x-xo)**2+(y-yo)**2)
if(r<>0.0) then
Psi = Psi + si/(2*pi)*log(r)
else
Psi = 0.0
end if
case(3)
rr = (x-xo)**2+(y-yo)**2
if(rr <> 0.0) then
Psi = Psi - si/(2*pi)*(y-yo)/rr
else
Psi = 0.0
end if
case default
stop Undefined type of singularity
end select Check_Singularity_Type
end do
CalculatePsi = Psi
return
end subroutine CalculatePsi
! **************************************************************
subroutine ReadInput(U,V,s,N)
use data_structure
type(singl) s(20)
print 101
101 format( Uniform flow components (U,V) : ,$)
read *,U,V
134
print 102
102 format( Number of point singularities in flow field : ,$)
read *,N
print 106
do i = 1, N
print 103,i
read *,s(i)%tip
print 104
read *,s(i)%strength
print 105
read *,s(i)%xo,s(i)%yo
end do
103 format( Type of the singularity no:,I2, : ,$)
104 format( Strength of the singularity : ,$)
105 format( Location of the singularity (x,y) : ,$)
106 format( Avaliable types of singularities:/ &
5x,1 - source or sink/ &
5x,2 - vortex/ &
5x,3 - doublet/ )
return
end subroutine ReadInput
Example 4.2:
In the gure (4.12) is shown cascade of source-vortex singularities (of the strength )
distributed along y-axis. Distance between singularities is s. Calculate induced velocity
at arbitrary point P(x, y).
Figure 4.12: Cascade of source-vortex singularities.
Solution 4.2:
Complex potential of point source-vortex is given as
F(z) =

2
ln(z z
o
)
while the complex velocity is obtained by dierentiating this equation with respect to z
W = u v =
dF
dz
=

2
1
z z
o
135
Summing contribution from complete cascade we get
u v =

2

k=
1
z sk
Mathematical tables supply us with formula

k=
1
(k + a)
n
= (1)
n1

(n 1)!
d
(n1)
da
n1
cot a
so we need to adjust our expression to this formula (n = 1)
u v =

2s

k=
1
k +
z
s
=

2s
cot
_
z
s

_
Since cot(x) = coth(x) we nally have
u v =

2s
coth
_
z
s

_
If none of the singularities coincide with coordinate origin, but one of them is at h then
the this equation looks
u v =

2s
coth
_
z h
s

_
4.7 Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
We consider the ow past 2D body whose contour is denoted by C, gure (4.13).
Let the components of aerodynamic force acting on the body be X and Y in the
direction of x and y axes, respectively. According to the Blasius formula (3.263)
this component of the forces can be calculated as
X Y =

2
_
C
_
dF
dz
_
2
dz .
We could assume that complex velocity potential has the form
F(z) = (U

)z +
+
2
ln z

2
1
z
+

i=2
A
i
1
z
i
From which follows complex velocity W
W(z) =
dF
dz
= (U

) +
+
2
1
z
+

2
1
z
2
+

i=2
A
i
1
z
i+1
thus
W
2
(z) = (U

)
2
+ 2(U

)
+
2
1
z
+

i=2
B
i
z
i
136
Figure 4.13: Kutta-Joukowsky theorem.
It is clear from (4.19) that all terms 1/z
i
vanishes since B
i
are constant except term
1/z. So we concentrate our attention on
X Y =

2
_
C
2(U

)
+
2
1
z 0
dz
or
X Y = (U

)( + )
since we are interested in closed nite body then must be = 0
X Y = (U

) (4.31)
Note also that = e
/2
, = e
/2
and
U

= Q

, where: Q

=
_
U
2

+ V
2

Thus
X Y = Q

e
(+/2)
If we calculate complex conjugate from both sides of equation sign, we get
X + Y = X Y = Q

e
(+/2)
(4.32)
It is clear that the angle between velocity vector and force vector is /2. Aero-
dynamic force is always orthogonal to velocity vector in the case of potential ow.
Force which is always orthogonal to velocity vector is called lift, thus
L = Q

(4.33)
this equation is known in aerodynamic community as Kutta-Joukowsky theorem.
4.8 Aerodynamic Force on the Vortex Line
Consider vortex line of the strength and point P at we wish to determine induced
velocities due to vortex line. We derive expression for induced velocity by considering
rst inuence of the vortex line segment between two arbitrary points Aand B, gure
137
(4.14). Vortex line segment of innitesimal length d

induce velocity

V at point P
according to Biot-Savarts law, (3.141)

V (r) =

4
d

L (r r
L
)
[r r
L
[
3
(4.34)
since

= r r
L
than

V must be orthogonal to the plane which contains vectors

Figure 4.14: Velocity induced by vortex line segment.
d

L and

. The intensity of the cross product is than [d

[ = dL sin so
V =

4
sin dL

2
(4.35)
where direction of

V is orthogonal to the plane ABP. From the gure (4.14) is

also clear that
h = sin , =
h
sin
L = r
1
cos
A
cos = r
1
cos
A
hcot
dL =
h
sin
2

d
after substitution of former expressions into equation (4.35), and after integrating
from
A
to
B
we get
V =

4h

B
_

A
sin d =

4h
(cos
A
cos
B
) (4.36)
If we are interested in induced velocity from whole vortex line than we must sub-
stitute, in equation (4.36), instead
B
, and
A
values and 0 respectively. Thus we
get
V =

2h
138
what is exactly the same expression as one given by equation (3.239). We conclude
that two-dimensional vortex and three-dimensional vortex line induce velocity of
same magnitude. Other properties connected with two-dimensional vortex must be
also valid for vortex line, such as Kutta-Joukowsky theorem.
In calculations it is necessary to to determine vector of induced velocity not only
magnitude. We introduce vectors
r
o
=

AB = r
B
r
A
, r
1
=

AP = r r
A
, r
2
=

BP = r r
B
From the gure (4.14) and denitions of vector dot and cross products we have
h =
[r
1
r
2
[
[r
o
[
cos
A
=
r
o
r
1
[r
o
[[r
1
[
cos
B
=
r
o
r
2
[r
o
[[r
2
[
it remains only to dene unit vector of the plane which contains vectors r
1
and r
2
n =
r
1
r
2
[r
1
r
2
[
We have now all elements to calculate induced velocity at any arbitrary point P

V =

4
r
1
r
2
[r
1
r
2
[
2
_
r
o

_
r
1
[r
1
[

r
2
[r
2
[
__
(4.37)
Figure 4.15: Kutta-Joukowsky theorem for three-dimensional ow.
According to Joukowsky theorem for vortex surface pressure jump p exists only if
there is velocity component normal to bound vortex. Velocity component parallel
to vorticity does not contribute to lift. We can, thus, generalize Kutta-Joukowsky
theorem for three-dimensional ow-eld, gure (4.15)

F =

where

= , and

is the vector in the direction of vortex tube, and equal to the
length of the vortex tube. Vector

F is aerodynamic force per unit length.
139
4.9 Strait Solid Wall in the Flow Field
Consider a uid containing a distribution of sources, sinks and doublets. If a surface
S can be drawn in the uid so as not to pass through any of the singularities
distributed on either side of it, then the two sets of singularities on opposite sides
of S are said to be image systems in the surface S.
Figure 4.16: Image system for the source.
4.9.1 3D Source near the Innite Plane Wall
Figure (4.16a) shows a simple source of strength situated at A(a, 0, 0) at a distance
a from the innite rigid plane (x = 0). We show now that the appropriate image in
the rigid plane is an equal source of strength at A

(a, 0, 0), what is the reection

of point A in the plane.
Consider gure (4.16b) in which we have two sources of strength at A(a, 0, 0) and
A

(a, 0, 0) with no rigid boundary. Let P be any point on the plane x = 0. Than
uid velocity at point P due to the two sources is

V
P
=

AP
3

AP +

A

P
3

P =

AP
3
(

AP +

P)
But

AP +

P = 2

OP
then

V
P
=
2
AP
3

OP
This shows that at any point P at the plane x = 0 uid ows vertically i.e. tangen-
tially to the plane, and so there is no transport of uid across this plane. Thus we
must have at all points in the plane /n = 0.
4.9.2 2D Source near the Innite Plane Wall
The illustration for two-dimensional version of source image is similar to that shown
in gure (4.16). Only the expressions are those which correspond to two dimensions.
140
We again use complex variables. Let us consider two sources of equal strength
placed at points z
1
and z
1
, then complex potential for those sources is
F(z) =

2
ln(z z
1
) +

2
ln(z + z
1
)
Complex velocity W is obtained by dierentiating this equation with respect to z
W =
dF(z)
dz
=

2
_
1
z z
1
+
1
z + z
1
_
or
u v =

2
_

1
z
1
z
+
1
z
1
+ z
_
Note that for z = y rst term in the parenthesis is conjugate complex value of the
second term
u v =

2
_

1
z
1
y
+
1
z
1
+ y
_
so we have dierence between complex conjugate variables what gives purely imag-
inary value. Thus Flow is again tangent to the vertical axis x = 0, and it could be
considered as a solid wall.
4.9.3 2D Doublet near the Impermeable Innite Plane
Doublet singularity is obtained from the sourcesink combination, so we could start
from the denition of the doublet to determine image system. Let us now consider
gure (4.17). On the left is shown image system for the sourcesink combination.
On the right (4.17b) we show image system for the doublets which generate vertical
streamline x = 0 thus simulating solid plane wall.
Figure 4.17: Image system for the doublet.
From (3.260) we have for the doublet at coordinate origin
F =
A
z
if we choose A = e

/2 we obtain the following expression for the complex
potential of the doublet at point z
1
F =
e

2
1
z z
1
141
The vertical plane is obtained from the superposition
F(z) =
e

2
1
z + z
1

e

2
1
z z
1
or
F(z) =

2
_
e

z + z
1

e

z z
1
_
(4.38)
Let us check again velocity eld induced by the doublet system
u v =

2
_

e

(z + z
1
)
2
+
e

(z z
1
)
2
_
at the line z = i y
u v =

2
_
e

[x
1
+ (y y
1
)]
2
+
e

[x
1
+ (y y
1
)]
2
_
denominators are conjugate complex numbers so we could write this equation as
u v =

2R
_
e

e

+
e

e

_
=

2R
_
e
()
+ e
()
_
where [x
1
+(y y
1
)]
2
= Re

. Right-hand side is clearly imaginary number so there
is no component velocity in the x direction, thus line x = 0 could be considered as
solid wall.
4.9.4 3D Doublet near the Impermeable Innite Plane
Similarly to 2D doublet image system we could make the plane x = 0 to be solid
wall. It is clear that vector , which represent doublet orientation and intensity
must be symmetric about plane x = 0. Figure (4.18) shows plane of symmetry
(solid wall) and plane which contains doublet vector , which is also orthogonal to
the solid wall. Doublet is placed at point A(a, y, z), while image of the doublet is
placed A

(a, y, z). Unit vector is orthogonal to solid wall so

n =
vector n is orthogonal on the plane which contains both doublet orientation vector
and vector . That plane must be orthogonal to the solid wall (x = 0).
Now we have to decompose vector into component parallel to intersection of
two planes and component normal to intersection of these planes. Since vector n
is orthogonal to the plane which contains doublet orientation vector , and is
orthogonal to the plane x = 0 vector
= n,
o
=

[[
must be parallel to the intersection of these two planes, so the component of the
vector parallel to the intersection line is
o
. The remaining component (
142
Figure 4.18: Image system for the three-dimensional doublet.

o
)
o
is orthogonal to the intersection line. The normal component of the doublet
orientation vector must be symmetric with respect to x = 0 line which is obtained by
simply reversing the sign of obtained orthogonal component (
o
)
o
. Finally the
doublet orientation vector at point A

(a, x, z) is obtained after adding component

parallel to the intersection line (which is the same for both vectors).

= 2(
o
)
o
(4.39)
Intensity of the vector can be calculated from
= ( ) =( ) ( ) =
x
=
y

z

k
where =
x
+
y
+
z

k, and we used vector identity

A(

B

C) = (

A

C)

B
(

A

B)

C to expand double cross product. Thus

=
y

z

k , [[ =
_

2
y
+
2
z
,
o
=

y
+
z

k
_

2
y
+
2
z
It is clear that if we replace this expressions into equation (4.39) that we obtain

=
x
+
y
+
z

k
what we could write immediately, but described procedure is valid for any plane
orientation.
4.10 The Circle Theorem
We discussed so far how to obtain solid wall in the ow eld. It is of some importance
to obtain the images of singularities outside the circle in a such way that circular
shape is maintained. Since we are talking about two-dimensional problem we use
again complex variables. Let complex potential of the ow with singularities outside
circle be denoted by F(z) than
F(z) = (z) + (z)
143
where both functions and are real functions. It is important to dierentiate the
following notations

F(z), F( z), and F(z)

F(z) = (z) (z)

F( z) = ( z) + ( z)
F(z) = ( z) ( z) =

F( z)
Now we can formulate the circle theorem. Let there be irrotational two-dimensional
ow of incompressible inviscid uid in the z-plane. Let there be no rigid boundaries
an let the complex potential of the ow be F(z), where the singularities of F(z) are
all at a distance greater than a from the origin. If a circular cylinder typied by its
cross-section the circle C, z = a, be introduced into the eld of ow, the complex
potential becomes
f(z) = F(z) +

F
_
a
2
z
_
(4.40)
Proof. Since there are no rigid boundaries, the ow given by F(z) is determinate at
every point of the z-plane, except perhaps at the singularities of F(z) which arise
form the vortices, sources, doublets, etc.
After the cylinder is inserted, C must become a streamline = const, and without
loss of generality we may assume that it is the streamline = 0.
Let us consider now position in the complex plane of the points z and a
2
/z. If
z = re

is outside the circle [z[ = a than point a
2
/z = a
2
e

/r is inside the circle
C, as it is shown in the gure (4.19a).
Figure 4.19: Relationship between points z and a
2
/z.
Coordinate of the point S is a
2
e

/r, and point Q is symmetric to the point S with
respect to x-axis, i.e. points have conjugate complex coordinates. In the limiting
case, gure (4.19b), when r a points P and Q fall on to the circle C. Coordinate
of the point Q is z if the coordinate of the point P is z.
Considering the expression (4.40) it is clear that on the circle C the function

F(a
2
/z)
is equal to

F( z) thus complex function f(z) is completely real at the circle C,
meaning that = 0. Thus circle C is streamline.
144
4.10.1 A Few Examples
Flow about Circle
Let us rst consider again ow about circle without circulation. Complex potential
of the uniform ow is expressed as
F(z) = (U

)z
complex function

F(z) is given as

F(z) = (U

+ V

)z ,

F
_
a
2
z
_
= (U

+ V

)
a
2
z
and nally after adding expressions in previous two equations (superposition prin-
ciple) we get
f(z) = (U

)z + (U

+ V

)
a
2
z
(4.41)
Source and Vortex near the Circle
As it is given by equations (3.258) and (3.259) complex potential of the source and
vortex at the z
o
are given as
F(z) =
+
2
ln(z z
o
)
We construct complex potential of the ow about circle again in two step process

F(z) =

2
ln(z z
o
)

F
_
a
2
z
_
=

2
ln
_
a
2
z
z
o
_
Adding previous two functions (superposition principle) we get complex potential
f(z) of the source-vortex combination near the circle
f(z) = F(z) +

F
_
a
2
z
_
=
+
2
ln(z z
o
) +

2
ln
_
a
2
z
z
o
_
(4.42)
Adding equations (4.41) and (4.42) (superposition principle) we get complex poten-
tial of the uniform ow with source and vortex singularities near the circle
f(z) = (U

)z + (U

+ V

)
a
2
z
+
+
2
ln(z z
o
) +

2
ln
_
a
2
z
z
o
_
(4.43)
If we carefully look at the last term of this equation we can write it

2
ln
_
a
2
z
z
o
_
=

2
ln ( z
o
) +

2
ln
_
z
a
2
z
o
_

2
ln (z)
the rst term on the right-hand side is the complex constant and can be discard
since velocity potential and stream function are undetermined up to some constant.
The last two terms on the right-hand side represent singularities within the circular
cylinder, last term being the singularity at the coordinate origin.
145
Doublet near the Circle
Complex potential of the doublet at the point z
o
is given by table (3.1)
F(z) =
e

2

1
z z
o
we, again, nd

F(a
2
/z) in two step process

F(z) =
e

2

1
z z
o
,

F
_
a
2
z
_
=
e

2

1
a
2
z
z
o
And, as before, adding former expressions (superposition principle) we get complex
potential of the ow due to doublet near the solid cylinder
f(z) =
e

2

1
z z
o
+
e

2

1
a
2
z
z
o
(4.44)
Adding this expression with complex potential of the uniform ow about circle we
get the complex potential of the ow about cylinder with doublet singularities in
the ow-eld.
All Together
We again use superposition principle to obtain complex potential of the ow about
cylinder in the ow-eld. Let us nd complex potential for the ow about circular
cylinder placed at the coordinate origin if in the ow eld exists n source-vortex
singularities of the intensity
i
+
i
, placed at points z
i
outside circle, and m
doublets of the intensity
i
, with orientation
i
, and at the positions z
i
outside
circle
f(z) = (U

)z + (U

+ V

)
a
2
z
+
n

i=1

i
+
i
2
ln(z z
i
) +
n

i=1

i

i
2
ln
_
a
2
z
z
i
_
+
m

i=1

i
e

i
2

1
z z
i
+
m

i=1

i
e

i
2

1
a
2
z
z
i
(4.45)
If it is required to place cylinder instead at origin to some other place, say z
c
, than
we have to substitute z in equation (4.45) with z z
c
, and all z
i
with z
i
z
c
.
In the gure (4.20) is shown ow-eld produced by the vortex in the vicinity of the
cylinder. We can compare this ow-eld with the one shown (4.11)
In the gure (4.21) we show ow-eld about cylinder with three singularities around
it.
Example 4.3:
Develop the program by which it is possible to calculate ow-eld around circular cylinder
in the presence of singularities in the ow-eld.
Solution 4.3:
Our task is to program equation (4.45). We need to read U

, V

, n, m, the com-
plex constants for source vortex singularity (
i
,
i
), and
i
,
i
constants for doublet
singularity. Program that follows is possible solution of our problem.
146
Figure 4.20: Vortex near the circular cylinder.
Program CircleTheorem
integer, parameter :: NSV=10, ND=10, Nx=100, Ny=100
real, parameter :: xmin=-2.0, xmax=6.0, ymin=-2.0, ymax=3.0
complex F,zi(NSV+ND),zc, z
real sigma(NSV),Gamma(NSV),Mu(ND),alpha(ND), Psi(Nx,Ny)
! Read necessary data
Call GetData(sigma,Gamma,Mu,alpha,zi,zc,Ub,Vb,a,NSV,ND,NoSv,NoD)
! Prepare for coordinate calculations
dx = (xmax-xmin)/(Nx-1)
dy = (ymax-ymin)/(Ny-1)
open(unit=1,file=circ.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) Nx,Ny
101 format(variables= "x", "y", "psi"/zone i=,i4, j=,I4, f=point)
!
! Calcualte stream function
do i = 1, Nx
x = xmin + dx*(i-1)
do j = 1, Ny
y = ymin + dy*(j-1)
z = cmplx(x,y)
Call CalculatePotential(z,Ub,Vb,a,zc,zi,NoSV,NoD,sigma,Gamma,Mu,alpha,F)
write(1,(3F10.3)) x,y,aimag(F)
end do
end do
close(unit=1)
stop CircleTheorem - E n d o f r u n !
end program CircleTheorem
! ***************************************************************************
Subroutine GetData(sigma,Gamma,Mu,alpha,zi,zc,Ub,Vb,a,NSV,ND,NoSV,NoD)
complex zi(NSV+ND),zc
real sigma(NSV),Gamma(NSV),Mu(ND),alpha(ND)
! Undesturbed velocities
Ub = 1.0
147
SOURCE
VORTICES
CYLINDER
Figure 4.21: Uniform ow, one source and two vortices in the vicinity of the circular
cylinder.
Vb = 0.2
! Radius of the cylinder
a = 1.0
! Location of the cylinder
zc = (1.0,0.0)
! Sources and Vortices
NoSV = 3
sigma(1) = 0.0
Gamma(1) = 8.0
zi(1) = (2.0,2.0)
sigma(2) = 0.0
Gamma(2) = -5
zi(2) = (-1.0,2.0)
sigma(3) = 5.0
Gamma(3) = 0.0
zi(3) = (-2.0,-1.0)
! Doublets
NoD = 0
return
end subroutine GetData
! ***************************************************************************
Subroutine CalculatePotential(z,Ub,Vb,a,zc,zi,NoSV,NoD,sigma,Gamma,Mu,alpha,F)
real ,parameter :: pi=3.14159265
complex F,zi(*),zc,z
real sigma(NoSV),Gamma(NoSV),Mu(NoD),alpha(NoD)
! Contribution from undesturbed velocity
if(z == (0.0,0.0)) then
F = (0.0,0.0)
else
F = cmplx(Ub,-Vb)*(z-zc)+cmplx(Ub,Vb)*a**2/(z-zc)
end if
! Contribution from sources and vortices
148
do i = 1, NoSV
if(z <> zi(i)+zc) then
F = F + cmplx(sigma(i),Gamma(i))/(2*pi)*log(z-zc-zi(i))
end if
if(z<>zc .and. (a**2/(z-zc)-conjg(zi(i))<>0.0)) then
F = F + cmplx(sigma(i),-Gamma(i))/(2*pi)*log(a**2/(z-zc)-conjg(zi(i)))
end if
end do
! Contribution from doublets
do i = 1, NoD
ii = i+NoSV
if(z<>zc+zi(ii)) then
F = F + Mu(i)*exp(cmplx(0.0,alpha(i)))/(2*pi)/(z-zc-zi(ii))
end if
if(z<>zc .and. a*a/(z-zc)<>conjg(zi(ii)) ) then
F = F + Mu(i)*exp(cmplx(0.0,-alpha(i)))/(2*pi)/(a*a/(z-zc)-conjg(zi(ii)))
end if
end do
return
end subroutine CalculatePotential
Example 4.4:
Find the force exerted on a circular cylinder by the source of intensity m = /2 placed
at d at x-axis, outside the cylinder, gure (4.22).
Figure 4.22: Find force exerted by source at d on the cylinder at coordinate origin!
Solution 4.4:
Theorem of Blasius from (3.263) is
X Y =

2
_
C
_
df
dz
_
2
dz
where df/dz is the complex velocity W on the cylinder surface. We again use Thomsons
theorem to nd complex potential of the ow about circular cylinder. Complex potential
of the ow caused by the source place at d is given by
F(z) =

2
ln(z d) = mln(z d)
The next step is to nd

F(z) what is exactly the same as this equation. The second
step to nd F(a
2
/z)
F
_
a
2
z
_
= mln
a
2
zd
z
149
Adding the last two expressions (superposition principle) we obtain required complex
potential f(z)
f(z) = mln(z d) mln z + mln(a
2
zd)
we could drop complex constant from the last term (mln(1/ d)) so we nally get
f(z) = mln(z d) mln z + mln(z d

) , where d

= a
2
/d
Complex velocity W is then
W =
m
z d

m
z
+
m
z d

thus
_
df
dz
_
2
= W
2
=
m
2
(z d)
2
+
m
2
(z 0)
2
+
m
2
(z d

)
2

2m
2
z(z d)

2m
2
z(z d

)
+
2m
2
(z d)(z d

)
In order to calculate force on the circular cylinder we wish to apply Cauchy integral
formula (4.17). It is clear that all nominators are constants thus all terms of the form
1/(z c)
2
will disappear. The remaining terms should be transformed such

2m
2
z(z d)
=
2m
2
d(z 0)

2m
2
d(z d)

2m
2
z(z d

)
=
2m
2
d

(z 0)

2m
2
d

(z d

)
2m
2
(z d)(z d

)
=
2m
2
(d d

)(z d)
+
2m
2
(d

d)(z d

)
Point d is not inside the integration path so circular integral of the terms 1/(z d) is
equal to zero, we thus have
_
C
W
2
dz =
_
C
_
2m
2
d(z 0)
+
2m
2
d

(z 0)

2m
2
d

(z d

)
+
2m
2
(d

d)(z d

)
_
dz
= 2(2m
2
)
_
1
d
+
1
d

1
d

+
1
d

d
_
From Blasius theorem we get
X Y = 2m
2
d

d(d d

)
=

2
2
a
2
d(d
2
a
2
)
Therefore the cylinder is attracted toward the source. An examination of the streamlines
will show that the pressure is greater on the side of the cylinder remote from the source.
The same is true for the sink.
150
Figure 4.23: Continuous distribution of singularities over x-axis segment.
4.11 Continuous Distributions of Singularities
So far we apply principle of superposition to isolated point singularities. Now we
go little bit further. Consider strait line segment overlapping with x-axis. Figure
(4.23) shows continuous distribution of singularities along such segment. We are
interested to calculate velocities, potential and stream function values induced by
singularities distribution. With (x) we mean d(x)/dx =

(x) in the case of

source distributions, d (x)/dx =

(x) in the case of doublet distribution, and

d(x)/dx = (x) in the case of vortex distribution. Vortex distribution is also
known as vorticity (x).
Consider innitesimal segment of the length d which belongs to segment x
1
x
2
, and
arbitrary point P(x, y). Contribution of the innitesimal segment to the total ow
properties at point P can be expressed as:
If the singularity distribution (x) is source distribution:
d u
P
(x, y) =

(x
o
)
2

x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
dx
o
d v
P
(x, y) =

(x
o
)
2

y
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
dx
o
(4.46)
d
P
(x, y) =

(x
o
)
2
ln
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
dx
o
d
P
(x, y) =

(x
o
)
2
arctan
y
x x
o
dx
o
If the singularity distribution (x) is doublet distribution:
du
P
(x, y) =
1
2r
4
_

x
(x
o
)(x x
o
)
2

x
(x
o
)y
2
+ 2

y
(x
o
)(x x
o
)y
_
dx
o
dv
P
(x, y) =
1
2r
4
_

y
(x
o
)y
2

y
(x
o
)(x x
o
)
2
+ 2

x
(x
o
)(x x
o
)y
_
dx
o
d
P
(x, y) =
1
2r
2
_

x
(x
o
)(x x
o
) +

y
(x
o
)y
_
dx
o
(4.47)
d
P
(x, y) =
1
2r
2
_

x
(x
o
)y

y
(x
o
)(x x
o
)
_
dx
o
If the singularity distribution (x) is vorticity:
du
P
(x, y) =
1
2
(x
o
) y
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
dx
o
151
dv
P
(x, y) =
1
2
(x
o
) (x x
o
)
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
dx
o
d
P
(x, y) =
1
2
(x
o
) arctan
y
x x
o
dx
o
(4.48)
d
P
(x, y) =
1
2
(x
o
) ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
_
dx
o
Equations (4.46) to (4.48) looks simpler than equations (3.246) to (3.249) since there
is no need to parametrically describe singular line segment, and because y
o
0. To
obtain u
P
, v
P
,
P
and
P
we need to integrate former expressions between x
1
and
x
2
u
P
=
x
2
_
x
1
du
P
, v
P
=
x
2
_
x
1
dv
P
,
P
=
x
2
_
x
1
d
P
,
P
=
x
2
_
x
1
d
P
. (4.49)
4.11.1 Integration of Source Distributions
Let us assume

(x
o
) =

= const, and substitute

(x x
o
)
2
+ y
2
= t
2
, tdt = (x x
o
)dx
o
then
t
1
=
_
y
2
+ (x x
1
)
2
and: t
2
=
_
y
2
+ (x x
2
)
2
so we can integrate equation (4.46) for velocity u
P
u
P
=

2
t
2
_
t
1
dt
t
what gives
u
P
(x, y) =

4
ln
y
2
+ (x x
1
)
2
y
2
+ (x x
2
)
2
(4.50)
The second component of velocity (v) can be integrated after we introduce substi-
tution
x x
o
y
= t dx
o
= ydt
and
t
1
=
x x
1
y
t
2
=
x x
2
y
thus
v
P
(x, y) =

2
t
2
_
t
1
dt
1 + t
2
=

2
_
arctan
x x
1
y
arctan
x x
2
y
_
=

2
_
arctan
y
x x
2
arctan
y
x x
1
_
(4.51)
152
This integral has unique value at all points of the x-yplane except at x-axis when
y = 0. If we approach to x-axis from the above we get
v
P
(x, 0
+
) =

2
_

2

_

2
__
=

2
Approaching to x-axis from below gives
v
P
(x, 0

) =

2
_

2


2
_
=

2
or shorter
v
P
(x, 0

) =
(x, 0

)
x
=

2
(4.52)
4.11.2 Integration of Doublet Distribution
Note that expression for the velocity potential in equation (4.46) is identical in form
to the expression for the velocity component v, (4.47), when

y
and

x
= 0.
Thus we conclude that potential must have jump across the doublet segment
(x, 0

) =

(x)
2
(4.53)
This leads to discontinuous tangential velocity component given by
u(x, 0

) =
(x, 0

)
x
=
1
2
d

(x)
dx
(4.54)
Let us, now, calculate circulation about line shown in the gure (4.24). Since the
Figure 4.24: Sketch for determination of the circulation around doublet segment.
doublet distribution begins at x
1
, the circulation (x) around path surrounding the
segment x
1
x is
(x) =
x
_
x
1
u(x
o
, 0
+
)dx
o
+
x
1
_
x
u(x
o
, 0

)dx
o
=

(x) (4.55)
153
which is equivalent to the jump in the potential
(x) = (x, 0
+
) (x, 0

) =

(x) = (x) (4.56)

Let us calculate induced velocities at arbitrary point P(x, y). We introduce substi-
tution of the form
t
2
= y
2
+ (x x
o
)
2
, tdt = (x x
o
)dx
o
thus
u
P
(x, y) =

x
2
_
x
1
(x x
o
)y dx
o
[y
2
+ (x x
o
)
2
]
2
=

t
2
_
t
1
dt
t
3
=

y
2
_
1
t
2
2

1
t
2
1
_
or after restoring to original variables
u
P
(x, y) =

2
_
y
y
2
+ (x x
2
)
2

y
y
2
+ (x x
1
)
2
_
(4.57)
In order to calculate v
P
we need to split expression for it in the equation (4.47) in
two parts
v
P
=

2
x
2
_
x
1
y
2
[y
2
+ (x x
o
)
2
]
2
dx
o

2
x
2
_
x
1
(x x
o
)
2
[y
2
+ (x x
o
)
2
]
2
dx
o
The both integrals can be reduced to the standard table form by the substitution
X = x x
o
, dX = dx
o
, X
1
= x x
1
, X
2
= x x
2
thus we have
v
P
=

2
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
2
(y
2
+ X
2
)
2
dX

2
xx
2
_
xx
1
y
2
(y
2
+ X
2
)
2
dX
After integrating we get

2
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
2
(y
2
+ X
2
)
2
dX =

2
_
1
2y
arctan
X
y

X
2(X
2
+ y
2
)
_

xx
2
xx
1

2
xx
2
_
xx
1
y
2
(y
2
+ X
2
)
2
dX =

2
_
1
2y
arctan
X
y
+
X
2(X
2
+ y
2
)
_

xx
2
xx
1
It is clear that after subtraction of this equations the rst terms cancel each other
so we nally get
v
P
=

2
_
x x
1
(x x
1
)
2
+ y
2

x x
2
(x x
2
)
2
+ y
2
_
(4.58)
154
4.11.3 Integration of Vortex Distributions
Comparing the equations (4.46) and (4.48) we conclude that the expression for u
P
for vortex distribution is equal in form to the expression in (4.46) for v
P
, so we can
write immediately from (4.51)
u
P
(x, y) =

2
_
arctan
x x
2
y
arctan
x x
1
y
_
(4.59)
Following the same arguments we gave in section (4.11.1) we conclude that x-
component of induced velocity must have jump across the vortex sheet
u(x, 0

) =
(x, 0

)
x
=
(x)
2
(4.60)
Figure 4.25: Sketch for determination of the circulation around vorticity segment.
We can integrate to obtain potential jump at the arbitrary place x, gure (4.25).
Since potential jump is equal to the circulation
(x, 0) = (x, 0
+
) (x, 0

) = (x) =
x
_
x
1
(x)
2
dx
x
_
x
1

(x)
2
dx
Comparing this equation and equation (4.60) with (4.55) and (4.54) we conclude
that
(x) =

(x) , and: (x) = d

(x)/dx. (4.61)
This indicates that a vortex distribution can be replaced by an equivalent doublet
distribution and vice verse.
4.12 Extension of the Circle Theorem
4.12.1 Constant Vorticity Extension
The circle theorem of (4.10) applies to irrotational motion. Now we extend that
theorem to the ow with constant vorticity.
155
Let the ow be described by the following stream function

o
(z, z) = F(z) +

F( z) +
z z
4
(4.62)
Let there be no rigid boundaries and let all the singularities of F(z) be at distance
greater then a from the origin. If a circular cylinder C, [z[ = a is introduced into
the ow eld than stream function of such ow looks
(z, z) = F(z) F
_
a
2
z
_
+

F( z)

F
_
a
2
z
_
+
z z
4
(4.63)
Since on C, z z = a
2
the stream function value on C is (z, z) = a
2
/4 which is
constant so C is the streamline for the motion given by (4.63).
Since all the singularities of F(z), and therefore also of

F( z) are outside the circum-
ference C, all the singularities of F(a
2
/ z) and of

F(a
2
/z) are inside C, so no new
singularities are introduced at innity so motion given by (4.63) at innity is the
same as that given by (4.62).
The vorticity of the ow given by (4.63) is
4

2

z z
=
Thus (4.63) satises all the conditions and is therefore the stream function of the
perturbed motion.
If instead of last term in (4.62) we write z z/4+ln(z z)/4 we get for the perturbed
ow
(z, z) = F(z) F
_
a
2
z
_
+

F( z)

F
_
a
2
z
_
+
z z
4
+

4
ln(z z)
This gives circulation about C.
4.12.2 Singularities Distribution along Circle
We consider now velocities induced by source and vortex placed on a circle. In the
gure (4.26) shows singularities and some arbitrary point on the circle at which we
calculate induced velocity. Let r be the radius of the circle, d the distance between
singularity and arbitrary point, and let be the angle between d and r as it is shown
in the gure. Intensity of the velocity induced by the vortex is expressed as
v =

2d
=

4r cos
The tangential component to the circle is obtained
v

= v cos =

4r cos
cos =

4r
= const
So vortex induces constant tangential component of velocity to the circle except at
the point where vortex is placed, since that point is singular.
Intensity of velocity induced by source placed on the circle at arbitrary point on the
circle is
v =

2d
=

4r cos
156
Figure 4.26: Induced velocity from the singularity at the circle.
The normal component of the velocity to the circle is expressed as
v
n
= v cos =

4r
= const
So source induces constant normal component of velocity to the circle contour,
except at the point where source is placed.
We now express relations when source singularities and vorticity are distributed
along circle contour. Let ()r = where () represents vorticity distribu-
tion per unit angle. Also let () represents distribution of source strength per unit
angle. At any point of the circle we can express the former components of velocity
as
v

() =
()
2
+
2
_
0
()r d
4r
(4.64)
v
n
() =
()
2
+
2
_
0
() d
4
From the mean value theorem we could write

2
=
2
_
0
() d
4
=

4
(2 0) and:

2
=
2
_
0
() d
4
(4.65)
From the denition of the mean value follows
2
_
0
() d =
2
_
0
_

2
+
()
2
_
d,
2
_
0
() d =
2
_
0
_

2
+
()
2
_
d (4.66)
We now integrate equations (4.64), consider rst of these equations
2
_
0
v

() d =
2
_
0
_
_
()
2
+
2
_
0
() d
4
_
_
d
157
=
2
_
0
_
()
2
+

2
_
d
=
2
_
0
() d (4.67)
The same is true for source distribution
2
_
0
v
n
() d =
2
_
0
() d (4.68)
If we substitute results of equations (4.67) and (4.68) into equation (4.64) we get
v

() =
()
2
+
1
4
2
_
0
v

() d
v
n
() =
()
2
+
1
4
2
_
0
v
n
() d (4.69)
from which follows
() = 2v

()
1
2
2
_
0
v

() d, () = 2v
n
()
1
2
2
_
0
v
n
() d (4.70)
So if tangential or normal velocity is specied along circle contour we can calculate
singularity strength distribution from equation (4.70).
We could prove that circulation around circle for the source singularity is equal to
zero and that total ux across circle for the vortex singularity is also zero. We
only mention that the outside singularity ow is potential so absence of circulation
is natural consequence. The same is true for vortex singularity since we have not
introduced sources or sinks into ow eld continuity equation must be satised and
total outow must be equal to zero.
Example 4.5:
Find circumferential source distribution () along circle to obtain potential non-lifting
ow, gure (4.27).
Figure 4.27: Boundary condition for the ow about cylinder.
158
Solution 4.5:
Required source distribution can be obtained from the equation (4.70). Uniform ow
U

has the following component in the direction of unit normal n at the position :
U

cos . Singularity distribution () must induce the same velocity of opposite sign
to satisfy non-penetrating boundary condition, thus:
() = 2U

cos
1
2
2
_
0
U

cos d
And nally
() = 2U

cos
what is required source singularity distribution to satisfy required boundary condition.
This value can be used to test panel codes.
159
Chapter 5
Subsonic Singularity Panels
Now we derive subsonic singularity elements for two-dimensional applications.
5.1 Two-Dimensional Point Singularity Elements
5.1.1 Source
We have already derived expressions for velocity potential, stream function, and
velocity components, for example (3.227) to (3.230), which we repeat here for con-
venience, see also gure (5.9).
=

2
ln
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=

2
ln r
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
=

2

u =

x
=

2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=

2
x x
o
r
2
v =

y
=

2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=

2
y y
o
r
2
(5.1)
where r and are shown in the gure (5.1).
Figure 5.1: Point source.
In order to calculate , , u, and v we need the following ve variables (x, y), (x
o
, y
o
),
and . It is easy to program expressions (5.1). One of possibilities is given in the
example which follows.
160
Example 5.1:
Write the program by which it is possible for the source of strength , placed at (x
o
, y
o
)
to calculate , , u and v at the point (x, y).
Solution 5.1:
We place all the details in one subroutine which is given below.
! File: PointSource2D.f90
! 16-Dec-2000
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
Subroutine PointSource2D(x, y, sigma, xo, yo, phi, psi, u, v)
! Calculates Velocity Potential, Stream Function
! and velocity components u and v at arbitrary
! point (x,y) due to point source placed at (xo,yo)
! and strength sigma.
!*********************************************
real x,y ! coordinates of the point in the flow-field
real xo,yo ! coordinates of the point where source is placed
real sigma ! strength of the source
real phi,psi ! Velocity potential and stream function
real u,v ! x and y component of the induced velocity
real, parameter :: pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*pi
!
rr = (x-xo)**2 + (y-yo)**2
theta = atan2(y-yo,x-xo)
if(theta < 0.0) theta = theta + TwoPi
!
phi = sigma*log(sqrt(rr))/TwoPi
psi = sigma*theta/TwoPi
u = sigma/TwoPi * (x-xo)/rr
v = sigma/TwoPi * (y-yo)/rr
!
return
end subroutine PointSource2D
To test this subroutine we use program in which all input data are specied through
expressions.
program test
!
! Specify input data
!
x = 5.
y = 3.
xo = 5.
yo = 1.
sigma = 100.
Call PointSource2D(x, y, sigma, xo, yo, phi, psi, u, v)
!
! Show Result
!
print 101, sigma, xo,yo, x,y
161
101 format(/ sigma = ,F8.3/ xo = ,F8.3/ yo = ,F8.3/ x = ,F8.3/ &
y = ,F8.3///)
print 102, phi, psi, u, v
102 format(/ phi = ,F8.4/ psi = ,F8.4/ u = ,F8.4/ v = ,F8.4///)
stop End of run !
end program test
5.1.2 Doublet
We give here expressions for velocity potential , stream function , and induced
velocities u and v, for general orientation of doublet strength =
x
+
y
, at the
point (x, y) when the doublet is placed at the point (x
o
, y
o
).
(x, y) =

x
2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2


y
2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
(x, y) =

x
2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2


y
2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
u(x, y) =

x
2
(x x
o
)
2
(y y
o
)
2
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2
+

y

(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2
v(x, y) =

x

(x x
o
)(y y
o
)
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2


y
2
(x x
o
)
2
(y y
o
)
2
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
]
2
(5.2)
Example 5.2:
Write the subroutine by which it is possible to calculate at any point (x, y) velocity
potential , stream function , and components of induced velocity u and v for the
doublet placed at point (x
o
, y
o
).
Solution 5.2:
We have directly to apply the formulas (5.2), so required subroutine follows.
! File: PointDoublet2D.f90
! 16-Dec-2000
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
subroutine PointDoublet2D(x,y, mux,muy, xo,yo, phi,psi, u,v)
! Calcualtes Velocity Potential phi, Stream Function psi,
! and velocity components u and v, at arbitrary
! point (x,y) due to point doublet placed at (xo,yo)
! and of the strength (mux,muy)
!*********************************************
real x,y ! coordinates of the point in the flow-field
real xo,yo ! coordinates of the point where source is placed
real mux,muy ! strength of the doublet in x- and y-direction
real phi,psi ! Velocity potential and stream function
real u,v ! x and y component of the induced velocity
real rr,rrrr,xx,yy
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi = 2*Pi
xx = x - xo
yy = y - yo
162
rr = xx**2 + yy**2
rrrr = rr*rr
phi = -mux*xx/(TwoPi*rr) - muy*yy/(TwoPi*rr)
psi = mux*yy/(TwoPi*rr) - muy*xx/(TwoPi*rr)
u = mux*(xx**2 - yy**2)/(TwoPi*rrrr) + muy*xx*yy/(Pi*rrrr)
v = mux*xx*yy/(Pi*rrrr) - muy*(xx**2 - yy**2)/(TwoPi*rrrr)
return
end subroutine PointDoublet2D
We use the following program to test the former subroutine
program TestPointDoublet2D
real mux, muy
! Specify initial data
!
x = 4.0
y = 3.0
xo = 2.0
yo = 0.0
mux = 100.0
muy = 250.0
! Calculate Flow-Field parameters
!
Call PointDoublet2D(x,y, mux,muy, xo,yo, phi,psi, u,v)
!
! Show results of calculation
!
print 10, x,y,xo,yo,mux,muy, phi,psi,u,v
10 format(// (x,y) = ,2F10.3/ (xo,yo) = ,2F10.3/ mux,muy = ,2F10.3/// &
phi = ,F10.3/ psi = ,F10.3/ u = ,F10.3/ v = ,F10.3///)
stop TestPointDoublet2D - E n d o f r u n !
end program TestPointDoublet2D
5.1.3 Vortex
We have already given the expressions for velocity potential , stream function ,
and velocity components u and v at any arbitrary point (x, y) due to vortex placed
at (x
o
, y
o
), (3.242) to (3.245). We repeat those equations for convenience.
=

2
arctan
y y
o
x x
o
=

2

=

2
ln
_
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
_
=

2
ln r
u =

2
y y
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=

2
y y
o
r
2
v =

2
x x
o
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
=

2
x x
o
r
2
(5.3)
where r and have the same meaning as that dened in the gure (5.1).
Example 5.3:
Write subroutine by which it is possible to calculate Velocity potential , stream function
163
, and velocity components u and v at any arbitrary point (x, y) due to the vortex of
the strength placed at (x
o
, y
o
).
Solution 5.3:
Our task is again simple, we have to program equations (5.3). Possible solution follow
! File: PointVortex2D.f90
! 16-Dec-2000
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
subroutine PointVortex2D(x, y, Gamma, xo, yo, phi, psi, u, v)
! Calculates Velocity Potential, Stream Function
! and velocity components u and v at arbitrary
! point (x,y) due to point VORTEX placed at (xo,yo)
! and of strength Gamma.
!*********************************************
real x,y ! coordinates of the point in the flow-field
real xo,yo ! coordinates of the point where source is placed
real Gamma ! strength of the vortex
real phi,psi ! Velocity potential and stream function
real u,v ! x and y component of the induced velocity
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*pi
real xx,yy,rr,theta
!
GammaOverTwoPi = Gamma/TwoPi
xx = x - xo
yy = y - yo
rr = xx*xx + yy*yy
theta = atan2(yy,xx)
if(theta < 0.0) theta = theta + TwoPi
!
phi = -GammaOverTwoPi * theta
psi = GammaOverTwoPi * log(sqrt(rr))
u = GammaOverTwoPi * yy/rr
v = -GammaOverTwoPi * xx/rr
return
end subroutine PointVortex2D
We test the former subroutine by the following program
program TestPointVortex2D
!
! Specify input data
!
x = 3.0
y = 5.0
xo = 4.0
yo = 2.0
Gamma = 100.0
!
Call PointVortex2D(x, y, Gamma, xo, yo, phi, psi, u, v)
!
! Print calculated parameters
!
print 1, x,y, Gamma, xo,yo, phi,psi, u,v
164
1 format( (x,y) = ,2F10.3/ (xo,yo) = ,2F10.3/ Gamma = ,F10.3/// &
phi = ,F10.3/ psi = ,F10.3/ u,v = ,2F10.3///)
!
stop TestPointVortex2D - E n d o f r u n !
end program TestPointVortex2D
5.2 Numerical Quadrature
Before we start with two-dimensional distributions we need to say a few words about
numerical quadrature. Here we explain the so called Gauss-Legendre Quadrature.
Let us search approximate integral formula for the function f(x) in the form
b
_
a
f(x) dx =
n

i=0
w
i
f(x
i
) (5.4)
where n+1 values w
i
are the weights to be given to the n+1 functional values f(x
i
).
The x
i
are chosen so that the sum of the n + 1 appropriately weighted functional
values yields the integral exactly when f(x) is a polynomial of degree 2n+1 or less.
We need some background material before we proceed further.
5.2.1 Orthogonal Polynomials
Two functions g
n
(x) and g
m
(x) selected from a family of related functions g
k
(x) are
said to be orthogonal with respect to a weighted function w(x) on the interval [a, b] if
b
_
a
w(x)g
n
(x)g
m
(x) dx = 0 , n ,= m,
b
_
a
w(x)[g
n
(x)]
2
dx = c(n) ,= 0 .
(5.5)
In general, c depends on n. If these relationships hold for all n, the family of
functions g
k
(x) constitutes a set of orthogonal functions. Some common families
of orthogonal functions are the sets sin kx and cos kx. Orthogonality can be
viewed as a generalization of the perpendicularity property of two vectors in n
dimensional space where n becomes very large and the elements (coordinates) of the
vectors can be represented as continuous functions of some independent variable.
For our purpose, the denition (5.5) is adequate. The functions 1, x, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
are not orthogonal. However, several families of well-known polynomials do possess
a property of orthogonality. Four such sets are Legendre, Laguerre, Chebyshev, and
Hermite polynomials.
Legendre Polynomials
The Legendre polynomials P
n
(x) are orthogonal on the interval [1, 1] with respect
ot the weighting function w(x) = 1, that is,
165
+1
_
1
P
n
(x)P
m
(x) dx = 0 , n ,= m,
+1
_
1
[P
n
(x)]
2
dx = c(n) ,= 0 .
(5.6)
The rst few Legendre polynomials are:
P
0
(x) = 1 ,
P
1
(x) = x,
P
2
(x) = (3x
2
1)/2 ,
P
3
(x) = (5x
3
3x)/2 ,
P
4
(x) = (35x
4
30x
2
+ 3)/8 ,
.
.
.
(5.7)
While the general recursion relation is
P
n
(x) =
2n 1
n
xP
n1
(x)
n 1
n
P
n2
(x) . (5.8)
Laguerre Polynomials
The Laguerre polynomials L
n
(x) are orthogonal on the interval [0, ] with respect
to the weighting function e
x
, that is,

_
0
e
x
L
n
(x)L
m
(x) dx = 0 , n ,= m,

_
0
e
x
[L
n
]
2
dx = c(n) ,= 0 .
(5.9)
The rst few Laguerre polynomials are:
L
0
(x) = 1 ,
L
1
(x) = x + 1 ,
L
2
(x) = x
2
4x + 2 ,
L
3
(x) = x
3
+ 9x
2
18x + 6 ,
.
.
.
(5.10)
The general recursion relation is
L
n
(x) = (2n x 1)L
n1
(x) (n 1)
2
L
n2
(x) . (5.11)
Chebyshev Polynomials
The Chebyshev polynomials T
n
(x) are orthogonal on the interval [1, +1] with re-
spect ot the weighting function w(x) = 1/

1 x
2
, that is,
166
+1
_
1
1

1 x
2
T
n
(x)T
m
(x) dx = 0 , n ,= m,
+1
_
1
1

1 x
2
[T
n
(x)]
2
dx = c(n) ,= 0 .
(5.12)
The rst few polynomials are:
T
0
(x) = 1 ,
T
1
(x) = x,
T
2
(x) = 2x
2
1 ,
T
3
(x) = 4x
3
3x,
T
4
(x) = 8x
4
8x
2
+ 1 ,
.
.
.
(5.13)
The general recursion relation is
T
n
(x) = 2xT
n1
(x) T
n2
(x) (5.14)
Hermite Polynomials
The Hermite polynomials H
n
(x) are orthogonal on the interval [, ] with respect
to the weighting function e
x
2
, that is,

e
x
2
H
n
(x)H
m
(x) dx = 0 , n ,= m,

e
x
2
[H
n
]
2
dx = c(n) ,= 0 .
(5.15)
The rst few Hermite polynomials are:
H
0
(x) = 1 ,
H
1
(x) = 2x,
H
2
(x) = 4x
2
2 ,
H
3
(x) = 8x
3
12x,
H
4
(x) = 16x
4
48x
2
+ 12 ,
.
.
.
(5.16)
While the general recursion relation is
H
n
(x) = 2xH
n1
(x) 2(n 1)H
n2
(x) (5.17)
167
General Comments on Orthogonal Plynomials
The sequence of polynomials P
n
(x), L
n
(x), T
n
(x), and H
n
(x), respectively
satisfying relationships (5.6), (5.9), (5.12), and (5.15) are unique. Each of the poly-
nomials P
n
(x), L
n
(x), T
n
(x), and H
n
(x) is an nth-degree polynomial in x with real
coecients and n distinct real roots interior to the appropriate interval of integra-
tion; for example, all n roots of P
n
(x) lie on the open interval (1, +1).
An arbitrary nth-degree polynomial p
n
(x) =

n
i=0

i
x
i
may be represented by a
linear function of any of the above families of orthogonal polynomials. Thus
p
n
(x) =
0
Z
0
(x) +
1
Z
1
(x) + +
n
Z
n
(x) =
n

i=0

i
Z
i
(x) (5.18)
where Z
i
(x) is the ith-degree polynomial of one of the families of orthogonal poly-
nomials.
Example 5.4:
Expand the fourth-degree polynomial p
4
(x) =
0
+
1
x +
2
x
2
+
3
x
3
+
4
x
4
in terms
of Legendre polynomials.
Solution 5.4:
Let us substitute P
i
(x) into (5.18), thus
p
4
(x) =
0
+
1
x +
2
3x
2
1
2
+
3
5x
2
3x
2
+
4
35x
4
30x
2
+ 3
8
Collecting the coecients of like powers of x,
p
4
(x) =
_

2
2
+
3
4
8
_
+
_

3
3
2
_
x +
_
3
2
2

15
4
4
_
x
2
+
5
2

3
x
3
+
35
8

4
x
4
Thus

4
=
8
35

3
=
2
5

2
=
2
3
_

2
+
15
4

4
_
=
2
3
_

2
+
6
7

4
_

1
=
1
+
3
2

3
=
1
+
3
5

0
=
0
+
1
2

3
8

4
=
0
+
1
3

2
+
1
5

4
It is now easy to show that polynomial p
4
(x) = x
4
+3x
3
2x
2
+2x1 is equivalent to
p
4
(x) =
22
15
P
0
(x) +
19
5
P
1
(x)
16
21
P
2
(x) +
6
5
P
3
(x) +
8
35
P
4
(x)
168
5.2.2 Gaussian Quadrature
We describe now procedure called Gauss-Legendre quadrature. We need to estimate
integral
b
_
a
f(x) dx
by approximating function f(x) with an nth-degree interpolating polynomial p
n
(x),
and integrate as follows:
b
_
a
f(x) dx =
b
_
a
p
n
(x) dx +
b
_
a
R
n
(x) dx (5.19)
Here, R
n
(x) is the error term for the nth-degree interpolating polynomial. Since x
i
are not yet specied the Lagrangian form of the interpolating polynomial will be
used, since Lagrangian polynomials permit arbitrary spacing between points
f(x) = p
n
(x) + R
n
(x) =
n

i=0
L
i
(x)f(x
i
) +
f
(n+1)
()
(n + 1)!
n

i=0
(x x
i
) (5.20)
where a < < b and
L
i
(x) =
n

i=0, j=i
_
x x
j
x
i
x
j
_
We could somewhat simplify development without removing any generality of the
result by changing interval of integration from [a, b] to [1, +1]. Assume that all
the base points are in the interval of integration , that is, a x
0
, x, . . . , x
n
b. Let
the new variable, z, where 1 z +1, be dened by
z =
2x (a + b)
b a
(5.21)
Dene also a new function F(z) so that
F(z) = f(x) = f
_
(b a)z + (a + b)
2
_
then (5.20) becomes
F(z) =
n

i=0
L
i
(z)F(z
i
) +
F
(n+1)
()
(n + 1)!
n

i=0
(z z
i
) (5.22)
where
L
i
(z) =
n

i=0, j=i
_
z z
j
z
i
z
j
_
and 1 < < +1 .
Here, z
i
is simply the base-point value x
i
transformed by (5.21). Now if f(x) is
assumed to be a polynomial of degree 2n +1 then the term F
(n+1)
()/(n +1)! must
be a polynomial of degree n, since

n
i=0
L
i
(z)F(z
i
) is a polynomial of degree n at
most, and

n
i=0
(z z
i
) is a polynomial of degree n + 1. Let
f
(n+1)
()
(n + 1)!
= q
n
(z) ,
169
where q
n
(z) is a polynomial of degree n. Then
F(z) =
n

i=0
L
i
(z)F(z
i
) +
_
n

i=0
(z z
i
)
_
q
n
(z) (5.23)
Now integration of both sides of this equation between integration limits -1 and +1
gives
+1
_
1
F(z) dz =
+1
_
1
n

i=0
L
i
(z)F(z
i
) dz +
+1
_
1
_
n

i=0
(z z
i
)
_
q
n
(z) dz (5.24)
Since the F(z
i
) are xed values, the summation operator can be taken outside the
integral sign. Dropping the right-most integral this equation becomes
+1
_
1
F(z) dz =
n

i=0
F(z
i
)
+1
_
1
L
i
(z) dz =
n

i=0
w
i
F(z
i
) , (5.25)
where
w
i
=
+1
_
1
L
i
(z) dz =
+1
_
1
n

i=0, j=i
_
z z
j
z
i
z
j
_
dz (5.26)
Note that (5.25) is of the desired form, and that the second integral on the right-hand
side of (5.24),
=
+1
_
1
_
n

i=0
(z z
i
)
_
q
n
(z) dz (5.27)
is then the error term for the integration or quadrature formula of (5.25). The object
is to select z
i
in such a way that the error term (5.27) vanishes. The orthogonality
property of the Legendre polynomials, as already dened by (5.6) will be used to
establish such values z
i
.
First we expand the two polynomials q
n
(z) and

n
i=0
(zz
i
) in terms of the Legendre
polynomials is given as
n

i=0
(z z
i
) = b
0
P
0
(z) +b
1
P
1
(z) + + b
n
P
n
(z) + b
n+1
P
n+1
(z) =
n+1

i=0
b
i
P
i
(z) (5.28)
and
q
n
(z) = c
0
P
0
(z) +c
1
P
1
(z) + + c
n
P
n
(z) =
n

i=0
c
i
P
i
(z) . (5.29)
The product q
n
(z)

n
i=0
(z z
i
) is, from (5.28) and (5.29)
q
n
(z)
n

i=0
(z z
i
) =
n

i=0
n

j=0
b
i
c
j
P
i
(z)P
j
(z) + b
n+1
n

i=0
c
i
P
i
(z)P
n+1
(z) (5.30)
The error term is from (5.27) given by
=
+1
_
1
_
_
n

i=0
n

j=0
b
i
c
j
P
i
(z)P
j
(z) +b
n+1
n

i=0
c
i
P
i
(z)P
n+1
(z)
_
_
dz (5.31)
170
Because of the orthogonality properties of Legendre polynomials, all terms of this
integral that are of the form
b
i
c
j
+1
_
1
P
i
(z)P
j
(z) dz , i ,= j
will vanish. Thus the error term (5.27) for the quadrature formula (5.25) may be
written
=
+1
_
1
_
n

i=0
(z z
i
)
_
q
n
(z) dz =
+1
_
1
n

i=0
b
i
c
i
[P
i
(z)]
2
dz + +b
n+1
+1
_
1
n

i=0
c
i
P
i
(z)P
n+1
(z) dz
=
n

i=0
b
i
c
i
+1
_
1
[P
i
(z)]
2
dz + b
n+1
+1
_
1
n

i=0
c
i
P
i
(z)P
n+1
(z) dz . (5.32)
One way to make this expression vanish is to specify that the rst n + 1 of the b
i
,
i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n are zero. The coecient b
n+1
of P
n+1
(z) is still unspecied, but
from (5.28) it must be given by
n

i=0
(z z
i
) = b
n+1
P
n+1
(z) . (5.33)
The important feature of this formula is that it is already in factored form, that
is, it has n + 1 roots z
i
, i = 0, 1, . . . , n. Since b
n+1
P
n+1
(z) is the same polynomial,
the z
i
must be the roots of the b
n+1
P
n+1
(z) as well, or equivalently P
n+1
(z). Thus
n + 1 base points to be used in the integration formula (5.25) are n + 1 roots of
the appropriate (n+1)th-degree Legendre polynomial. The relative weight assigned
to each function value F(z
i
) is given by (5.26). Table (5.1) gives the values of the
appropriate base point coordinates and corresponding weight factors.
Note also that from (5.21) dx = (b a)dz/2, giving
b
_
a
f(x) dx =
b a
2
+1
_
1
F(z) dz = (b a)
n

i=0
w
i
F(z
i
) (5.34)
Example 5.5:
Use the two-point Gauss-Legendre quadrature formula to evaluate
+1
_
1
F(z) dz =
+1
_
1
(z
3
+ z
2
+ z + 1) dz = 2
2
3
Solution 5.5:
From table (5.1), the two-point formula is
+1
_
1
F(z) dz =
1

i=0
w
i
F(z
i
) = 1 F(0.57735 . . .) + 1 F(0.57735 . . .)
171
Table 5.1: Roots and weight factors for Gauss-Legendre Quadrature.
z
i
+1
_
1
F(z) dz =
n

i=0
w
i
F(z
i
) w
i
Two-Point Formula
n = 1
0.57735 02691 89626 1.00000 00000 00000
Three-Point Formula
n = 2
0.00000 00000 00000 0.88888 88888 88889
0.77459 66692 41483 0.55555 55555 55556
Four-Point Formula
n = 3
0.33998 10435 84856 0.65214 51548 62546
0.86113 63115 94053 0.34785 48451 37454
Five-Point Formula
n = 4
0.00000 00000 00000 0.56888 88888 88889
0.53846 93101 05683 0.47862 86704 99366
0.90617 98459 38664 0.23692 68850 56189
Six-Point Formula
n = 5
0.23861 91860 83197 0.46791 39345 72691
0.66120 93864 66265 0.36076 15730 48139
0.93246 95142 03152 0.17132 44923 79170
Ten-Point Formula
n = 9
0.14887 43389 81631 0.29552 42247 14753
0.43339 53941 29247 0.26926 67193 09996
0.67940 95682 99024 0.21908 63625 15982
0.86506 33666 88985 0.14945 13491 50581
0.97390 65285 17172 0.06667 13443 08688
Fifteen-Point Formula
n = 14
0.00000 00000 00000 0.20257 82419 25561
0.20119 40939 97435 0.19843 14853 27111
0.39415 13470 77563 0.18616 10001 15562
0.57097 21726 08539 0.16626 92058 16994
0.72441 77313 60170 0.13957 06779 26154
0.84820 65834 10427 0.10715 92204 67172
0.93727 33924 00706 0.07036 60474 88108
0.98799 25180 20485 0.03075 32419 96117
172
We have
F(0.57735 . . .) = 0.566353297
F(0.57735 . . .) = 2.10313369 .
Since both weights are 1, we need to add these two values only, so that
+1
_
1
(z
3
+ z
2
+ z + 1) dz = 2.6666666
To the given number of gures, this result is exact (as would be expected), since the
two-point formula (n = 1) is exact when F(z) is a polynomial of degree three (2n +1)
or less.
5.3 Improper Integrals
We also need to talk about improper integral we met here and the way we solve
them. We use here development given in [1]. The term improper integral is used
to designate integrals having one or more innite limits of integration or having a
nit domain of integration with internal singularities. We are interested in improper
integrals of the second type.
An integral of the type
b
_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)

where f(x) is a bounded function in the interval and a x

o
b, converges only if
< 1. This integral diverges if 1, in which case the singularity is said to be of
the strong type. For this kind of integrals Hadamard has established the concept
of nite part as an extension of Cauchys principal value of single-pole integrals.
Mangler and Lighthill have given formulas for the computation of the nite part
of some integrals that occur frequently in aerodynamics. For the case of poles of
integer order, Manglers formula reads as follows:
TP
b
_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
n+1
= lim
0
_
_
_
x
o

_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
n+1
+
b
_
x
o
+
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
n+1
+ (1)
n
n1

j=0
f
(j)
(x
o
)
j!
1 (1)
nj
(n j)
nj
_
_
_
(5.35)
where TP means nite part of the integral, > 0, n is a non-negative integer,
a < x
o
< b, and the superscript j of the function f denotes jth derivative of this
function with respect to x. Lighthills equivalent result for the case x
o
= 0 is given
by
TP
b
_
a
f(x)
x
n+1
dx =
1
n!
lim
0
_
_
_

_
a
f
(n)
(x)
x
dx +
b
_

f
(n)
(x)
x
dx
_
_
_

j=1
(j 1)!
n!
_
f
(nj)
(b)
b
j

f
(nj)
(a)
a
j
_
(5.36)
173
Manglers technique relies mainly on breaking up the integration interval into reg-
ularly integrable regions and adding correction terms, Lighthills method is based
solely on the technique of integration by parts. However, both formulas are simi-
lar in nature, as each requires the evaluation of numerical limits. Brandao [1] has
developed alternative approach which do not require evaluation of numerical limits.
Let us consider the problem of evaluating the nite part of the following integral:
b
_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
where a x
o
b, 0 < < 1, and n 1. We will assume that the function f(x) is
bounded in the interval a x b and has all necessary derivatives well dened and
nite at the singularity x
o
. With these hypotheses, we can use part of the Taylor
series expansion of f(x) about x = x
o
f(x) =

j=0
f
(j)
(x
o
)
j!
(x x
o
)
j
=

j=0
(1)
j
j!
f
(j)
(x
o
)(x
o
x)
j
to write the following:
TP
b
_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
=
b
_
a
_
_
f(x) +
n+1

j=0
(1)
j+1
j!
f
(j)
(x
o
)(x
o
x)
j
_
_
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1

n+1

j=0
(1)
j+1
j!
f
(j)
(x
o
)
_
_
TP
b
_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1j
_
_
(5.37)
For the case of integrals with poles of integer order ( = 0), we need one less
derivative and equation (5.37) reduces to
TP
b
_
a
f(x) dx
(x
o
x)
n+1
=
b
_
a
_
_
f(x) +
n

j=0
(1)
j+1
j!
f
(j)
(x
o
)(x
o
x)
j
_
_
dx
(x
o
x)
n+1

j=0
(1)
j+1
j!
f
(j)
(x
o
)
_
_
TP
b
_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
n+1j
_
_
(5.38)
In these two equations, the nite part of a divergent integral has been transformed
into the sum of a regular integral and simpler nite-part integrals. We done this
by subtracting the terms in Taylor expansion from the function f(x) which are the
source of problems. But what is subtracted must be added to keep the integration
unchanged. These explicitely added terms are source of improperness, so we must
to apply special treatment. We will call these later integrals the nite-part integrals
of elementary poles. The regular integral is designed to be evaluated numerically
as a piece. The terms added to and subtracted from the original problem are those
required to regularize the integrand at the singularity in the sense of LHopital.
This approach has three advantages over previous methods. First, the regularized
integral has a continuous integrand that can be handled by ordinary integration
schemes. Second, the nite part of the problem is reduced to analytical work, with
improvements in accuracy. Finally, no numerical limit is required. The answer is
obtained directly, with considerable savings in computing time.
174
The Finite-Part Integral of Elementary Poles
Here we will derive formulas for the exact computation of the nite-part integral of
elementary poles. Let us start by considering the problem
T = TP
b
_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
where a < x
o
< b. Following Hadamard, the answer is given by
T = lim
0
_
_
_
x
o

_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
+
b
_
x
o
+
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
+ G()
_
_
_
(5.39)
where is a small positive real quantity and G() is the function of canceling out
exactly the terms resulting from the integrals that are singular in the limit.
The rst integral in equation (5.39) yields
x
o

_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
+n+1
=
1
+ n
_
1
(x
o
a)
+n

1

n+
_
In the interval (x
o
+) x b, the quantity (x
o
x) is negative. So, we can write
(x
o
x) = (x x
o
) = e

(x x
o
)
Using t as a dummy variable to denote (x x
o
), the second integral in equation
(5.39) can be worked out as follows:
b
_
x
o
+
dx
(x
o
)
+n+1
= '
_
e
(+n+1)
_
bx
o
_

dt
t
+n+1
=
cos( + n + 1)
+ n
_
1
(b x
o
)
+n

1

+n
_
where '[] denotes the real part of what comes between square brackets.
Adding the previous results and choosing the function G() to be equal to
G() =
1 + cos( + n + 1)
( + n)
+n
the limit in equation (5.39) becomes independent of and is given by
T =
(b x
o
)
+n
+ (x
o
a)
+n
cos( + n + 1)
( + n) [(x
o
a)(b x
o
)]
+n
(5.40)
For the particular case of poles of integer order, equation (5.40) reduces to
TP
b
_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
n+1
=
(b x
o
)
n
+ (1)
n+1
(x
o
a)
n
n[(x
o
a)(b x
o
)]
n
(5.41)
This is not valid when n = 0. For this case, the result is given by
TP
b
_
a
dx
(x
o
x)
= ln
x
o
a
b x
o
(5.42)
175
Now let us deal with the case where the singularity is placed either on the lower or
upper limit of integration. in the former case, the answer comes from
TP
b
_
a
dx
(a x)
+n+1
= lim
0
_
_
_
b
_
a+
dx
(a x)
+n+1
+ G()
_
_
_
(5.43)
The integral here can be worked out as follows:
b
_
a+
dx
(a x)
+n+1
= '
_
e
(+n+1)
_
ba
_

dt
t
+n+1
=
cos( + n + 1)
+ n
_
1
(b a)
+n

1

+n
_
where t is the dummy variable for the (xa). Choosing the corresponding function
G() as given by
G() =
cos( + n + 1)
( + n)e
+n)
Equation (5.43) assumes the following explicit form:
TP
b
_
a
dx
(a x)
+n+1
=
cos( + n + 1)
( + n)(b a)
+n
(5.44)
When = 0, equation (5.44) reduces to
TP
b
_
a
dx
(a x)
n+1
=
(1)
n
n(b a)
n
(5.45)
Again, this formula cannot be applied when n = 0. In this case, we have
TP
b
_
a
dx
(a x)
= ln(b a) (5.46)
Similar development can be done with respect to singularities at the upper limit of
integration.
5.4 Two-Dimensional Line Panels
5.4.1 Source panel
General Theory
We have already discussed constant strength source panel. Now we discuss problem
more general. Let again panel be placed along x-axis between points x
1
and x
2
, as
it is shown in the gure (5.2). Generally it could be assumed that source strength
per unit length is arbitrary function of position = f(x). In practice very restricted
176
number of functions f(x) are used. The most common choice is element of Taylor
expansion
(x) = A
n
x
n
dx (5.47)
The most interesting values for n are 0, 1, and 2. It is necessary to integrate
contribution from whole line segment from x
1
to x
2
to velocity potential , stream
function , and velocity components u and v. Thus
=
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
=
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
arctan
y
x
d
u =
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v =
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1
y
n
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.48)
where () = A
n

n
d. After integrating the rst and second integral of the equa-
Figure 5.2: Line source panel along x-axis.
tions (5.48) by parts we have
=
A
n
2

n+1
n + 1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2

x
2
x
1
+
A
n
4(n + 1)
x
2
_
x
1

n+1
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
=
A
n

n+1
2(n + 1)
arctan
y
x

x
2
x
1

A
n
y
2(n + 1)
x
2
_
x
1

n+1
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u =
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d =
A
n
x
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
A
n
2
x
2
_
x
1

n+1
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v =
A
n
y
2
x
2
_
x
1

n
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.49)
177
After integration by parts all of the integrals are of the same type

m
(x, y) =
_

m

2
2x + x
2
+ y
2
d =
_

m
a
2
+ b + c
d
where a = 1, b = 2x, and c = x
2
+y
2
. This integral can be integrated analytically,
we use here expressions which can be found in any table of indenite integrals.
Before giving analytical expressions for required integrals let us replace characteristic
integrals in equations (5.49) by their symbolic names

n
=

n
A
n
=
1
2

n+1
n + 1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2

x
2
x
1
+
1
4(n + 1)
(x
n+1

n+2
)

x
2
x
1

n
=

n
A
n
=

n+1
2(n + 1)
arctan
y
x

x
2
x
1

y
2(n + 1)

n+1

x
2
x
1
u
n
=
u
n
A
n
=
1
2
(x
n

n+1
)

x
2
x
1
v
n
=
v
n
A
n
=
1
2
y
n

x
2
x
1
(5.50)
Note also that
4ac b
2
= 4x
2
+ 4y
2
4x
2
> 0
so
_
d
a
2
+ b + c
=
2

4ac b
2
arctan
2a + b

4ac b
2
(5.51)
We need expressions for two more integrals before we give recursive expression for
general case
_
d
a
2
+ b + c
=
1
2a
ln
_
a
2
+ b + c
_

b
2a
_
d
a
2
+ b + c
_

2
d
a
2
+ b + c
=

a

b
2a
2
ln
_
a
2
+ b + c
_
+
b
2
2ac
2a
2
_
d
a
2
+ b + c
(5.52)
Now we are ready for recursive formula for general case (
m
)
_

m
d
a
2
+ b + c
=

m1
(m1)a

c
a
_

m2
d
a
2
+ b + c

b
a
_

m1
d
a
2
+ b + c
(5.53)
In practice recursive programming is avoided, it is replaced by loops and use of stack
structure, but here we discuss about principles not actual design of programs so we
use recursive algorithm to calculate needed ow parameters.
Example 5.6:
Write subroutine to calculate integral given by the expression (5.53)
Solution 5.6:
Let us rst dene subroutines for integrals (5.53) when m = 0, 1, and m = 2. They are
given below
178
! File: i0.f90
! 18-Dec-2000
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
function f0(a,b,c,x)
!
! Finds integral:
!
! dx
! int( --------------- )
! a*x*x + b*x + c
!
d = sqrt(4*a*c - b*b)
f0 = 2/d * atan2(2*a*x + b,d)
return
end function f0
!******************************************************************
!
function f1(a,b,c,x)
!
! Finds integral:
!
! x dx
! int( --------------- )
! a*x*x + b*x + c
!
!
f1 = ( log(a*x*x + b*x + c) - b*f0(a,b,c,x) )/(2*a)
return
end function f1
!******************************************************************
!
function f2(a,b,c,x)
!
! Finds integral:
!
! x*x dx
! int( --------------- )
! a*x*x + b*x + c
!
f2 = x/a + ( (b*b-2*a*c)*f0(a,b,c,x) - b*log(a*x*x + b*x + c) )/(2*a*a)
return
end function f2
This subroutines are tested by the following program.
program tst
! Define input data
!
x1 = 0.0
x2 = 2.5
!
x = 5.
y = 1.
! a, b and c
179
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
! Calculate integrals
!
print 101,x,y,x1,x2,0,f0(a,b,c,x2)-f0(a,b,c,x1)
print 101,x,y,x1,x2,1,f1(a,b,c,x2)-f1(a,b,c,x1)
print 101,x,y,x1,x2,2,f2(a,b,c,x2)-f2(a,b,c,x1)
101 format( x = ,F10.3,5x, y = ,F10.3/ x1 = ,F10.3,5x, x2 = ,F10.3// &
I3, int(x2-x1) = ,F10.3///)
stop tst - End of run !
end program tst
Example 5.7:
Write subroutine which is capable to calculate integral (5.53)
Solution 5.7:
Integral (5.53) is recursively dened so we use recursive feature of FORTRAN 90.
recursive function fr(a,b,c,x,m)
!
! Finds integral:
!
! x**m dx
! int( --------------- )
! a*x*x + b*x + c
!
if(m<0) then
stop m < 0 !
end if
select case(m)
case(0)
fr = f0(a,b,c,x)
case(1)
fr = f1(a,b,c,x)
case(2)
fr = f2(a,b,c,x)
case default
fr = x**(m-1)/((m-1)*a) - ( b*fr(a,b,c,x,m-1) + c*fr(a,b,c,x,m-2) )/a
end select
return
end function fr
Program to test former function is given below.
program testfr
! Define arguments
x = 2.0
y = 2.0
!
x1 = 0.0
x2 = 4.0
!
180
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x*x + y*y
!
m = 4
print 101, x,y, x1,x2, m, fr(a,b,c,x2,m)-fr(a,b,c,x1,m)
101 format( x,y = ,2F10.3/ x1,x2 = ,2F10.3/ m = ,I2/ int = ,F10.3//)
stop testfr - End of run !
end program testfr
Figure 5.3: Linearly varying source strength panel along x-axis.
Example 5.8:
Find expressions to calculate velocity potential , stream function , and induced velocity
components u and v due to linearly varying strength of a source segment, placed on the
x-axis, between points x
1
and x
2
, gure (5.3).
Solution 5.8:
We have to apply developed procedure for the case when strength intensity is varying
according to the formula
() =
x
2

x
2
x
1

1
+
x
1
x
2
x
1

2
or
() = (A

0
+ A

1
)
1
+ (A

0
+ A

1
)
2
where
A

0
=
x
2
x
2
x
1
A

1
=
1
x
2
x
1
A

0
=
x
1
x
2
x
1
A

2
=
1
x
2
x
1
So we need to consider function of the form A
0
+ A
1
.
181
We consider, now, each parameter of the ow-eld separately, rst . From equation
(5.48) we have
=
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
_
A
0

0
+ A
1

_
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
=
A
0
2
x
2
_
x
1

0
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d +
A
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d (5.54)
After integration of this equation by parts or after applying equation (5.49) we get
=
A
0
2
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2

x
2
x
1
+
A
0
4
x2
_
x1
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d +
+
A
1
2

2
2
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2

x
2
x
1
+
A
1
4
x2
_
x1

2
(x )/2
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
or after rearrangement
=
_
A
0
2
+
A
1
2

2
2
_
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2

x
2
x
1
+
A
0
x
4
x2
_
x1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
+
+
_
A
1
x
8

A
0
4
_
x2
_
x1

2
d
(x )
2
+ y
2

A
1
8
x2
_
x1

3
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
(5.55)
Let us now give expression for the stream function calculation. Again from equation
(5.48) and (5.49) we get
=
A
0

2
arctan
y
x

x
2
x
1

A
0
y
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
+
A
1

2
4
arctan
y
x

x
2
x
1

A
1
y
4
x
2
_
x
1

2
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
(5.56)
Expressions for velocity components follow directly from equation (5.48)
u =
A
0
x
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
+
A
1
x A
0
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2

A
1
2
x
2
_
x
1

2
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
v =
A
0
y
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
+
A
1
y
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
(5.57)
We could obtain the same result more eectively by applying expressions given by equa-
tion (5.50)
= (A

0
+ A

1
)
1
+ (A

0
+ A

1
)
2
= (A

0
+ A

1
)
1
+ (A

0
+ A

1
)
2
u = (A

0
u
0
+ A

1
u
1
)
1
+ (A

0
u
0
+ A

1
u
1
)
2
(5.58)
v = (A

0
v
0
+ A

1
v
1
)
1
+ (A

0
v
0
+ A

1
v
1
)
2
182
where

i
,

i
, u
i
, and v
i
are calculated according to expressions (5.50).
Considering previous example it is relatively easy to generalize expressions to higher
order polynomials.
Example 5.9:
Write subroutine which is capable to calculate ow parameters , , u, and v at an
arbitrary point (x, y) from the source segment placed along x-axis between points x
1
and x
2
, if the source strength vary linearly from
1
at x
1
to
2
at x
2
.
Solution 5.9:
We have to program system (5.58) where
A

0
=
x
2
x
2
x
1
A

1
=
1
x
2
x
1
A

0
=
x
1
x
2
x
1
A

2
=
1
x
2
x
1
and
a = 1, b = 2x, c = x
2
+ y
2
Since we have not discussed procedure for calculating ow parameters when arbitrary
point falls in the segment (x
1
, x
2
) we assume here that this point is outside that segment,
i.e. when y = 0, x , (x
1
, x
2
). The program which follow is far from an ecient way to
solve the problem but we believe that it is easy to understand it.
! File: SourceLin2D.f90
! 02-Jan-2001
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
Subroutine SourceLin2D(x1,x2,sig1,sig2,x,y,phi,psi,u,v)
! Subroutine calculates flow parameters phi,psi,
! u, and v, at an arbitrary point (x,y), from
! the source segment at x-axis between points x1
! and x2. Source strength distribution varies
! linearly from sig1 at x1 to sig2 at x2.
real x1,x2 ! The source segment is placed here
real sig1,sig2 ! The intensity of source distribution
real x,y ! Here we calculate flow parameters
real phi,psi,u,v ! These are output results
!
! Here we assume that point (x,y) is outside the
! segment (x1,x2) and y=0
A0P = x2/(x2-x1)
A1P = -1/(x2-x1)
A0S = -x1/(x2-x1)
A1S = 1/(x2-x1)
!
phi0b = phib(x,y,0,x2) - phib(x,y,0,x1)
phi1b = phib(x,y,1,x2) - phib(x,y,1,x1)
psi0b = psib(x,y,0,x2) - psib(x,y,0,x1)
psi1b = psib(x,y,1,x2) - psib(x,y,1,x1)
u0b = ubar(x,y,0,x2) - ubar(x,y,0,x1)
u1b = ubar(x,y,1,x2) - ubar(x,y,1,x1)
183
v0b = vbar(x,y,0,x2) - vbar(x,y,0,x1)
v1b = vbar(x,y,1,x2) - vbar(x,y,1,x1)
phi = (A0P*phi0b + A1P*phi1b)*sig1 + (A0S*phi0b + A1S*phi1b)*sig2
psi = (A0P*psi0b + A1P*psi1b)*sig1 + (A0S*psi0b + A1S*psi1b)*sig2
u = (A0P*u0b + A1P*u1b)*sig1 + (A0S*u0b + A1S*u1b)*sig2
v = (A0P*v0b + A1P*v1b)*sig1 + (A0S*v0b + A1S*v1b)*sig2
return
end Subroutine SourceLin2D
! *****************************************************************
function phib(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
np1 = n+1
np2 = n+2
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
phib = z**np1/(TwoPi*np1)*log(sqrt(a*z*z+b*z+c)) + &
(x*fr(a,b,c,z,np1)-fr(a,b,c,z,np2))/(FourPi*np1)
return
end function phib
! *****************************************************************
function psib(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
np1 = n+1
np2 = n+2
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
theta = atan2(y,x-z)
if(theta < 0) theta = theta + TwoPi
!
psib = (z**np1*theta - y*fr(a,b,c,z,np1))/(TwoPi*np1)
return
end function psib
! *****************************************************************
function ubar(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
np1 = n+1
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
ubar = (x*fr(a,b,c,z,n) - fr(a,b,c,z,np1))/TwoPi
return
end function ubar
! *****************************************************************
function vbar(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
184
c = x**2 + y**2
!
vbar = fr(a,b,c,z,n)/TwoPi
return
end function vbar
Now it remains to say few words about the case when arbitrary point (x, y) lies at
x-axis (y = 0), and x (x
1
, x
2
). In that case we have improper integral which is di-
vergent. We must take nite part in order to obtain nite values of ow parameters.
Our typical integral has now the form

m
(x, 0) =
_

m
(x )
2
d
We have integer power in denominator so equation (5.38) is appropriate for this
case, and n = 1. Regularized integral of this equation is given below
R
m
(x) =
_

m
x
m
+ mx
m1
(x )
(x )
2
d (5.59)
It remains to add the nite-part integrals of elementary poles to complete the job
which are of the form
x
m
TP
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
mx
m1
x
2
_
x
1
d
x
So nally we get
x
2
_
x
1

m
(x )
2
d =
x
2
_
x
1

m
+ (m1)x
m
mx
m1

(x )
2
d
x
m
x
2
x
1
(x x
1
)(x
2
x)
mx
m1
ln
x x
1
x
2
x
(5.60)
The integral on the right-hand side is regularized, i.e. each of its components is
singular but nominator of the fraction regularize this integral in LHopital sense.
We, thus, must take this function without brakeing it into pieces what is possible
by using numerical quadrature.
Example 5.10:
Regularize typical integral for the linear source distribution for m = 5 and show diagrams
of regularized and non-regularized functions in the interval (0, 2) when x = 1.
Solution 5.10:
Non-regularized function is dened as
f() =

5
(1 )
2
while regularized function is obtained from (5.59)
f
r
() =

5
1
5
+ 5 1
4
(1 )
(1 )
2
=

5
5 + 4
(1 )
2
Diagrams of both regularized and non-regularized functions are shown in the gure (5.4)
185
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
f
r
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
f
Non-regularized
function
Regularized
function
Figure 5.4: Non-regularized and regularized graph of function f().
Example 5.11:
Write program by which it is possible to calculate nite part of the characteristic integral
as it is given by (5.60).
Solution 5.11:
Input parameters for such program are x, m, x
1
, and x
2
. For regular part we have to
apply Gauss-Legendre quadrature formula. In the case that m = 0 we have simple pole
so no quadrature is required. The subroutine which calculates required integral follows
! File: RegularizedSource.f90
! 04-Jan-2001
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
function RegularizedSource2D(x,m,x1,x2)
real zi(6), wi(6)
data zi /-0.2386192,0.2386192,-0.6612094,0.6612094,-0.9324695,0.9324695/
data wi /2*0.4679139,2*0.3607616,2*0.1713245/
! Calculates integral int(x1,x2) z**m/(x-z)**2 dz
F(z)=( z**m + (m-1)*x**m - m*x**(m-1)*z ) / (z-x)**2
!
! Find the integral of regularized function using
! Gauss-Legendre quadrature
if(m > 0) then
RegInt = 0.0
do i = 1, 6
xi = ((x2-x1)*zi(i) +x1+x2)/2
186
RegInt = RegInt + wi(i)*F(xi)
end do
RegInt = (x2-x1)*RegInt/2 - x**m*(x2-x1)/((x-x1)*(x2-x)) &
-m*x**(m-1)*log((x-x1)/(x2-x))
else if(m==0) then
RegInt = -x**m*(x2-x1)/((x-x1)*(x2-x))-m*x**(m-1)*log((x-x1)/(x2-x))
else
stop RegularizedSource2D: m<0 !?
end if
RegularizedSource2D= RegInt
return
end function RegularizedSource2D
The former subroutine is tested by the following test program
! File: TestRegularizedSource.f90
! 04-Jan-2001
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
program TestRegularizedSource2D
! Define input values
x = 1.0
x1 = 0.0
x2 = 2.0
print 101
101 format( Input m: ,$)
read *,m
print 102, x, m, x1, x2
102 format( x m x1 x2/F8.3,I2,2F8.3/)
print 103, RegularizedSource2D(x,m,x1,x2)
103 format( Finite part : ,F10.3///)
stop TestRegularizedSource -- End of run!
end program TestRegularizedSource2D
Now it is the time to calculate ow parameters for general case regardless whether
or not the point (x, y) lies in the interval (x
1
, x
2
).
Example 5.12:
Correct the subroutine for calculating ow parameters from the source segment along
x-axis when the position of the point (x, y) is arbitrary.
Solution 5.12:
We have to add the case when point (x, y) lies on the panel. Since in practical calcula-
tions we need only velocities our subroutine will supply us only with u and v as answers.
Also note that expression for v is not irregular since denominator and nominator tend to
zero so we have to apply development from (4.52). Listing which follows is realization
of all so far mentioned
! File: SourceLin2Dfinal.f90
! 04-Jan-2001
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
187
Subroutine SourceLin2D(x1,x2, sig1,sig2, x,y, u,v)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi
! Subroutine calculates flow parameters phi,psi,
! u, and v, at an arbitrary point (x,y), from
! the source segment at x-axis between points x1
! and x2. Source strength distribution varies
! linearly from sig1 at x1 to sig2 at x2.
real x1,x2 ! The source segment is placed here
real sig1,sig2 ! The intensity of source distribution
real x,y ! Here we calculate flow parameters
real u,v ! Induced velocities
!
A0P = x2/(x2-x1)
A1P = -1/(x2-x1)
A0S = -x1/(x2-x1)
A1S = 1/(x2-x1)
!
! Check if point falls on the interval (x1,x2)
if(abs(y/(x2-x1)) < 1.e-6 .and. (x1-x)*(x2-x) < 0.0) then
! Point is on the segment
u0b = (x*RegularizedSource2D(x,0,x1,x2)-RegularizedSource2D(x,1,x1,x2))/TwoPi
u1b = (x*RegularizedSource2D(x,1,x1,x2)-RegularizedSource2D(x,2,x1,x2))/TwoPi
sig = sig1+(sig2-sig1)/(x2-x1)*(x-x1)
u = (A0P*u0b + A1P*u1b)*sig1 + (A0S*u0b + A1S*u1b)*sig2
v = sig/2
return
else
u0b = ubar(x,y,0,x2) - ubar(x,y,0,x1)
u1b = ubar(x,y,1,x2) - ubar(x,y,1,x1)
v0b = vbar(x,y,0,x2) - vbar(x,y,0,x1)
v1b = vbar(x,y,1,x2) - vbar(x,y,1,x1)
u = (A0P*u0b + A1P*u1b)*sig1 + (A0S*u0b + A1S*u1b)*sig2
v = (A0P*v0b + A1P*v1b)*sig1 + (A0S*v0b + A1S*v1b)*sig2
end if
return
end Subroutine SourceLin2D
! *****************************************************************
function ubar(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
np1 = n+1
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
ubar = (x*fr(a,b,c,z,n) - fr(a,b,c,z,np1))/TwoPi
return
end function ubar
! *****************************************************************
function vbar(x,y,n,z)
real, parameter :: Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi
!
a = 1.0
b = -2*x
c = x**2 + y**2
!
188
vbar = fr(a,b,c,z,n)/TwoPi
return
end function vbar
We use the following test program to test it.
program TestSourceLin2Dfinal
! define input parameters
print 101
101 format( (x,y) = ,$)
read *,x,y
x1 = 0.0
x2 = 2.0
print 102
102 format( sig1, sig2 : ,$)
read *, sig1, sig2
Call SourceLin2D(x1,x2, sig1,sig2, x,y, u,v)
print 103, x,y, x1,x2, sig1,sig2, u,v
103 format( (x,y) : ,2F10.3/ x1, x2 : ,2F10.3/ &
sig1, sig2 : ,2F10.3/// u,v : ,2F10.3//)
stop TestSourceLin2Dfinal -- End of run !
end program TestSourceLin2Dfinal
So far we have shown very general expressions for source distributions along strait-
line segments. The question is do we really need so general expressions. For linear
and constant strength distributions exist much simpler subroutines so we give them
now.
Constant-Strength Source Distribution
Consider a source distribution along the x-axis as shown in the gure (5.5). It is
assumed that the source strength per length is constant such that (x) = = const.
The inuence of this distribution at a point P is an integral of the inuences of the
point elements along the segment x
1
x
2
.
=

2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
=

2
x
2
_
x
1
arctan
y
x
d
u =

2
x
2
_
x
1
x
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v =

2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.61)
If we denote

k
= arctan
y
x x
k
, k = 1, 2 (5.62)
r
k
=
_
(x x
k
)
2
+ y
2
, k = 1, 2 (5.63)
189
Figure 5.5: Constant-strength source panel along x-axis.
then integration of system (5.61) gives
=

4
_
(x x
1
) ln r
2
1
(x x
2
) ln r
2
2
+ 2y(
2

1
)
_
=

2
_
(x x1)
1
(x x
2
)
2
+
y
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
_
u =

4
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
v =

2
(
2

1
)
(5.64)
Of particular interest is the case when the point P is on the element (usually at the
center). In this case y = 0 and (
1
= 0,
2
= ), so ow parameters become
(x, 0

) =

4
_
(x x
1
) ln(x x
1
)
2
(x x
2
) ln(x x
2
)
2
_
(x, 0

) =

2
(x x
2
)
u(x, 0

) =

2
ln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
v(x, 0

) =

2
(5.65)
Coordinate y + 0 means that the point P lies innitely close to the panel but from
the upper side, and y = 0 that the point P is innitely close to the panel from the
lower side. As can be easily checked the velocity component u is zero at the panel
center (x
1
+ x
2
)/2 and is innite at the panel edges.
Linear-Strength Source Elements
The representation of a continuous singularity distribution by a series of constant-
strength elements results in a discontinuity of the singularity strength at the panel
edges. To overcome this problem, a linearly varying strength singularity element
can be used. The requirement that the strength of the singularity remains the same
at the edge of two neighbor elements results in an additional equation. Therefore,
with this type of element, for N collocation points 2N equations will be formed.
Consider linear source distribution along the x-axis (x
1
< x < x
2
) with source
strength of (x) =
0
+
1
(x x
1
), as shown in gure (5.6). Based on the principle
190
of superposition, this can be divided into a constant-strength element and a linearly
varying strength element with the strength (x) =
1
x. Therefore, for the general
case (as shown in the left-hand side of gure (5.6)) the results of this section must
be added to the results of the constant-strength source element.
Figure 5.6: Decomposition of a linear strength element to constant-strength and
linearly varying strength element.
The inuence of the simplied linear distribution source element, where (x) =
1
x,
at point P is obtained by integrating the inuences of the point elements between
x
1
x
2
, gure (5.7).
=

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
=

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
arctan
y
x
d
u =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.66)
Figure 5.7: Nomenclature for calculating inuence of linearly varying strength
source.
Without going into details of integration we give here nal result
191
=

1
4
_
x
2
x
2
1
y
2
2
ln r
2
1

x
2
x
2
2
y
2
2
ln r
2
2
+ 2xy(
2

1
) x(x
2
x
1
)
_
=

1
2
_
xy
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+
y
2
(x
1
x
2
) +
x
2
x
2
1
y
2
2

1

x
2
x
2
2
y
2
2

2
_
u =

1
2
_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+ (x
1
x
2
) +y(
2

1
)
_
v =

1
4
_
y ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+ 2x(
2

1
)
_
(5.67)
where r
1
, r
2
,
1
, and
2
are dened by equations (5.62) and (5.63).
When the point P lies on the element y = 0 , x
1
< x < x
2
, then equations (5.67)
reduces to
=

1
4
_
(x
2
x
2
1
) ln(x x
1
) (x
2
x
2
2
) ln [x x
2
[ x(x
2
x
1
)
_
=

1
4
(x
2
x
2
2
)
u =

1
2
_
xln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
+ (x
1
x
2
)
_
v =

1
2
x
(5.68)
5.4.2 Vortex Panels
Expressions needed to calculate ow parameters due to vortex panel, are very similar
to those given for the source panels. We will not repeat general development from
previous section, instead we give here expressions only for constant-strength panel
and linearly varying strength panel, which are the most frequently used types of
panels in applications.
Constant-Strength Vortex Panel
Once the inuence terms of the constant-strength source element are obtained, owing
to the similarity between the source and vortex distributions, the formulation for this
panel element becomes simple. The constant strength vortex distribution (x) =
= const. is placed along the x-axis as shown in gure (5.8).
The inuence coecients at a point P is an integral of the inuences of the point
elements between x
1
x
2
.
192
=

2
x
2
_
x
1
arctan
y
x
d
=

2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u =

2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v =

2
x
2
_
x
1
x
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.69)
Note great similarity between this equations and equations (5.61), thus we can use
expressions for source panels directly. Let us aggain assume the same notation as
that given by (5.62) and (5.63), then
=

2
_
(x x
1
)
1
(x x
2
)
2
+
y
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
_
=

4
_
(x x
1
) ln r
2
1
(x x
2
) ln r
2
2
+ 2y(
2

1
)
_
u =

2
(
2

1
)
v =

4
ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
(5.70)
The inuence of the element on itself at y = 0 and (x
1
< x < x
2
) can be found by
approaching from above the x-axis. In this case
1
= 0,
2
= and
(x, 0

) =

2
[(x x
1
)0 (x x
2
)] =

2
(x x
2
)
(x, 0

) =

4
_
(x x
1
) ln(x x
1
)
2
(x x
2
) ln(x x
2
)
2
_
u(x, 0

) =

2
v(x, 0

) =

4
ln
(x x
2
)
2
(x x
1
)
2
(5.71)
Figure 5.8: Constant-strength vortex panel along x-axis.
193
Linear Vortex Distribution
In this case the strength of vortex distribution varies linearly along the element
(x) =
0
+
1
(x x
1
)
Again, for simplicity consider only the linear portion where (x) =
1
x and
1
is a
constant. The inuence of this vortex distribution at point P in the xy plane is
obtained by integrating the inuences of the point elements between x
1
x
2
:
(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
arctan
y
x
d
(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
v(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(5.72)
Since these expressions for ow parameters have corresponding expression in linear
source distributions we can simply transfer these results here, (5.66), to obtain
(x, y) =

1
2
_
xy
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+ y
x
1
x
2
2
+
x
2
x
2
1
y
2
2

1

x
2
x
2
2
y
2
2

2
_
(x, y) =

1
4
_
x
2
x
2
1
y
2
2
ln r
2
1

x
2
x
2
2
y
2
2
ln r
2
2
+ 2xy(
2

1
) x(x
2
x
1
)
_
u(x, y) =

1
4
_
y ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
2x(
2

1
)
_
v(x, y) =

1
2
_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
(x
2
x
1
) +y(
2

1
)
_
(5.73)
again r
k
and
k
are dened by the equations (5.62) and (5.63).
When the point P lies on the panel element (y = 0; x
1
< x < x
2
), then equation
(5.73) reduces to
(x, 0

) =

1
4
(x
2
x
2
2
)
(x, 0

) =

1
4
_
(x
2
x
2
1
) ln(x x
1
) (x
2
x
2
) ln [x x
2
[ x(x
2
x
1
)
_
u(x, 0

) =

1
2
x
v(x, 0

) =

1
2
_
x
2
ln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
(x
2
x
1
)
_
(5.74)
as before + means above and means below the panel, and 0 means innitely
close to the panel, where signs means from which side is innitely close.
194
5.4.3 Doublet Panels
Consider a doublet distribution along the x-axis consisting of elements pointing in
the y direction ( = 0 + ), as shown in the gure (5.9). The inuence of the
panel at the point P(x, y) is an integral of the inuences of the point elements
(5.2) distributed between x
1
x
2
. We use such orientation of doublets since Gauss
second formulae, section (3.15), states that orientation of doublets should be normal
to the surface where they are distributed.
Figure 5.9: Doublet distribution along x-axis segment.
Constant-Strength Doublet Panels
If (x) = = const then from (5.2) follows
(x, y) =

2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(x, y) =

2
x
2
_
x
1
x
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u(x, y) =

x
2
_
x
1
y(x )
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
v(x, y) =

2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
2
y
2
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
(5.75)
Note that the integral for the u component of the source distribution is similar to
the potential integral of the doublet distribution, and that the integral for the v
component of the source distribution is similar to the stream function integral of
the doublet distribution. So we can use already derived expressions. Therefore, the
potential at point P(x, y) by using equation (5.61) for v is
(x, y) =

2
(
2

1
) (5.76)
where, again, angle
k
is dened by equation (5.62). Comparing this expression to
the potential of a point vortex (5.3) indicates that this constant doublet distribution
is equivalent to two point vortices with opposite sign at the panel edges such that
195
Figure 5.10: Equivalence between constant-strength doublet distribution and pair
of the point vortex.
= , see gure (5.10). Consequently velocity components are readily available by
using equation (5.3). So expressions for ow parameters follow
(x, y) =

2
(
2

1
)
(x, y) =

4
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
u(x, y) =

2
_
y
r
2
1

y
r
2
2
_
v(x, y) =

2
_
x x
1
r
2
1

x x
2
r
2
2
_
(5.77)
When the point P is on the panel (y = 0, x
1
< x < x
2
) then from (5.65) and (5.3)
we have
(x, 0

) =

2
(x, 0

) =

2
ln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
u(x, 0

) =
d(x)
dx
= 0
v(x, 0

) =

2
_
1
x x
1

1
x x
2
_
(5.78)
components of velocity v are singular at edges of the panel.
Figure 5.11: Linear varying strength doublet panel,
1
=
1
x
1
,
2
=
1
x
2
.
196
Linear Doublet Distribution
Consider a doublet distribution along the x-axis with a strength (x) =
0
+
1
(x
x
1
), consisting of doublet elements oriented in the positive y-axis direction, =
(0, ), as shown in the gure (5.11). In this case, too, only the linear term (x) =
1
x
is considered and the inuence at the point P(x, y) is an integral of the inuences
of the point doublet elements between x
1
x
2
.
(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
y
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(x, y) =

1
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u(x, y) =

1

x
2
_
x
1
y(x )
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
v(x, y) =

x
2
_
x
1
[(x )
2
y
2
]
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
(5.79)
The integral for the velocity potential is similar to the v velocity component of
the linear source, while the integral for the stream function is similar to the u
component of the linear source, thus
(x, y) =

1
4
_
2x(
2

1
) + y ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
_
(x, y) =

1
2
_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+ (x
1
x
2
) + y(
2

1
)
_
(5.80)
If we compare the expression for the velocity potential in this equation, and
expression for the velocity potential for the constant-strength vortex panel element,
(5.70), we observe that these two potential can be easily related. Let us rearrange
the expression for velocity potential of the constant-strength vortex element

V
=

2
_
(x x
1
)
1
(x x
2
)
2
+
y
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
_
=

4
_
2x(
2

1
) + y ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
_
. .
Doublet when =
1
+

2
(x
1

1
x
2

2
)
Thus velocity potential of the linearly varying strength doublet panel,
D
, is related
to velocity potential of the constant-strength vortex panel,
V
, through relationship

D
=
V
+

1
2
(x
1

1
x
2

2
) (5.81)
the last two terms are velocity potentials of point vortices with strengths
1
=

1
x
1
, and
2
=
1
x
2
. The velocity components therefore are readily available,
either by dierentiation of this velocity potential or by combining expressions for
197
the constant-strength vortex panel (5.69) and expressions for the induced velocities
for point vortices (5.3). Complete expressions for the velocity components are thus
u(x, y) =

1
2
(
2

1
) +

1
x
2
2
y
r
2
2

1
x
1
2
y
r
2
1
v(x, y) =

1
4
ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+

1
x
1
2
x x
1
r
2
1

1
x
2
x x
2
r
2
2
(5.82)
The values of the potential, stream function, and the velocity components on the
panel itself (y = 0, x
1
< x < x
2
) are
(x, 0

) =

1
2
x
(x, 0

) =

1
2
_
xln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
+ (x
1
x
2
)
_
u(x, 0

) =

1
2
v(x, 0

) =

1
4
_
ln
(x x
2
)
2
(x x
1
)
2
+
2x
1
x x
1

x
2
x x
2
_
(5.83)
Quadratic-Strength Doublet Distribution
Quadratic doublet distribution is similar to vortex linear distribution. However,
in situations when the Dirichlet type boundary conditions is applied, it is more
convenient to use the corresponding doublet distribution (instead of the linear vortex
distribution). We assume that doublet strength vary according to (x) =
0
+
1
(x
x
1
)
2
+
2
(x x
1
)
2
when x
1
< x < x
2
. If we temporarily move coordinate origin to
x
1
and concentrate to the contribution of the quadratic term the ow parameters
from that term are obtained from the following integrals:
(x, y) =

2
2
x
2
_
x
1
y
2
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
(x, y) =

2
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
2
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
u(x, y) =

2

x
2
_
x
1
y(x )
2
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
v(x, y) =

2
2
x
2
_
x
1
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
]
2
[(x )
2
+ y
2
]
2
d
(5.84)
Let us integrate velocity potential integral. We introduce the new variable X = x
(thus dX = d), which transforms velocity potential integral of equation (5.84) to
the form
=

2
2
xx
2
_
xx
1
y(x
2
2xX + X
2
)
X
2
+ y
2
dX
198
=

2
2
_
_
yx
2
xx
2
_
xx
1
dX
X
2
+ y
2
2xy
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
X
2
+ y
2
dX + y
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
2
X
2
+ y
2
dX
_
_
From the table of integrals, for example from [10], we have
xx
2
_
xx
1
dX
X
2
+ y
2
=
1
y
_
arctan
x x
2
y
arctan
x x
1
y
_
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
X
2
+ y
2
dX =
1
2
ln
(x x
2
)
2
+ y
2
(x x
1
)
2
+ y
2
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
2
X
2
+ y
2
dX = (x
2
x
1
) + y
_
arctan
x x
1
y
arctan
x x
2
y
_
Figure 5.12: Quadratically varying strength doublet panel,
1
=
2
x
2
1
and
2
=

2
x
2
1
.
It is clear from the gure (5.12) that
arctan
x x
k
y
=

2

k
, and r
2
k
= (x x
k
)
2
+ y
2
thus
(x, y) =

2
2
_
(x
2
y
2
)(
1

2
) xy ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+ y(x
1
x
2
)
_
Expression for this potential is similar to expression for linearly varying vortex panel,
equation (5.72). We could rearrange this equation such that

D
=
V
+

2
2
(x
2
1

1
x
2
2

2
)
where
V
is expression for linearly varying vortex panel when
2
=
1
/2, and
last two terms are contributions from point vortices of intensity
1
=
2
x
2
1
and

2
=
2
x
2
1
placed at the panel edges.
Expressions for inuence velocities could be obtained from expressions for linearly
varying vortex panel and point vortices at the edges of the panel, thus
u =

2
2
_
y ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
2x(
2

1
) +
yx
2
2
r
2
2

yx
2
1
r
2
1
_
v =

2

_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+ (x
1
x
2
) + y(
2

1
) +
x
2
1
2

x x
1
r
2
1

x
2
2
2

x x
2
r
2
2
_
199
It remains to calculate stream function (x, y). Let us again introduce substitution
x = X d = dX, and when = x
1
, X = x x
1
; x = x
2
, X = x x
2
.
we can expand required integral
x
2
_
x
1
(x )
2
(x )
2
+ y
2
d =
xx
2
_
xx
1
X(x X)
2
X
2
+ y
2
dX
into components:

xx
2
_
xx
1
X(x X)
2
X
2
+ y
2
dX = x
2
xx
2
_
xx
1
X dX
X
2
+ y
2
+ 2x
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
2
dX
X
2
+ y
2

xx
2
_
xx
1
X
3
dX
X
2
+ y
2
The last integral on the right-hand side is addition to the list of already given
integrals
xx
2
_
xx
1
X
3
dX
X
2
+ y
2
=
x
2
2
x
2
1
2

y
2
2
ln
(x x
2
)
2
+ y
2
(x x
1
)
2
+ y
2
what gives
(x, y) =

2
2
_
2xy(
2

1
) +
y
2
x
2
2
ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+ (x
2
x
1
)
_
2x
x
1
+ x
2
2
_
_
or all together:
(x, y) =

2
2
_
(x
2
y
2
)(
1

2
) xy ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+ y(x
1
x
2
)
_
(x, y) =

2
2
_
2xy(
2

1
) +
y
2
x
2
2
ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
+ (x
2
x
1
)
_
2x
x
1
+ x
2
2
_
_
u(x, y) =

2
2
_
y ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
2x(
2

1
) +
yx
2
2
r
2
2

yx
2
1
r
2
1
_
v(x, y) =

2

_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
+ (x
1
x
2
) + y(
2

1
) +
x
2
1
2

x x
1
r
2
1

x
2
2
2

x x
2
r
2
2
_
(5.85)
When the point P lies on the panel, y = 0, x
1
< x < x
2
we have
2

1
= when
y = o
+
, and
2

1
= when y = 0

, thus
(x, 0

) =

2
x
2
2
(x, 0

) =

2
2
_
2xy + (x
2
x
1
)
_
2x
x
1
+ x
2
2
_
+
x
2
2
ln
(x x
2
)
2
(x x
2
)
2
_
u(x, 0

) =
2
x
v(x, 0

) =

2

_
x
2
ln
(x x
1
)
2
(x x
2
)
2
+ x
1
x
2
+
x
2
1
2(x x
1
)

x
2
2
2(x x
2
)
_
(5.86)
Inuence velocity v is singular at the edges of the panel.
200
Figure 5.13: Geometry approximated by the strait line segments.
5.4.4 Some General Remarks
So far we have developed our theory on the singularity distributions over panel of the
form (x) =
0
+
1
(x), or some other polynomial. Such representation is not the
most convenient since we have additional unknowns. In the case of linear strength
distribution we have two unknowns per each panel (
0
, and
1
). Let us clarify this
by the gure (5.13).
In this gure we see three types of numbering. The rst numbering belongs to panel
numbers, so each panel is identied by unique number. The second numbering is
global panel-edge numbering where each edge point has unique number. This is
necessary because we associate unknown ow parameter values and coordinates of
the panel with such numbering. And third numbering is local numbering where each
panel has its edge number 1 and edge number 2. We have developed our expressions
in local coordinate system (when panel segment lies on the x-axis). Thus we must
have global to local and vice-verse coordinate transformations.
Let us uniquely identify coecients
0
and
1
to each panel by adding one additional
index which indicate for which panel are these constants. For example
0,i
and
1,i
are constants of the i-th panel. Since there is no reason that intensity of singularity
has jumps in strength when passing from one panel to it neighboring, we should
demand that the values of singularity distribution at the common edge are the same.
This makes additional as many equations as there are common edges (generally that
doubles total number of equations). Singularity continuity condition can be written
as

0,i1
+
1,i1
(x
2,i1
x
1,i1
) =
0,i
where x
k,i
means k-th edge of the i-th panel.
We could avoid having additional unknowns if we uniquely associate unknown sin-
gularity strengths to global panel edge numbering. Let us denote with
(k)
the
value of the source singularity at the edge k. We could easily connect this unknowns
with previous. At the local edge 1, x = x
1,i
of the panel i, the global value of the
singularity distribution at that edge is
(i)

(i)
=
0,i
+
1,i
(x
1,i
x
1,i
) =
0,i
At the local point 2 of the panel i we have global value
(i+1)
which is also equal to

(i+1)
=
0,i
+
1,i
(x
2,i
x
1,i
)
201
From this two equations we can express panel coecients in terms of global node
values

0,i
=
(i)
,
1,i
=

(i+1)

(i)
x
2,i
x
1,i
(5.87)
So in all the developments we done so far we can quickly switch from panel coef-
cients to global node values by simply substituting
0

(i)
and
1
(
(i+1)

(i)
)/(x
2,i
x
1,i
). With this transition from panel unknowns to global unknowns we
reduce the size of our problem to half of its initial size in the case of linearly varying
singularities.
We now introduce procedure to combine constant strength and linearly varying
strength panel elements. For constant strength, and for linearly varying source
panel element we have, (5.61) and (5.66)

c
=
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d (5.88)

v
=
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d (5.89)
where
c
is the velocity potential of the unit constant strength source element, and

v
is the velocity potential of the linearly varying unit-strength source element. But
complete expression for the potential is of the form
=
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
_

0
+
1
( x
1
)
_
ln
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
d
or
= (
0

1
x
1
)
c
+
1

v
(5.90)
the same rule applies to remaining ow parameters. We could now replace
0
and

1
by panel edge values
(i)
=
0
, and
1
= (
(i+1)

(i)
/(x
(i+1)
x
(i)
). Thus, for
the velocity u we have
u =
_

(i)

(i+1)

(i)
x
(i+1)
x
(i)
_
u
c
+

(i+1)

(i)
x
(i+1)
x
(i)
u
v
(5.91)
or
u =
_
1
u
v
u
c
x
(i+1)
x
(i)
_

(i)
+
u
v
u
c
x
(i+1)
x
(i)

(i+1)
= (1 )
(i)
+
(i+1)
(5.92)
where = (u
v
u
c
)(x
(i+1)
x
(i)
). The similar expression should be applied to
remaining ow parameters (, , and v), and for vortex and doublet distributions.
Even for higher oder singularity distributions, the number of unknowns could be
reduced if we use instead of panel variables global node variables. We could in-
crease the order of panel approximation either by increasing the order of singularity
distribution polynomial, or by rening geometry approximation, or both. In the
gure (5.57) actual geometry is approximated by strait line segments. If we wish to
approximate geometry with curved elements that generally highly complicate cal-
culation of inuence integral, and very often it is much easier and ecient to use
numerical quadrature instead of analytical.
202
Figure 5.14: Global and local coordinate system.
5.5 Coordinate Systems
We mentioned in previous section global and local node numbering. We could as-
sociate to such numbering adequate coordinate system. Figure (5.14) shows point
P dened in two coordinate systems. Let xOy represents global coordinate system,
and let x

represents local coordinate system. Let us also dene vectors

R and

R
o
in global coordinate system, and vector r in the local coordinate system. As it
is clear from the gure we could write

R =

R
o
+r
or
X + Y = X
o
+ Y
o
+ x

+ y

(5.93)
where and are unit vectors of the global coordinate system, and

and

are
unit vectors of the local coordinate system. If we multiply the equation (5.93) by
and respectively we obtain
X = X
o
+ x

+ y


Y = Y
o
+ x

+ y


From the gure (5.14) it is clear that

= cos

= cos( + /2)

= cos(/2 )

= cos
or in matrix form
_
X X
o
Y Y
o
_
=
_

_ _
x
y
_
(5.94)
Multiplying equation (5.93) with

and

respectively we obtain x and y
_
x
y
_
=
_

_ _
X X
o
Y Y
o
_
(5.95)
203
Figure 5.15: Find the coordinates of the point P(11, 8) in local coordinate system
bonded to panel segment.
Example 5.13:
Point P(11, 8) is given in global coordinate system xOy together with end-points of the
panel, as it is shown in the gure (5.15). Determine the coordinate of the point P in
the local coordinate system if the origin of such system is placed at the left edge of the
panel, and if the x

-axis pass through the second edge of the panel.

Solution 5.13:
Let us rst nd the angle between x-axes of the global and local coordinate system.
tan =
Y
2
Y
1
X
2
X
1
=
3 1
8 2
=
1
3
Using well known trigonometric identities
sin =
tan
_
1 + tan
2

, cos =
1
_
1 + tan
2

we have
sin =
1

10
, cos =
3

10
Now we could calculate local coordinates from (5.95)
_
x
P
y
P
_
=
_
3/

10 1/

10
1/

10 3/

10
_ _
X
P
X
1
Y
P
Y
1
_
=
1

10
_
3 1
1 3
_ _
11 2
8 1
_
After performing necessary calculations we get
_
x
P
y
P
_
=
_
34/

10
12/

10
_
Example 5.14:
Let the components of velocity (u, v)=(3, 2), at point P from previous example, are
204
given in local coordinate system. Find the velocity components (U, V ) in the global
coordinate system!
Solution 5.14:
The magnitude and orientation of velocity vector must be the same in both coordinate
systems, thus
U + V = u

+ v

Multiplying this equation by and respectively we get the following transformation
_
U
V
_
=
_
cos sin
sin cos
_ _
u
v
_
(5.96)
what after substitution of numerical data gives
_
U
V
_
=
1

10
_
3 1
1 3
_ _
3
2
_
=
_
7/

10
9/

10
_
Example 5.15:
Find the velocity distribution and pressure coecient C
P
at the cylinder surface placed
in homogeneous ow parallel to x-axis. Let the undisturbed velocity be U

= 1m/s
and let the radius of the cylinder be 1m, see gure (5.16). Assume that the uid is
incompressible and inviscid. Use constant-strength source panels to approximate cylinder
geometry.
Figure 5.16: Flow about cylinder approximated by constant-strength source panels.
Solution 5.15:
We have decided to use constant-strength source panels distributed as it is shown in the
gure (5.16). Let the number of panels be 2n than the angle = 2/2n = /n, and
/2 = /(2n). We have to satisfy the following boundary condition

V
i
n
i
= 0, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n
which simply states that the normal component of the velocity to the i-th panel is equal
to zero. With

V
i
we denote total velocity at control point i. In the middle of each panel
is placed control point. Since the number of control points is equal to number of panels
and also equal to number of unknown source strengths, we have to satisfy this condition
at each control point. This will make us system of 2n equations for the 2n unknown
source panel strengths
i
.
205
With (i) we denote edge points of the panels, thus panel i lies between points (i) and
(i + 1). We assume that the rst panel is at the rear side of cylinder and that the
numbering of panels and edge points is anti-clockwise. Let d denote distance between
circle center and edge point of the panel. Since the radius of the cylinder is 1 we have
d cos(/2) = 1, d = 1/ cos(/2)
Angular position of edge point (i) is dened as

(i)
=
_
i
3
2
_
Angular position of control point is also dened similarly

i
= (i 1)
We could now calculate coordinates of the panel edge points, and coordinates of the
control points
x
(i)
= d cos
(i)
, y
(i)
= d sin
(i)
x
i
= d cos
i
, y
i
= d sin
i
where (x
(i)
, y
(i)
) denote coordinates of the i-th edge point, and (x
i
, y
i
) denote coordi-
nates of the i-the control point. Knowing
i
it is easy to dene unit normal to the i-th
panel
n
i
= cos
i
+ sin
i

Let us now denote with w

i,j
inuence velocity at the control point i from the source
distribution over the panel j. Since each panel contribute velocity to the control point
i we must add them all together
v
i
=
2n

j=1
w
i,j

j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n
where v
i
is the inuence velocity from all the panels. Total velocity

V
i
at control point
i is thus

V
i
= U

+
2n

j=1
w
i,j

j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n
The boundary condition is now expressed as

V
i
n
i
=
_
_
U

+
2n

j=1
w
i,j

j
_
_
(cos
i
+ sin
i
) = 0
from which follows
2n

j=1
(cos
i
+ sin
i
) w
i,j

j
= U

cos
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n
206
We can introduce a new coecient C
i,j
= (cos
i
+ sin
i
) w
i,j
which represents
element of aerodynamic inuence matrix. Former system of equation can be written
more compacted
2n

j=1
C
i,j

j
= U

cos
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n
solving this system we obtain required source panel strengths (
j
), than we can again
determine total velocity at each control point, which must be tangential to the panel
since source strengths are determined to force normal component equal zero

V
i
= U

+
2n

j=1
w
i,j

j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n
It remains only to calculate pressure coecient. From Bernouli equation
1
2
V
2

+ p

=
1
2
V
2
i
+ p
i
we express pressure coecient at control point i:
C
P
i
=
p
i
p

0, 5 V
2

= 1
_
V
i
V

_
2
with this we conclude our solution algorithm it remains only to explain how to calculate
velocities w
i,j
.
We have developed expressions to calculate induced velocities when the source panel
overlaps x-axis, (5.64), and when the point lies on the panel (5.65). We thus must
introduce local coordinate system. Let the x-axis of such system starts from edge point
X
(j)
, and is directed toward the point X
(j+1)
. then the angle between and

is obtained
from expression
cos

,

=

=
X
(j+1)
X
(j)
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2
and


=
Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2
these values are obtained from the denition of dot product.
Now we must uniquely dene orientation of y

-axis. Let it be obtained from

=

k

=
1
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2

k
0 0 1
X
(j+1)
X
(j)
Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
0

then

=
Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2
207
and

=
X
(j+1)
X
(j)
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2
Coordinates of the control point (X
i
, Y
i
) in the local coordinate system bounded to panel
j are denoted by (x
i
, y
i
) and calculated from expression
_
x
i
y
i
_
=
_

_ _
X
i
X
(j)
Y
i
Y
(j)
_
Since our panel overlaps with x-axis of the local coordinate system, its end-point coor-
dinates are X
1
= 0 and X
2
=
_
(X
(j+1)
X
(j)
)
2
+ (Y
(j+1)
Y
(j)
)
2
. We obtain induced
velocities at control point (x
i
, y
i
) in local coordinate system when we apply (5.64)
u
i,j
=

j
4
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
v
i,j
=

j
2
(
2

1
)
where

k
= arctan
y
i
x
i
X
k
, k = 1, 2
r
k
=
_
(x
i
X
k
)
2
+ y
2
i
, k = 1, 2
We need one more transformation to obtain velocity components in global coordinate
system
_
U
i,j
V
i,j
_
=
_

_ _
u
i,j
v
i,j
_
Finally, we have obtained inuence of the panel j to the control point i. This procedure
have to be repeated for each control point and for each panel, thus 4n
2
times. The
program which follows is the complete solution of this problem. Basic steps in calculation
of the ow are separated in separate subroutine which names are self-explanatory.
! File: cyl.for
! Z. Petrovic, 9-Feb-2001
! Calulation of nonlifting flow about arbitrary bodies
! ================================================================
program cyl
parameter (MM=50, MMM=MM*MM)
real x(MM), y(MM) ! Panel edge coordinates
real xc(MM), yc(MM) ! Control point coordinates
real A(MMM), b(MM), Sig(MM) ! Aerodynamic influence mtrix
real nx(MM), ny(MM) ! Unit normals at control pts
real uij(MMM), vij(MMM) ! Induced velocities due to
! unit strength source distr.
equivalence (b(1), Sig(1))
common /c1/ A
common /c2/ uij
common /c3/ vij
!
Call Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
208
Uinf = VV*cos(alpha)
Vinf = VV*sin(alpha)
! Control point and unit normal
Call Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
! Calculate induced velocity
Call Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
! Influence matrix
Call Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, N-1, A, b)
! Solve the equation system
Call SIMQ(A, Sig, N-1, Ierr)
if(Ierr .ne. 0) then
stop *** Singular Influence Matrix *** !
end if
! Prepare results for plotting
Call Output(xc, Sig, N-1)
stop cyl - End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(xc, Sig, NA)
real xc(NA), Sig(NA)
open(unit=1, file=cyl.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) NA
fi = 2*acos(-1.)/NA
100 format( variables = "x", "S", "Sa"/ zone i=,I3)
write(1,110)
& ((i-1)*fi*180/acos(-1.),Sig(i),-2*cos((i-1)*fi),i=1,NA)
110 format(3f12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, NA, A, b)
real uij(N,N), vij(N,N), nx(N), ny(N), A(NA,NA), b(NA)
do i = 1, NA ! For each control point
b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i) -Vinf*ny(i)
do j = 1, NA ! For each panel
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i)
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
do j = 1, N-1 ! For each panel
xf = x(j)
yf = y(j)
xs = x(j+1)
ys = y(j+1)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
Call cs2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, uL, vL)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
209
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Translates local velocity
! components (uL,vL) to global
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
! rotation cosines
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Global velocity components
u = uL*cost - vL*sint
v = uL*sint + vL*cost
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc,yc, x1,x2, x,y)
! Transforms the panel and
! contrlo point coordinates
! from global to local CooSys
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Panel coordinates
x1 = 0.0
x2 = s
! Control point coordinates
x = cost*(xc-xf) + sint*(yc-yf)
y = -sint*(xc-xf) + cost*(yc-yf)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
Subroutine Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), nx(N), ny(N)
do i = 1, N-1
xc(i) = (x(i) + x(i+1))/2
yc(i) = (y(i) + y(i+1))/2
tx = x(i+1) - x(i)
ty = y(i+1) - y(i)
t = sqrt(tx**2 + ty**2)
nx(i) = -ty/t
ny(i) = tx/t
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
210
subroutine cs2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
! Calculates induced velocities
! u and v at the point (x,y)
! due to constant unit-strength
! source distribution along x-
! axis between x1,x2.
!
if(abs(y).lt.0.001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
! x is between x1 and x2
u = log(abs((x-x1)/(x-x2)))/TwoPi
v = -0.5
else
u = log(((x-x1)**2+y**2)/((x-x2)**2+y**2))/FourPi
v = (atan2(y,x-x2)-atan2(y,x-x1))/TwoPi
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265)
real x(*), y(*)
!
NP = 48 ! Number of panels
!
N = NP/2*2+1 ! Ensure odd number of points
fih = Pi/(N-1) ! Notation example 5.15
fi = 2*fih
d = 1./cos(fih)
! Edge points
do i = 1, N
theta = fi*(i-1.5)
x(i) = d*cos(theta)
y(i) = d*sin(theta)
end do
! Angle of attack and Vinf
VV = 1.0
alpha = 0.0 ! Specify in degees
alpha = alpha*Pi/180. ! Convert to radians
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include simq.for
In this program we used the following subroutine to solve system of equations
C
C ..................................................................
C
C SUBROUTINE SIMQ
C
C PURPOSE
C OBTAIN SOLUTION OF A SET OF SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS,
C AX=B
C
C USAGE
211
C CALL SIMQ(A,B,N,KS)
C
C DESCRIPTION OF PARAMETERS
C A - MATRIX OF COEFFICIENTS STORED COLUMNWISE. THESE ARE
C DESTROYED IN THE COMPUTATION. THE SIZE OF MATRIX A IS
C N BY N.
C B - VECTOR OF ORIGINAL CONSTANTS (LENGTH N). THESE ARE
C REPLACED BY FINAL SOLUTION VALUES, VECTOR X.
C N - NUMBER OF EQUATIONS AND VARIABLES. N MUST BE .GT. ONE.
C KS - OUTPUT DIGIT
C 0 FOR A NORMAL SOLUTION
C 1 FOR A SINGULAR SET OF EQUATIONS
C
C REMARKS
C MATRIX A MUST BE GENERAL.
C IF MATRIX IS SINGULAR , SOLUTION VALUES ARE MEANINGLESS.
C AN ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION MAY BE OBTAINED BY USING MATRIX
C INVERSION (MINV) AND MATRIX PRODUCT (GMPRD).
C
C SUBROUTINES AND FUNCTION SUBPROGRAMS REQUIRED
C NONE
C
C METHOD
C METHOD OF SOLUTION IS BY ELIMINATION USING LARGEST PIVOTAL
C DIVISOR. EACH STAGE OF ELIMINATION CONSISTS OF INTERCHANGING
C ROWS WHEN NECESSARY TO AVOID DIVISION BY ZERO OR SMALL
C ELEMENTS.
C THE FORWARD SOLUTION TO OBTAIN VARIABLE N IS DONE IN
C N STAGES. THE BACK SOLUTION FOR THE OTHER VARIABLES IS
C CALCULATED BY SUCCESSIVE SUBSTITUTIONS. FINAL SOLUTION
C VALUES ARE DEVELOPED IN VECTOR B, WITH VARIABLE 1 IN B(1),
C VARIABLE 2 IN B(2),........, VARIABLE N IN B(N).
C IF NO PIVOT CAN BE FOUND EXCEEDING A TOLERANCE OF 0.0,
C THE MATRIX IS CONSIDERED SINGULAR AND KS IS SET TO 1. THIS
C TOLERANCE CAN BE MODIFIED BY REPLACING THE FIRST STATEMENT.
C
C ..................................................................
C
SUBROUTINE SIMQ(A,B,N,KS)
DIMENSION A(1),B(1)
C
C FORWARD SOLUTION
C
TOL=0.0
KS=0
JJ=-N
DO 65 J=1,N
JY=J+1
JJ=JJ+N+1
BIGA=0
IT=JJ-J
DO 30 I=J,N
C
C SEARCH FOR MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT IN COLUMN
C
IJ=IT+I
212
IF(ABS(BIGA)-ABS(A(IJ))) 20,30,30
20 BIGA=A(IJ)
IMAX=I
30 CONTINUE
C
C TEST FOR PIVOT LESS THAN TOLERANCE (SINGULAR MATRIX)
C
IF(ABS(BIGA)-TOL) 35,35,40
35 KS=1
RETURN
C
C INTERCHANGE ROWS IF NECESSARY
C
40 I1=J+N*(J-2)
IT=IMAX-J
DO 50 K=J,N
I1=I1+N
I2=I1+IT
SAVE=A(I1)
A(I1)=A(I2)
A(I2)=SAVE
C
C DIVIDE EQUATION BY LEADING COEFFICIENT
C
50 A(I1)=A(I1)/BIGA
SAVE=B(IMAX)
B(IMAX)=B(J)
B(J)=SAVE/BIGA
C
C ELIMINATE NEXT VARIABLE
C
IF(J-N) 55,70,55
55 IQS=N*(J-1)
DO 65 IX=JY,N
IXJ=IQS+IX
IT=J-IX
DO 60 JX=JY,N
IXJX=N*(JX-1)+IX
JJX=IXJX+IT
60 A(IXJX)=A(IXJX)-(A(IXJ)*A(JJX))
65 B(IX)=B(IX)-(B(J)*A(IXJ))
C
C BACK SOLUTION
C
70 NY=N-1
IT=N*N
DO 80 J=1,NY
IA=IT-J
IB=N-J
IC=N
DO 80 K=1,J
B(IB)=B(IB)-A(IA)*B(IC)
IA=IA-N
80 IC=IC-1
RETURN
END
213
5.6 Three-Dimensional Point Singularity Elements
We already have derived formula for this type of elements so we give here only nal
expressions for the sake of completeness. In three-dimensional space stream-function
is actually two of them. We will skip nding and writing such functions since so far
there were no practical use of them.
5.6.1 Point Source
Expressions for point source are given in (3.197)
=

4[r r
o
[

V =

4
r r
o
[r r
o
[
3
(5.97)
or explicitly
(x, y, z) =

4r
u(x, y, z) =

x
=

4
x x
o
r
3
v(x, y, z) =

y
=

4
y y
o
r
3
w(x, y, z) =

z
=

4
z z
o
r
3
(5.98)
where now r =
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
, and (x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) are coordinates
of the point where source is placed. Source strength is denoted with if negative
we have sink.
The velocity at any point P(x, y, z) induced by a point source located at x axis at
the distance from the origin is given by
V (x, y, z) =

4
1
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
(5.99)
The velocity is directed along the line joining point source and the eld point P.
5.6.2 Point Doublet
Expressions for point doublet are given by (3.208) and (3.221). Here we give vector
form notations
214
=
r
4 r
3

V =
1
4

_

_
r
r
3
__
(5.100)
where r =
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
, (x
o
, y
o
, z
o
) are coordinates of the point
where doublet is placed, is the intensity of the doublet oriented from the sink to
the source.
5.6.3 Point Vortex
There are no point vortex element in three-dimensional ow. Direct consequence of
Kelvin and Helmholtz theorem is the spatial conservation of vorticity (3.7.5) which
states that there could not be any free pieces of vorticity in the ow-eld.
5.7 Three-Dimensional line Elements
We devote considerable amount of space to this type of elements since they are
building blocks for three-dimensional surface elements key elements for real aero-
dynamics applications.
5.7.1 3D Line Source Element
In practice this type of elements are the most frequently used either as strait line
element or as a building block for generation of three-dimensional surface element.
Figure (5.17) shows strait line source segment of the strength = const placed along
Figure 5.17: Calculation of induced velocities due to source-line along x-axis.
x-axis from the origin to the point L on the x-axis. The distance between point P
and origin is denoted by d
1
, and distance between point P and second edge of the
source segment (point L) is denoted by d
2
. Plane which pass through point P and
x-axis is inclined to the horizontal xOy-plane by the angle . Running coordinate
215
shows position along source segment of the source element. Angle between line
which pass through this element and point P is denoted by . Distance between
projection of the point P to the plane yOz is denoted by r. Velocity vector

V lies in
the plane build by x-axis and point P. Contribution to the total velocity from source
element at position makes angle with x-axis. So induced velocity component in
x direction is calculated by
u =
L
_
0
V cos d =

4
L
_
0
(x ) d
[(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
=

4
_
1
d
2

1
d
1
_
(5.101)
where cos = (x )/d
1
, and
r =
_
y
2
+ z
2
, d
1
=
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
=

x
2
+ r
2
, d
2
=
_
(x L)
2
+ r
2
The remaining two velocity components are calculated similarly
v =
L
_
0
V sin cos d =
y
4
L
_
0
d
[(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
=
y
4r
2
_
x
2
d
2

x
1
d
1
_
w =
L
_
0
V sin sin d =
z
4
L
_
0
d
[(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
=
z
4r
2
_
x
2
d
2

x
1
d
1
_
(5.102)
where sin = y/d
1
, sin = z/r, x
1
= x, and x
2
= x L.
5.7.2 3D Line Vortex
We already have developed expressions for inuences from elementary line vortex
segment, see gure (4.14), and equation (4.35), we repeat this expression for special
placement of the vortex line segment shown in the gure (5.18)
V =

4
L
_
0
sin d
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
(5.103)
The velocity at the point P(x, y, z) induced by vortex line segment coincident with
the x-axis and having a length L is obtained by applying Biot-Savarts law to each
innitesimal element of vortex line, and integrating contributions from all of them.
The velocity vector is normal to the plane containing the x-axis and the point
P(x, y, z).
It is clear from the gure (5.18) that r
2
= y
2
+ z
2
and
sin =
r
d
=

_
y
2
+ z
2
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
Integration of (5.103) gives
V =

4 r
_
x
2
d
2

x
1
d
1
_
(5.104)
216
Figure 5.18: Calculation of induced velocities due to vortex-line along x-axis.
where again x
1
= x, x
2
= x L, d
2
=
_
(x L)
2
+ r
2
, and d
1
= sqrtx
2
+ r
2
.
Since there is no axial component of velocity induced by the vortex (u = 0), the v
and w components are obtained by resolving V into its y and z components. Thus,
u = 0
v = V sin =
z
4r
2
_
x
2
d
2

x
1
d
1
_
w = V cos =
y
4r
2
_
x
2
d
2

x
1
d
1
_
(5.105)
where (x, y, z) are coordinates of the point P, is the strength of the vortex line, and
rest of the symbols have the same meaning as that in the equation (5.104). The three
components of velocity can be shown to satisfy Laplaces equation. The elementary
line vortex solution is used as the basis of the more complex vortex distributions
for surface three-dimensional panels. Care must be taken during these derivations
to ensure that all vortex line form closed rings and thus satisfy Helmholtzs vortex
theorem.
But there are applications where vortex lines are used solely. For such applications
it is better to use expressions which do not require coordinate transformations. We
already gave this expression in vector form (4.37), and we repeat it for completeness

V =

4
r
1
r
2
[r
1
r
2
[
2
_
r
o

_
r
1
[r
1
[

r
2
[r
2
[
__
where r
1
and r
2
are shown in the gure (4.14), and r
o
is the unit vector in the
direction of the vortex line.
Example 5.16:
Write subroutine which will use former expression to calculate induced velocity at arbi-
trary point P(x, y, z) due to vortex line segment between r
1
and r
2
. The intensity of
the vortex line is .
Solution 5.16:
Here is the possible solution of our problem
217
Subroutine LV3D(Gama, x,y,z, x1,y1,z1, x2,y2,z2, u,v,w)
parameter (pi = 3.141592654, eps = 1.0e-10)
real Gama ! Vortex filament strength per unit
! length
real x, y, z ! Control point coordinates for
! which influence velocities are calculated
real x1, y1, z1 ! First point of the vortex filament
real x2, y2, z2 ! Last point of the vortex filament
!
real u, v, w ! Induced velocities at point P
! *************************************
! Subroutine LV3D
! calculates induced velocities (u,v,w)
! at point (x,y,z) induced by vortex
! filament of intensity Gama per unit
! length for the segment, between points
! (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2)
! *************************************
!
! Components R1 X R2
!
R1R2X = (y-y1)*(z-z2) - (z-z1)*(y-y2)
R1R2Y = -( (x-x1)*(z-z2) - (z-z1)*(x-x2) )
R1R2Z = (x-x1)*(y-y2) - (y-y1)*(x-x2)
!
! Calculate (R1 X R2)**2
!
R1R2KV = R1R2X**2 + R1R2Y**2 + R1R2Z**2
!
! Calclate R1 i R2
!
R1 = sqrt( (x-x1)**2 + (y-y1)**2 + (z-z1)**2 )
R2 = sqrt( (x-x2)**2 + (y-y2)**2 + (z-z2)**2 )
!
! Calculate R0*R1 i R0*R2
!
R0R1 = (x2-x1)*(x-x1) + (y2-y1)*(y-y1) + (z2-z1)*(z-z1)
R0R2 = (x2-x1)*(x-x2) + (y2-y1)*(y-y2) + (z2-z1)*(z-z2)
!
! Calculate u, v, w
!
if( R1.lt.eps .or. R2.lt.eps .or. R1R2KV.lt.eps) then
u = 0
v = 0
w = 0
else
gampi = Gama/(4*pi*R1R2KV)*(R0R1/R1 - R0R2/R2)
u = gampi*R1R2X
v = gampi*R1R2Y
w = gampi*R1R2Z
end if
!
return
end
And here is the test program
218
Program TLV3D ! Z. Petrovic, 1-Feb-1993, LV3D.FOR
! Program testira potprogram LV3D, koji
! sracunava indukovane brzine (u,v,w) u
! tacki (x,y,z) usled linijskog vrtloga
! intenziteta Gama po jedinici duzine za
! segment, koji se prostire od tacke
! (x1,y1,z1) do tacke (x2,y2,z2)
!
print 1001 ! Ucitavanje podataka
read *, Gama
print 1002
read *, x, y, z
print 1003
read *, x1, y1, z1
print 1004
read *, x2, y2, z2
!
Call LV3D(Gama, x,y,z, x1,y1,z1, x2,y2,z2, u,v,w)
!
print 1005, Gama, x,y,z, x1,y1,z1, x2,y2,z2, u,v,w
!
! I/O - formati
!
1001 format(2x,Intenzitet vrtlozne linije Gama : ,$)
1002 format(2x,Koordinata tacke P(x,y,z) : ,$)
1003 format(2x,Koordinata tacke (x1,y1,z1) : ,$)
1004 format(2x,Koordinata tacke (x2,y2,z2) : ,$)
1005 format(///5x,Brzina indukovana linijskim vrtloznim segmentom//
&5x,Gama :,F10.3/5x,(x,y,z) :,3F10.3/
&5x,(x1,y1,z1) :,3F10.3/5x,(x2,y2,z2) :,3F10.3///
&5x,(u,v,w) :,3F10.3//)
end
!
!
include lv3d.for
Polygonal Line
Having developed expressions for strait line segment we can apply it to any shape
consisted of strait line segments. Strait line vortex ring is interesting since it is
equivalent to constant-strength doublet surface distribution. Figure (5.19) shows
the strait-line vortex ring dened by the quadrilateral corner coordinates. We apply
here, again, expression (4.37)

V
1,2
=

4
r
1
r
2
[r
1
r
2
[
2
_
r
1,2

_
r
1
[r
1
[

r
2
[r
2
[
__
(5.106)
where r
i
represents positional vector of the point i, and r
i,j
= r
i
r
j
. Velocity
induced by the strait line vortex ring is now simply

V =

V
1,2
+

V
2,3
+

V
3,4
+

V
4,1
(5.107)
where index i, j denotes contribution of corresponding strait line segment.
219
Figure 5.19: Quadrilateral vortex ring element.
We could generalize this result to any collection of strait line segments dened by
corner points. Let be dened n points by their coordinates (x
i
, y
i
, z
i
then induced
velocity from the whole polygonal line is obtained by summing contribution from
each segment:

V =
n1

i=1

V
i,i+1
(5.108)
it is clear that for closed polygonal line must be satised (x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) (x
n
, y
n
, z
n
).
Example 5.17:
Write subroutine by which it is possible to calculate induced velocity from polygonal
strait line segments.
Solution 5.17:
Since we have developed subroutine for calculation of induced velocities from one strait
line segment it is easy to generalize this result. The subroutine which follows is possible
solution to our problem.
Subroutine PolyVortex(Gama, x,y,z,N, xP,yP,zP, u,v,w)
!
real Gama ! Intensity of the vortex line per
! unit length
real x(N) ! x-coordinate of polygonal line
real y(N) ! y-coordinate of polygonal line
real z(N) ! z-coordinate of polygonal line
real xP, yP, zP ! Control point coordinates
!
real u, v, w ! Induced velocities
!
u = 0.0
v = 0.0
w = 0.0
! Call subroutine which calculates
! contribution of one segment
! required number of times
do i = 1, N-1
Call LV3D( Gama,
& xP, yP, zP,
& x(i), y(i), z(i),
& x(i+1), y(i+1), z(i+1),
& uu, vv, ww)
u = u + uu
220
v = v + vv
w = w + ww
end do
!
return
end
Horseshoe Vortex
The simplied case of strait line vortex ring is the horseshoe vortex. In this case
the vortex line is assumed to be placed in the xOy plane as shown in the gure
(5.20). Two trailing vortex segments are placed parallel to the x-axis at y = y
a
and at y = yb, and the leading segment is placed parallel to the y-axis between the
points (x
a
, y
a
) and (x
a
, y
b
). The induced velocity in the xOy plane will have only
a component in the negative z direction and can be computed by using equation
(4.37) for a straight vortex segment:
w(x, y, 0) =

4
(cos
1
cos
2
) (5.109)
where the angles and their cosine are shown in the gure (5.20). For example,
for the semi-innite lament parallel to the x axis, and beginning at y = y
b
, the
corresponding angles are
cos
1
=
x x
a
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
, cos
2
= cos = 1
Figure 5.20: Horseshoe vortex element.
For the vortex segment parallel to y-axis,
cos
1
=
y y
a
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
a
)
2
cos
2
= cos(
2
) =
y y
b
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
221
The down-wash due to the horseshoe vortex is now
w(x, y, 0) =

4
_
_
_
1
x x
a
_
_
y
b
y
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
+
y
b
y
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
_
_
+
1
y
b
y
_
_
1 +
x x
a
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
_
_
+
1
y y
a
_
_
1 +
x x
a
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
a
)
2
_
_
_
_
_
(5.110)
After some manipulations we get
w(x, y, 0) =

4(y y
a
)
_
_
1 +
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
a
)
2
x x
a
_
_
+

4(y y
b
)
_
_
1 +
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
b
)
2
x x
a
_
_
(5.111)
when x x
a
the limit of this equation gives
w(x
a
, y, 0) =

4
_
1
y y
a
+
1
y y
b
_
(5.112)
where the nite-length segment does not induce down-wash on itself.
The velocity potential of the horseshoe vortex may be obtained by reducing the
results of a constant strength doublet panel or by integrating of a point doublet
element. The potential of such point placed at (x
o
, y
o
, 0) and pointing in the z
direction, is
=

4
z
r
3
where r
2
= (x x
o
)
2
+(y y
o
)
2
+z
2
. To obtain the potential due to the horseshoe
element at an arbitrary point P, this point doublet must be integrated over the area
enclosed by the horseshoe element:
=

4
y
b
_
y
a
dy
o

_
x
a
z dx
o
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
3
/
2
This result is given by Moran [11], as
=

4
y
b
_
y
a
z(x
o
x)dy
o
[(y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2

x
a
=

4
y
b
_
y
a
_
_
1 +
x x
a
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
_
_
z dy
o
(y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
=

4
_
_
arctan
y
o
y
z
+ arctan
(y
o
y)(x x
a
)
z
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
_
_
y
b
y
a
222
=

4
_

_arctan
z
y y
b
arctan
z
y y
a
+ arctan
(y
o
y)(x x
a
)
z
_
(x x
a
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2

y
b
y
a
_

_
(5.113)
in practice we can use our polygonal line vortex subroutine to simulate horseshoe
vortex, instead of we could specify very large coordinate value so triangle will
practically give inuence velocities similar as horseshoe if the third corner is moved
to a great distance, gure (5.21).
Figure 5.21: Horseshoe vortex element approximated by triangle when one corner
is far away.
Vortex Line of Arbitrary Shape
Rotational aerodynamical objects such as rotor blades or propellers require helicoidal
vortex line shapes or even more general. We give here expressions for calculating
induced velocities from such shapes. Biot-Savart law was derived in the section (3.17)
and for arbitrary shaped vortex line specied parameterically equations (3.143) to
(3.145) are repeated here for convenience
u(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
d y
d
(z z)
d z
d
(y y)
_
d

3
,
v(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
d z
d
(x x)
d x
d
(z z)
_
d

3
,
w(r) =

4

2
_

1
_
d x
d
(y y)
d y
d
(x x)
_
d

3
.
(5.114)
where
1
and
2
are starting and ending values of the parameter , x(), y() and
z() are coordinates of vortex line element, and (x, y, z) are coordinates of point
where velocity vector is calculated. And is distance between point ( x, y, z) and
point (x, y, z)
=
_
(x x)
2
+ (y y)
2
+ (z z)
2
223
Strait-Line Segment Again
We illustrate procedure for calculating induced velocities by using equation (5.114)
for strait line segment. Let strait line is parameterically be dened as:
x = x
o
+
x

y = y
o
+
y

z = z
o
+
z

(5.115)
then
d x
d
=
x
,
d y
d
=
y
,
d z
d
=
z
After substitution of these expressions into equations (5.114) we get
u(r) =

4

2
_

1
[
y
(z z
o

z
)
z
(y y
o

y
)]
d

3
,
v(r) =

4

2
_

1
[
z
(x x
o

x
)
x
(z z
o
+
z
)]
d

3
,
w(r) =

4

2
_

1
[
x
(y y
o

y
)
y
(x x
o
+
x
)]
d

3
.
(5.116)
where

2
= (x x
o

x
)
2
+ (y y
o

y
)
2
+ (z z
o

z
)
2
After squaring the terms in parenthesis we could write

2
= a + b + c
2
where
a =
2
x
+
2
y
+
2
z
b = 2 [
x
(x x
o
) +
y
(y y
o
) +
z
(z z
o
)]
c = (x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
substituting these expressions into (5.116) we get
u(x, y, z) =

4
[
y
(z z
o
)
z
(y y
o
)]

2
_

1
d

3
, (5.117)
v(x, y, z) =

4
[
z
(x x
o
)
x
(z z
o
)]

2
_

1
d

3
, (5.118)
w(x, y, z) =

4
[
x
(y y
o
)
y
(x x
o
)]

2
_

1
d

3
. (5.119)
224
So all three induced velocity components are dependent on the value of the same
integral
_
d
(a
2
+ b + c)
3/2
=
2(2a + b)
(4ac b
2
)

a
2
+ b + c
when we replace this integral into equations (5.117) to (5.119) we nally get
u =

2

y
(z z
o
)
z
(y y
o
)
4ac b
2
_
_
2a
2
+ b
_
a
2
2
+ b
2
+ c

2a
1
+ b
_
a
2
1
+ b
1
+ c
_
_
v =

2

z
(x x
o
)
x
(z z
o
)
4ac b
2
_
_
2a
2
+ b
_
a
2
2
+ b
2
+ c

2a
1
+ b
_
a
2
1
+ b
1
+ c
_
_
w =

2

x
(y y
o
)
y
(x x
o
)
4ac b
2
_
_
2a
2
+ b
_
a
2
2
+ b
2
+ c

2a
1
+ b
_
a
2
1
+ b
1
+ c
_
_
(5.120)
Example 5.18:
Write subroutine which calculates induced velocities at point P(x, y, z) from vortex
line segment between points A(x
A
, y
A
, z
A
) and B(x
B
, y
B
, z
B
) using equation (5.120).
Intensity of the vortex line is .
Solution 5.18:
We rst need to specify equation of vortex line in parametric form, what is not really
complicated
x = x
A
+ (x
B
x
A
), y = y
A
+ (y
B
y
A
), z = z
A
+ (z
B
z
A
) .
so, when = 0, ( x, y, z) = (x
A
, y
A
, z
A
), and when = 1, ( x, y, z) = (x
B
, y
B
, z
B
).
Directional gradients are simply

x
= x
B
x
A
,
y
= y
B
y
A
,
z
= z
B
z
A
.
One of the possible ways to make this subroutine is given below
! File: PointVortex2D.f90
! 15-Jan-2001
! Zlatko Petrovic
!*****************************************************************
!
subroutine VortexLine3D(Gamma, PA, PB, P, Vel)
! Subroutine calculates induced velocities at point P
! due to vortex line segment between points A and B
! intensity of the vortex is Gamma.
! Input arguments: Gamma, A, B, P
! Output argument: Vel
real PA(3) ! (x,y,z) coordinate of the point A
real PB(3) ! (x,y,z) coordinate of the point B
real P(3) ! (x,yz,) coordinate of the point P
real Gamma ! Intensity of the vortex line segment
real Vel(3) ! (u,v,w) components of the induced velocity
! ==============================================
real lamx,lamy,lamz
225
real, parameter:: Pi=3.14159265
! Define local function
F(xi) = (2*a*xi+b)/sqrt(a*xi**2+b*xi+c)
! Make notation clear (This is not necessary)
xA = PA(1)
yA = PA(2)
zA = PA(3)
!
xB = PB(1)
yB = PB(2)
zB = PB(3)
!
x = P(1)
y = P(2)
z = P(3)
!
lamx = xB - xA
lamy = yB - yA
lamz = zB - zA
!
a = lamx**2 + lamy**2 + lamz**2
b = -2*( lamx*(x-xA) + lamy*(y-yA) + lamz*(z-zA) )
c = (x-xA)**2 + (y-yA)**2 + (z-zA)**2
!
const = Gamma/(2*Pi) * (F(1.0) - F(0.0)) / (4*a*c-b**2)
!
Vel(1) = const * ( lamy*(z-zA) - lamz*(y-yA) )
Vel(2) = const * ( lamz*(x-xA) - lamx*(z-zA) )
Vel(3) = const * ( lamx*(y-yA) - lamy*(x-xA) )
!
return
end subroutine VortexLine3D
And here is also the test program
Program TestVortexLine3D
real PA(3), PB(3), P(3), V(3)
! Specify input arguments
PA(1) = 0.0
PA(2) = 0.0
PA(3) = 0.0
!
PB(1) = 5.0
PB(2) = 4.0
PB(3) = -3.0
!
P(1) = 1.0 ; P(2) = 2.0; P(3) = 1.0
!
Gamma = 1.0
!
Call VortexLine3D(Gamma, PA, PB, P, V)
print 101,PA,PB,P,Gamma,V
101 format( xA,yA,zA : ,3F10.3/ xB,yB,zB : ,3F10.3/ &
x, y, z : ,3F10.3/ Gamma : ,F10.3/// u, v, w : ,3F10.3//)
stop TestVortexLine3D - End of run!
end program TestVortexLine3D
226
Vortex Ring
We now determine induced velocities due to vortex ring, gure (5.40). Let vortex
ring with radius R be placed at coordinate origin in the xOy-plane. Vector r points
to an arbitrary point P(x, y, z), vector connects vortex element determined by
angle with point P. Intensity of the vortex ring is . Radial distance of the point
orthogonal projection of the P to the xOy plane is r
o
.
We need to dene vortex ring parameterically
x = Rcos
y = Rsin
z = 0
(5.121)
where role of parameter is taken up by . Now
d x
d
= Rsin
d y
d
= Rcos
d z
d
= 0
(5.122)
Figure 5.22: Vortex Ring notation.
We could now replace expressions (5.121) and (5.122) into general expression (5.114)
to obtain
u(x, y, z) =

4
2
_
0
Rcos (z 0) 0

3
d
v(x, y, z) =

4
2
_
0
0 +Rsin (z 0)

3
d
w(x, y, z) =

4
2
_
0
Rsin (y Rsin ) Rcos (x Rcos )

3
d
(5.123)
where

2
= (x Rcos )
2
+ (y Rsin )
2
+ z
2
= r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2xRcos 2yRsin
227
r
2
o
= x
2
+ y
2
, cos
o
=
x
r
o
, sin
o
=
y
r
o
then
=
_
r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
) (5.124)
System of equations (5.123) now looks
u(x, y, z) =
Rz
4
2
_
0
cos
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
)]
3/2
d
v(x, y, z) =
Rz
4
2
_
0
sin
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
)]
3/2
d
w(x, y, z) =
R
4
2
_
0
R r
o
cos(
o
)
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
)]
3/2
d
(5.125)
Note also that v
r
= ucos
o
+ v sin
o
so we could write
v
r
(x, y, z) =
Rz
4
2
_
0
cos(
o
)
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
)]
3/2
d
w(x, y, z) =
R
4
2
_
0
R r
o
cos(
o
)
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
2Rr
o
cos(
o
)]
3/2
d
we could drop constant angle
o
from this equations since there are no other functions
under integral dependent on except cos, and since integration is performed around
whole ring, or we could choose some suitable value. Lets choose
o
= , thus
v
r
(x, y, z) =
Rz
4
2
_
0
cos
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
+ 2Rr
o
cos ]
3/2
d
w(x, y, z) =
R
4
2
_
0
R + r
o
cos
[r
2
o
+ R
2
+ z
2
+ 2Rr
o
cos ]
3/2
d
(5.126)
substituting = 2 we get
v
r
(x, y, z) =
Rz
2

_
0
cos 2
[(r
o
+ R)
2
+ z
2
4Rr
o
sin
2
]
3/2
d
w(x, y, z) =
R
2

_
0
R + r
o
cos 2
[(r
o
+ R)
2
+ z
2
4Rr
o
sin
2
]
3/2
d
Another substitution of the form
k
2
=
4Rr
o
(r
o
+ R)
2
+ z
2
Puts the former expression into form
228
v
r
(x, y, z) =
Rz
2k
3

_
0
cos 2
[1 k
2
sin
2
]
3/2
d
w(x, y, z) =
R
2k
3

_
0
R + r
o
cos 2
[1 k
2
sin
2
]
3/2
d
(5.127)
5.8 Surface distributions
In the subsections (5.7.1) and (5.7.2) we have given expressions for three-dimensional
source line and three-dimensional vortex line coincident with x-axis. Now we need
plane coordinate transformation, similar to (5.5) in order to apply derived expres-
sions for the general plane panel orientation.
5.8.1 Rotation of Coordinates
Figure (5.23) shows global coordinate system, and in plane rotated coordinate sys-
tem. Let the angle between global y-axis and local x

-axis be , and lets dene

= tan . According to (5.105) we have
Figure 5.23: Coordinate transformation.
_
x

_
=
_

_ _
x
y
_
(5.128)
where

= sin ,

= cos ,

= cos ,

= sin
Or equivalently
x

= sin() x + cos() y
y

= cos() x + sin() y
It is easy to express former equations in terms of , so we have
229
x

=
x + y

1 +
2
y

=
y x

1 +
2
z

= z
(5.129)
The distance d from the eld point to the origin is unchanged in this transformation,
but the perpendicular distance of the point from the line source or vortex is given
by
r

(x y)
2
1 +
2
+ z
2
(5.130)
The velocity components calculated in the local coordinate system are transformed
into global by relation
u =
u

1 +
2
v =
v

+ u

1 +
2
w = w

(5.131)
5.8.2 Constant Source Distribution on Unswept Panel with
Streamwise Taper
The velocity components induced at point P(x, y, z) by a constant source distribu-
tion in the plane of the panel are derived by summing the inuences of a series of
elementary line sources extending across the panel parallel to the leading edge. The
geometry of the elementary line source located a distance from the leading edge
and having a strength d is illustrated in the gure (5.24). In the derivation which
Figure 5.24: Constant Source Panel.
follows we assume that the panel lies in the xOy-plane. The distance of the point P
from the left end of the line source is d
1
=
_
(x )
2
+ (y m
1
)
2
+ z
2
and the dis-
tance from the right end of the line source is d
2
=
_
(x )
2
+ (y b m
2
)
2
+ z
2
.
230
The panel edge slopes m = dy/dx my be arbitrary. The velocity components are
obtained by applying a 90 degree coordinate rotation to the line source velocity
formulas given by equations (5.101) and (5.102). Integration across the panel chord
gives total induced velocity components from whole panel
u = v

=

4
c
_
0
(x ) d
(x )
2
+ z
2
_
y m
1

d
1

y b m
2

d
2
_
(5.132)
v = u

=

4
c
_
0
_
1
d
1

1
d
2
_
d (5.133)
w = w

=
z
4
c
_
0
d
(x )
2
+ z
2
_
y m
1

d
1

y b m
2

d
2
_
(5.134)
Each of these integrals we could split in two parts, for example for component u
u =

4
c
_
0
y m
1

d
1
x
(x )
2
+ z
2
d +

4
c
_
0
y b m
2

d
2
x
(x )
2
+ z
2
d
the second integral is very similar to the rst except that it has instead of constant
y constant y b. So we need to nd integral only once, the value of second integral
will be obtained when y is replaced by y b, and m
1
by m
2
. It is also clear that
rst integral traverse the side 12, and second traverse the side 34. The lower limit
of the rst integral correspond to contribution of the node 1, while upper limit
correspond to contribution of the node 2. But we really do not need to evaluate this
upper limit.
Induced velocities due to source panel do not depend on the coordinate system
chosen, so we can shift the origin of the coordinate system to the point 2. In that
case contribution of point 2 will correspond to lower limit (i.e. 0). Expression for
the induced velocities will be the same except that instead old coordinate x we will
have the new which is shorter for the length of the chord (c). Thus, we could obtain
contribution of the node 2 from the expression obtained for node 1 if we replace x
by x c.
Figure 5.25: Semi-plane arithmetic.
Let us denote contributions from nodes by indices u
1
, u
2
, u
3
and u
4
, so that index 1
means contribution from node 1, index 2 means contribution from node 2 etc. Then
total induced velocity is obtained by summing all contributions, as it is shown in
the gure (5.25)
231
u = u
1
u
2
u
3
+ u
4
v = v
1
v
2
v
3
+ v
4
w = w
1
w
2
w
3
+ w
4
(5.135)
where
u
1
(x, y) =

4
_
_
m
1
_
1 + m
2
1
sinh
1
x + m
1
y
_
(y m
1
x)
2
+ (1 +m
2
1
)z
2
sinh
1
y

x
2
+ z
2
_
_
v
1
(x, y) =
1
4
_
1 + m
2
1
sinh
1
x + m
1
y
_
(y m
1
x)
2
+ (1 +m
2
1
)z
2
w
1
(x, y) =
1
4
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
x(y m
1
x) + m
1
z
2
(5.136)
then if we consider velocity components as functions u
1
(x, y, m), v
1
(x, y, m) and
w
1
(x, y, m) we have
u
2
(x, y) = u
1
(x c, y m
1
c, m
1
)
v
2
(x, y) = v
1
(x c, y m
1
c, m
1
)
w
2
(x, y) = w
1
(x c, y m
1
c, m
1
)
(5.137)
In the following relationships we assume instead of slope m
1
, slope m
2
u
3
(x, y) = u
1
(x, y b, m
2
),
v
3
(x, y) = v
1
(x, y b, m
2
),
w
3
(x, y) = w
1
(x, y b, m
2
),
u
4
(x, y) = u
1
(x c, y b m
2
c, m
2
),
v
4
(x, y) = v
1
(x c, y b m
2
c, m
2
),
w
4
(x, y) = w
1
(x c, y b m
2
c, m
2
)
(5.138)
The velocity components given by equation (5.135) to (5.138) are expressed in terms
of a local coordinate system which lies in the plane of the panel. Usually one
more coordinate transformation is necessary to connect velocities expressed in local
coordinate system to express them in the coordinate system of the vehicle. Let the
panel coordinate system be denoted by primes and is rotated through the angle
about y-axis with respect to global coordinate system. The referenced coordinate
system (global one) has its origin at the inboard corner of the panel leading edge,
but the x-axis is parallel to the body reference axis, gure (5.26). Dening a = tan ,
we have the following coordinate transformations
_

_
x

_
=
_

k
0 1 0

k

0

k

k
_

_
_

_
x
y
z
_

_
(5.139)
232
Figure 5.26: Coordinate transformation by rotation about y-axis.
where

= cos ,

k = sin ,

k

= sin ,

k

k = cos .
Substituting instead sin and cos in terms of tan
sin =
tan

1 + tan
2

=
a

1 + a
2
, cos =
1

1 + tan
2

=
1

1 +a
2
.
into (5.139) we get
x

=
x + az

1 +a
2
y

= y
z

=
z ax

1 +a
2
(5.140)
also
m

=
m

1 + a
2
(5.141)
Similarly, the velocity components become:
u =
u

aw

1 + a
2
=

4

1 + a
2
(mGH aF)
v = v

=
G

1 + a
2
4
w =
w

+ au

1 +a
2
=

4

1 + a
2
[F + a(mGH)]
(5.142)
where
233
F = arctan
(z ax)

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
x(y mx) z(ay mz)
G =
1

1 +a
2
+ m
2
sinh
1
x + my + az
_
(y mx)
2
+ (ay mz)
2
+ (z ax)
2
H = sinh
1
y

x
2
+ z
2
(5.143)
5.8.3 Constant Source Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper
The velocity component induced at point P by constant source distribution in the
plane of a swept panel are derived in a similar manner by summing the inuences of
a series of elementary line sources extending across the panel parallel to the leading
edge. In this case, the line sources are swept back by the angle . The geometry of
an elementary line source located a distance from the leading edge , and having
strength d is shown in the gure (5.27).
Figure 5.27: Constant-source swept element panel.
Again we assume that panel lies in the xOy-plane. The distance of the point P
from the left end of the line source is d
1
=
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
and the distance
from the right end of the source line is d
2
=
_
(x b)
2
+ (y b)
2
+ z
2
, where
is the tangent of the leading edge sweep-back angle , ( = tan ). The velocity
components are obtained by rotating the coordinates of the line source velocity
formulas through the angle , and integrating across the panel chord as follows:
u =
u

1 +
2
=

4

1 +
2
c
_
0
_

_
1
d
2

1
d
1
_
+
+
x y
r
2
_
(x ) +y
d
1

(x b) + y b
d
2
__
d (5.144)
234
v =
v

+ u

1 +
2
=

4

1 +
2
c
_
0
_
1
d
2

1
d
1

(x y)
r
2
_
(x ) + y
d
1

(x b) + y b
d
2
__
d (5.145)
w = w

=
z

1 +
2
4
c
_
0
_
(x ) + y
d
1

(x b) + y b
d
2
_
d
r
2
(5.146)
where r
2
= (x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
.
In order to obtain the results in standard form the integrals are divided by

1 +
2
prior to their evaluation. As before, only those integrals associated with the in-
board edge of the panel require evaluation, and then only at their lower limit. The
resulting velocity components correspond to the inuence of the in-board corner of
the panel leading edge. Denoting these results with subscript one,
u
1
=
1
4

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
v
1
=
1
4
_
_

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
sinh
1
x

y
2
+ z
2
_
_
w
1
=
1
4
_
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy + (y
2
+ z
2
)
arctan
z
y
_
(5.147)
The velocity components induced by the remaining three corners are obtained by
applying the above formulas with the origins shifted, and using the value of cor-
responding to the leading or trailing edge. The inuence of the complete panel is
obtained by summing the inuences of the four corner as indicated by equation sys-
tem (5.135). Again if we assume expressions for velocity components as a function
of three arguments (x, y, ) then we have
u
2
(x, y) = u
1
(x c, y,
T
)
v
2
(x, y) = v
1
(x c, y,
T
)
w
2
(x, y) = w
1
(x c, y,
T
)
u
3
(x, y) = u
1
(x, y b, )
v
3
(x, y) = v
1
(x, y b, )
w
3
(x, y) = w
1
(x, y b, )
u
4
(x, y) = u
1
(x c b tan
T
, y b,
T
)
v
4
(x, y) = v
1
(x c b tan
T
, y b,
T
)
w
4
(x, y) = w
1
(x c b tan
T
, y b,
T
)
(5.148)
235
5.8.4 Constant-Strength, Three-Dimensional Quadrilateral
Source
The simplest and most basic general three-dimensional element will have quadri-
lateral geometry and a constant-strength singularity distribution. The derivation
is again performed in a local frame of reference, and for a global coordinate trans-
formation is required. Consider a surface element with a constant-strength source
distribution per area bounded by four strait lines as described in gure (5.28). The
element corner points are designated as (x
1
, y
1
, 0), . . . , (x
4
, y
4
, 0) and the potential
at an arbitrary point P(x, y, z), due to this element is
(x, y, z) =

4
_
S
dS
_
(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
(5.149)
and the velocity components can be obtained by dierentiating the velocity poten-
tial:
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
=
_

z
_

_
(5.150)
Execution of the integration within the area bounded by the four straight lines
Figure 5.28: Quadrilateral constant-strength source element.
requires considerable amount of time, so we use nal expressions from [2]. Thus
potential for quadrilateral element is
(x, y, z) =

4
__
(x x
1
)(y
2
y
1
) (y y
1
)(x
2
x
1
)
d
12
ln
r
1
+ r
2
+ d
12
r
1
+ r
2
d
12
+
(x x
2
)(y
3
y
2
) (y y
2
)(x
3
x
2
)
d
23
ln
r
2
+ r
3
+ d
23
r
2
+ r
3
d
23
+
(x x
3
)(y
4
y
3
) (y y
3
)(x
4
x
3
)
d
34
ln
r
3
+ r
4
+ d
34
r
3
+ r
4
d
34
+
(x x
4
)(y
1
y
4
) (y y
4
)(x
1
x
4
)
d
41
ln
r
4
+ r
3
+ d
41
r
4
+ r
3
d
41
_
236
+[z[
_
arctan
m
12
e
1
h
1
zr
1
arctan
m
12
e
2
h
2
zr
2
+arctan
m
23
e
2
h
2
zr
2

m
23
e
3
h
3
zr
3
+arctan
m
34
e
3
h
3
zr
3

m
34
e
4
h
4
zr
4
+ arctan
m
41
e
2
h
4
zr
4

m
41
e
1
h
1
zr
1
__
(5.151)
where
d
12
=
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
d
23
=
_
(x
3
x
2
)
2
+ (y
3
y
2
)
2
d
34
=
_
(x
4
x
3
)
2
+ (y
4
y
3
)
2
d
41
=
_
(x
4
x
1
)
2
+ (y
4
y
1
)
2
(5.152)
and
m
i,j
=
y
i
y
j
x
i
x
j
, (i, j) = (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1) (5.153)
and
r
i
=
_
(x x
i
) + (y y
i
) + z
2
e
i
= (x x
i
)
2
+ z
2
h
i
= (x x
i
)(y y
i
)
i = 1, 2, 3, 4 (5.154)
The velocity components are given by
u =

4
_
y
2
y
1
d
12
ln
r
1
+ r
2
d
12
r
1
+ r
2
+ d
12
+
y
3
y
2
d
23
ln
r
2
+ r
3
d
23
r
2
+ r
3
+ d
23
+
y
4
y
3
d
34
ln
r
3
+ r
4
d
34
r
3
+ r
4
+ d
34
+
y
4
y
1
d
41
ln
r
4
+ r
1
d
41
r
4
+ r
1
+ d
41
_
(5.155)
v =

4
_
x
1
x
2
d
12
ln
r
1
+ r
2
d
12
r
1
+ r
2
+ d
12
+
x
2
x
3
d
23
ln
r
2
+ r
3
d
23
r
2
+ r
3
+ d
23
+
x
3
x
4
d
34
ln
r
3
+ r
4
d
34
r
3
+ r
4
+ d
34
+
x
1
x
4
d
41
ln
r
4
+ r
1
d
41
r
4
+ r
1
+ d
41
_
(5.156)
w =

4
_
arctan
m
12
e
1
h
1
zr
1
arctan
m
12
e
2
h
2
zr
2
+arctan
m
23
e
2
h
2
zr
2
arctan
m
23
e
3
h
3
zr
3
+arctan
m
34
e
3
h
3
zr
3
arctan
m
34
e
4
h
4
zr
4
+ arctan
m
41
e
4
h
4
zr
4
arctan
m
41
e
1
h
1
zr
1
_
(5.157)
237
The u and v components of the velocity are dened everywhere, but at the edges of
the quadrilateral they become innite. In practice, usually the inuence of the ele-
ment on itself is sought, then near the centroid these velocity components approach
zero. The jump in the normal velocity component as z 0 inside the quadrilateral
is
w(z = 0

) =

2
(5.158)
When point P lies outside of the quadrilateral then
w(z = 0

) = 0 (5.159)
Far-Field Calculation
For improved computational eciency, when the point of interest P lies far from
the center of the element (, , 0) then the inuence of the quadrilateral element
with an area of A can be approximated by a point source. The term far is
controlled by the programmer but usually if the distance between points is more
than 35 average panel diameters then the simplied approximation is used. The
point source inuence for the velocity potential is
(x, y, z) =
A
4
_
(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
(5.160)
while the velocity components are
u(x, y, z) =
A(x )
4[(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
v(x, y, z) =
A(y )
4[(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
w(x, y, z) =
Az
4[(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
]
3/2
(5.161)
in previous expressions A is equal to the area of panel element, and is the source
strength per unit area.
5.8.5 Linearly Varying Source Distribution of Swept Panel
with Span-wise Taper
The velocity components induced by a source distribution having a linear variation
in the chord-wise direction are derived in the same manner as described in the
preceding section for the constant source distribution. In this case, however, the
expressions under the integral signs in equations (5.144) to (5.146) are multiplied
by prior to integration. The velocity components induce d by the in-board corner
of the panel leading edge are given below:
u
1
=
1
4
_
_
_
x y

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
+ y sinh
1
x

y
2
+ z
2
238
z
_
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy + (y
2
+ z
2
)
arctan
z
y
__
(5.162)
v
1
=
1
4
_
_
_
(x y)
_
_

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
sinh
1
x

y
2
+ z
2
_
_
+ x +
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
z
_
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy + (y
2
+ z
2
)
arctan
z
y
__
(5.163)
w
1
=
1
4
_
(x y)
_
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy + (y
2
+ z
2
)
arctan
z
y
_
+ z
_
_

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
sinh
1
x

y
2
+ z
2
_
_
_
_
_
(5.164)
The velocity components induced by the remaining three corners are obtained by
applying the above formulas with the origin shifted, and using the appropriate value
of . The inuence of the complete panel is obtained by summing the inuences of
the four corners as indicated by equations (5.148).
5.8.6 Constant Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper
The velocity components induced at a point P by a constant vortex distribution in
the plane of a swept panel are derived by summing the inuences of elementary line
vortices extending across the panel parallel to the leading edge, and concentrated
edge vortices extending back to innity from the panel side edges. The geometry
of an elementary line vortex located a distance from the leading edge, and having
strength d, is illustrated on the gure (5.29).
Let us consider rst the inuences of the bound vortex. The distance of the point
P(x, y, z) from the left end of the vortex is d
1
=
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
, and the
distance from the right end of the vortex is d
2
=
_
(x b)
2
+ (y b)
2
+ z
2
,
where is the tangent of the leading edge sweep-back angle as before, ( = tan ).
The velocity components are obtained by rotating the coordinates of the line vortex
velocity formulas through the angle , and integrating from the leading edge to
innity as follows:
u =

_
0
u

1 +
2
d =
z
4

_
0
K d
v = u
w =
1
4

_
0
(x y)K d
(5.165)
where
K =
1
r
2
_
(x ) + y
d
1

(x b) +y b
d
2
_
239
Figure 5.29: Constant-vortex swept element panel.
and
r
2
= (x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
Only those integrals corresponding to the in-board edge of the panel require eval-
uation, since the out-board edge can be obtained by a coordinate translation. In
this case, however, both upper an lower limits of the integral must be evaluated to
obtain the correct results. The resulting velocity components give the inuences of
a semi-innite region bounded by the leading edge and the x-axis, with origin at the
in-board leading edge corner of the panel. They are identied by the subscript one.
u
1
=
1
4
_
arctan
z

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
xy + (y
2
+ z
2
)
arctan
z
y
_
v
1
= u
1
w
1
=
1
4
_
_

1 +
2
sinh
1
x + y
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
sinh
1
x

y
2
+ z
2
ln
_
y
2
+ z
2
_
(5.166)
It should be noted that the last term in the last equation of equations (5.166) is
obtained by considering the inuence of both in-board and out-board edges of the
panel simultaneously as the upper limit of the integral approaches innity.
The edge vortex contributes only to the v and w components of velocity. The
velocity components are obtained by integrating equations (5.105) for a line vortex
240
of innite length with respect to , as follows:
v
1
=
z
4
_

0
_
_
1 +
x
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
_
=
z
4
_
x +

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
y
2
+ z
2
_
(5.167)
w
1
=
y
4
_
x +

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
y
2
+ z
2
_
(5.168)
Therefore, the u
1
velocity component induced by the in-board leading edge corner
of the panel is given by the rst of the equations (5.166), the remaining velocity
components are obtained by summing corresponding v component of the equation
(5.166) and equation (5.167) and w component of equation (5.166) and equation
(5.168). The velocity components induced by the remaining three corners are ob-
tained by applying these equations with the origin shifted, and using the appropriate
values for , (5.148). The inuence of the complete panel is obtained by summing
the inuences of the four corners as indicated by equations (5.135).
5.8.7 Linearly-Varying Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel
with Span-wise Taper
A vortex distribution is considered which has a linear variation in the chord-wise
direction, and lies within the triangular region bounded by the panel leading and
trailing edges extended to intersection, and the panel in-board edge. the velocity
components induced at a point P by this vortex distribution are derived in three
steps.
The First Step
In the rst step, the velocities induced by a horse-shoe vortex of strength d having
its bound segment located along a radial line from the intersection of the leading and
trailing edges are evaluated and integrated across the panel chord. The geometry
of the bound and trailing segments of the horse-shoe vortex are shown in the gure
(5.30).
The bound vortex is located a distance from the panel origin. The point P is
located a distance d
1
=
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
from in-board end of the vortex, and
a distance d
2
=
_
(x b
2
)
2
+ (y b)
2
+ z
2
from the out-board end. In this
derivation, the slope of the vortex is a linear function of , =
1
+ a/c, where
a =
2

1
, b = c/a, and
1
= tan
LE
and
2
= tan
TE
are the slopes of
the leading- and trailing-edge of the panel respectively. The line vortex formulas are
rotated through angle , as before, to obtain expressions for the velocity components
of the bound vortex prior to integration.
Here are the velocity components in integral form
241
Figure 5.30: Linearly varying vorticity distribution.
u =
z
4c
c
_
0
K
r
2
d
v = u
w
1
4c
c
_
0
(cy)K
r
2
d
(5.169)
where
=
1
+
a
c

K =
(x ) + y
d
1

(x b) + y b
d
2
r
2
= (x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
These integrals are evaluated by making use of the following substitution in terms
of the integration variable .
= c
(x
1
y)(c ay) a
1
z
2
(c ay)
2
+ a
2
z
2
(5.170)
After a lengthy integration procedure, the velocity components induced by the in-
board edge of the panel are obtained. In the following formulas, the parameter is
redened as the panel leading edge slope.
u =
c
4
2
_
z
_
ad
c
+
_

2as

2
_
G
2
_
+
z

2
_
(c ax)as (c ay)e
2
_
G
1

2
_
(c ax)az
2
+ (c ay)s
_
F
1
_
c
0
(5.171)
v = (c ax)(c ay)
u

2
azt (5.172)
w = (c ay)t + (c ax)
azu

2
(5.173)
242
where
t =
1
4
2
_
d
_
a(x + )
2c

(c ax)(c ay)

2
_
+
_
c
(c ay)(c ax)s + ae
2
z
2

4
y +
ar
2
2c
_
G
2

e
2

4
_
(c ay)s + (c ax)az
2
_
G
1
+
zc

4
_
(c ay)e
2
(c ax)as
_
F
1
_
c
0
(5.174)
and
d =
_
(x )
2
+ r
2
r
2
= y
2
+ z
2

2
= (c ay)
2
+ a
2
z
2
e
2
= (c ax)
2
+
2
s = (c ay)(x y) + az
2
F
1
= arctan
zd
( a/c)r
2
y(x )
(5.175)
G
1
=
1
e
sinh
1
(c ax)(x ) + y(c ay) az
2
c
_
[x y + (c ay)/c]
2
+ z
2
[1 + ( a/c]
(5.176)
G
2
= sinh
1
x
r
(5.177)
Note that equations (5.175) to (5.177) dier from those given by (5.143) for the
function F and G!
The distribution of velocity corresponding to these functions can be determined by
examining the behaviour or th axial velocity u for z = 0. From equation (5.171),
u =
c(x y)
4(c ay)
2
Along the panel leading edge, x = y and therefore u = 0. Along the trailing edge
x = c +
2
y, therefore
u =
c
4(c ay)
(5.178)
Thus, the velocity distribution is seen to vary linearly chord-wise, and inversely as
the local chord span-wise.
The contribution of the trailing vortex originating along the in-board edge of the
panel is considered next. This vortex contributes only v and w components of
velocity, which are obtained by multiplying equations (5.105) for a line vortex of
innite length by , and integrating. The results are as follows:
v =
z
4c
c
_
0
_
_
1 +
x
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
_
_
d
y
2
+ z
2
243
=
z
8c
_
x
r
2
_
x + G
2
+
_
(x )
2
+ r
2
_
_
c
0

z
4r
2
_
x c +
_
(x c)
2
+ r
2
_
(5.179)
(5.180)
Similarly,
w =
y
8c
_
x
r
2
_
x + G
2
+
_
(x )
2
+ r
2
_
_
c
0
+
y
4r
2
_
x c +
_
(x c)
2
+ r
2
_
(5.181)
The rst term in the braces gives the velocities induced by a pair of line vortices of
quadratic strength along the x-axis, and the last term gives the velocities induced
by a linearly varying vortex from the panel trailing edge. The combination gives the
contribution of a line vortex of quadratic strength to the trailing edge, followed by
a constant vortex of strength c/2 extending downstream in the wake. A constant
vortex of equal by opposite strength trails downstream from the out-board tip of
the triangular panel.
The Second Step
In the second step, the velocities induced by a vortex distribution having a linear
variation in both chord-wise and span-wise directions is derived and subtracted
from those given above to obtain the velocity components corresponding to a vortex
distribution having a linear variation chord-wise, but remaining constant span-wise.
In this step, the bound vortex located along the radial line from the intersection
of the panel leading and trailing edges is given a linear variation in the span-wise
direction prior to performing the chord-wise integration. The linearly varying bound
vortex is made up by superimposing a series of horseshoe vortices of strength d d
with in-board edge located at , and out-board edge located at b. The geometry is
illustrated in the gure (5.31)
Figure 5.31: Linearly varying vorticity in both span-wise and chord-wise direction.
244
The contribution of the bound segment of this elementary horseshoe vortex is ob-
tained from the line vortex formulas, with origin shifted to the point ( + , ),
and the coordinates rotated through the angle . The point P is located a distance
d
1
=
_
x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
from the in-board end of the bound vortex, and
d
2
=
_
(x b)
2
+ z
2
from the out-board end. The velocity components are given
rst in integral form
u =
z
4c
c
_
0
d
r
2
b
_
0
K d (5.182)
v = u (5.183)
w =
1
4c
c
_
0
(x y)
r
2
d
b
_
0
K d (5.184)
where
=
1
+
a
c

a =
2

1
K =
(x ) + y
d
1

(x b) + y b
d
2
r
2
= (x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
Only the rst term in the K integral requires evaluation, as the second term cancels
in the superposition process. Integrating this with respect to ,
I =
b
_
0
(x ) + y (1 +
2
)
d
1
d = d d
2
(5.185)
where d =
_
(x )
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
, and d
2
is previously dened. The integral (5.182)
to (5.184) may now be written
u =
z
4c
c
_
0
(d d
2
) d
r
2
(5.186)
v = u (5.187)
w =
1
4c
c
_
0
d d
2
)(x y)
r
2
d (5.188)
These integrals are evaluated, using the substitution given by equation (5.170). The
velocity components induced by the in-board edge of the panel are given below,
where is redened as the panel leading edge slope.
u =
c
4
2
_
z
_
x
2(c ax) ( y(c ay) az
2
)

2
_
G
2
zd

2
_
(c ax)cs e
2
_
y(c ay) az
2
_
_
G
1
245
+
1

2
_
(c ax)cz
2
+ s
_
y(c ay) az
2
_
_
F
1
_
c
0
(5.189)
v = (c ax)(c ay)
u

2
azt (5.190)
w = (c ay)t + (c ax)
azu

2
(5.191)
where
t =
c
4
2
_
_
_
d
c
_
_
(c ax)
_
y(c ay) az
2
_

2

x +
2
_
_
+
_
1

4
_
(c ax)
_
y(c ay) az
2
_
s + ce
2
z
2
_
+
r
2
2c
_
G
2
+
e
2

2
_
_
y(c ay) az
2
_
s + c(c ax)z
2
_
G
1
+
z

2
_
(c ax)cs e
2
_
y(c ay) az
2
_
_
F
1
_
c
0
(5.192)
and remaining functions and variables are dened following equation (5.174).
The distribution of velocity corresponding to these new velocity functions is given
by the value of u for z = 0. From equation (5.189)
u =
cy(x y)
4(c ay)
2
The axial velocity is zero along the leading edge, and along the trailing edge, where
x = c + 2y,
u =
cy
4(c ay)
(5.193)
If the new axial velocity function is multiplied by a/c and subtracted from the
original, the value of u along the trailing edge will be constant. This can be seen
by multiplying equation (5.193) by a/c and subtracting from equation (5.178). The
result is:
u =
c
4(c ay)
+
ay
4(c ay)
=
1
4
Thus, the combined functions give the desired vortex distribution on the panel,
which is zero along the leading edge, constant along the trailing edge, and varies
linearly in the chord-wise direction. The velocity components corresponding to this
vortex distribution are given below
u =
1
4
2
_
sF
1
+ z
_
e
2
G
1
(c ax)G
2
__
c
0
(5.194)
v = (c ax)(c ay)
u

2
azt (5.195)
w = (c ay)t + (c ax)
azu

2
(5.196)
246
where:
t =
c
4
2
_
s

2
_
e
2
G
1
(c ax)G
2
_

ze
2

2
F
1
+
_
y
ar
2
c
_
G
2
+
c ax
c
d
_
c
0
(5.197)
and the remaining functions and variables are dened following the equation (5.174).
It should be noted that the nal velocity functions given by equations (5.194) to
(5.197) are considerably simpler than either of the preceding sets of equations.
The derivation of the velocity component formulas for this vortex distribution is
completed by adding the contribution of the wake. Returning to the gure (5.31)
on the page 244, it can be seen that the elementary horseshoe vortices generate a
trailing vortex sheet of constant strength. This vortex sheet contributes only to the
v and w components of velocity. The v component of velocity will be derived rst
by integrating equation (5.105) for a line vortex of innite length, as follows:
v =
az
4c
2
c
_
0
d
b
_
0
_
1 +
x
d
1
_
d
(y )
2
+ z
2
(5.198)
where d
1
=
_
(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
, and =
1
+ a/c.
The inner integral is evaluated res, giving
v =
a
4c
2
c
_
0
_
_
arctan
z
_
(x )
2
+ r
2
y(x ) +r
2
arctan
z
y
_
_
d
=
a
8
_
_
_
_
_
arctan
z
_
(x )
2
+ r
2
y(x ) + r
2
arctan
z
y
_
_

zt
c
+
(x y)(c ay) + az
2
(c ay)
2
+ a
2
z
2
u
_
c
0
(5.199)
where u and t are given by equations (5.194) and (5.197) respectively, r
2
=

y
2
+ z
2
,
and is redened as the leading edge slope
1
.
The w component of velocity is derived in a similar manner, by integrating equation
(5.105) for w velocity component, for a line vortex of innite length. Here,
w =
a
4c
2
c
_
0
d
b
_
0
_
1 +
x
d
1
_
(y )d
(y )
2
+ z
2
(5.200)
where d
1
is dened above, and =
1
+ a/c.
The inner integral is evaluated rst, giving
w =
a
4c
2
c
_
0
_
_

1 +
2
sinh
1
y + (x )
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
sinh
1
x
r
+ ln r
_
_
d
(5.201)
Only the last two integrals can be evaluated in closed form. Thus
w =
a
4c
2
(I
1
I
2
+ I
3
) (5.202)
247
where
I
1
=
c
_
0

1 +
2
sinh
1
y + (x )
_
(x y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)z
2
d (5.203)
I
2
=
1
4
_
(3x + )
_
d (x )G
2
_
+ d
2
G
2
_
c
0
(5.204)
I
3
=
c
2
2
ln r (5.205)
where =
1
+ a/c, and d, r, and G
2
are dened following equation (5.174).
Equation (5.203) must be integrated numerically.
It should be noted that v and w as derived above have been multiplied by a/c
prior to integration in order to correctly account for the contribution of the wake.
The Third Step
The velocity components induced by a vortex distribution which has a linear varia-
tion in the chord-wise direction, and remains constant in the span-wise direction gave
now been derived for a triangular region bounded by the panel leading and trailing
edges, and the in-board side edge. In the third step of this analysis, these velocity
component formulas are combined to give the inuence of a swept, tapered panel
of arbitrary span. This is accomplished by super-imposing two of these triangular
regions having common out=board intersections and equal values of the leading and
trailing edge slopes. The superposition process is illustrated in the gure (5.32).
Figure 5.32: Superposition principle on two triangular wings to obtain trapesoidal
one.
The upper triangular panel has a concentrated vortex of strength c
1
trailing from the
in-board edge, and a vortex sheet of strength a behind the trailing edge. There is no
concentrated vortex shed from the out-board tip, since the circulation around the
248
railing vortex sheet is equal and opposite to that of the concentrated edge vortex.
A similar vortex pattern is shed by the second triangular panel, except that the
concentrated vortex has a strength c
2
.
The inuence of a swept, tapered panel of nite span b can be obtained by super-
imposing the two triangular panels as indicated. It should be noted that the con-
centrated vortices trailing from the edges of this panel are of unequal strength if the
panel is tapered, the dierence being made up by the vortex sheet in the wake. The
vortex distribution on the panel is zero along the leading edge, and varies linearly
in the chord-wise direction to a constant value along the trailing edge. The axial
component of velocity u is given by equation (5.194), the v component of velocity
is given by the sum of equations (5.179), (5.195) and (5.199), and w component of
velocity is given by the sum of equations (5.181), (5.196) and (5.202).
If the inuence of a triangular panel is required, special care must be taken in the
evaluation of equations (5.194) and 5.197. In this case, the chord of the out-board
panel subtracted in the superposition process is zero, and two terms in the equations
become indeterminate. The limiting values of these terms are given below.
First, the function G
1
becomes:
lim
c0
[G
1
]
c
0
=

2
ln
(x
1
y)
2
+ (1 +
2
1
)z
2
(x
2
y)
2
+ (1 +
2
)
2
z
2
(5.206)
where
1
and
2
are the slopes of the panel leading and trailing edges.
Second, the last two terms in the expression for t become:
lim
c0
_
1
c
_
r
2
G
2
+ xd
_
_
c
0
=

x
2
+ r
2
(5.207)
The remaining terms in the equations are unchanged.
Figure 5.33: Quadrilateral constant-strength doublet element.
5.8.8 Quadrilateral Doublet
Consider the quadrilateral element shown in the gure (5.33), with a constant dou-
blet distribution. Using the doublet element which points in the z direction the
velocity potential can be obtained by integrating the point elements:
(x, y, z) =

4
_
S
z dS
[(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
]
3
/
2
(5.208)
249
This integral for the potential is the same integral as the w velocity component of
the quadrilateral source and consequently
=

4
_
arctan
m
12
e
1
h
1
zr
1
arctan
m
12
e
2
h
2
zr
2
+arctan
m
23
e
2
h
2
zr
2
arctan
m
23
e
3
h
3
zr
3
+arctan
m
34
e
3
h
3
zr
3
arctan
m
34
e
4
h
4
zr
4
+ arctan
m
41
e
4
h
4
zr
4
arctan
m
41
e
1
h
1
zr
1
_
(5.209)
as z 0
=

2
(5.210)
The velocity components are obtained by dierentiating the velocity potential
_

_
u
v
w
_

_
=
_

z
_

_
After dierentiating (5.209) from, [2], we get
u =

4
_
z(y
1
y
2
)(r
1
+ r
2
)
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
2
[(x x
1
)(x x
2
) + (y y
1
)(y y
2
) +z
2
]
+
z(y
2
y
3
)(r
2
+ r
3
)
r
2
r
3
r
2
r
3
[(x x
2
)(x x
3
) + (y y
2
)(y y
3
) + z
2
]
+
z(y
3
y
4
)(r
3
+ r
4
)
r
3
r
4
r
3
r
4
[(x x
3
)(x x
4
) + (y y
3
)(y y
4
) + z
2
]
+
z(y
4
y
1
)(r
4
+ r
1
)
r
4
r
1
r
4
r
1
[(x x
4
)(x x
1
) + (y y
4
)(y y
1
) +z
2
]
_
(5.211)
v =

4
_
z(x
1
x
2
)(r
1
+ r
2
)
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
2
[(x x
1
)(x x
2
) + (y y
1
)(y y
2
) +z
2
]
+
z(x
2
x
3
)(r
2
+ r
3
)
r
2
r
3
r
2
r
3
[(x x
2
)(x x
3
) + (y y
2
)(y y
3
) + z
2
]
+
z(x
3
x
4
)(r
3
+ r
4
)
r
3
r
4
r
3
r
4
[(x x
3
)(x x
4
) + (y y
3
)(y y
4
) + z
2
]
+
z(x
4
x
1
)(r
4
+ r
1
)
r
4
r
1
r
4
r
1
[(x x
4
)(x x
1
) + (y y
4
)(y y
1
) +z
2
]
_
(5.212)
w =

4
_
[(x x
2
)(y y
1
) (x x
1
)(y y
2
)](r
1
+ r
2
)
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
2
[(x x
1
)(x x
2
) + (y y
1
)(y y
2
) +z
2
]
+
[(x x
3
)(y y
2
) (x x
2
)(y y
3
)](r
2
+ r
3
)
r
2
r
3
r
2
r
3
[(x x
2
)(x x
3
) + (y y
2
)(y y
3
) + z
2
]
+
[(x x
4
)(y y
3
) (x x
3
)(y y
4
)](r
3
+ r
4
)
r
3
r
4
r
3
r
4
[(x x
3
)(x x
4
) + (y y
3
)(y y
4
) + z
2
]
+
[(x x
1
)(y y
4
) (x x
4
)(y y
1
)](r
4
+ r
1
)
r
4
r
1
r
4
r
1
[(x x
4
)(x x
1
) + (y y
4
)(y y
1
) +z
2
]
_
(5.213)
250
On the element, as z 0, u = 0 and v = 0 while
w =

4
_
[(x x
2
)(y y
1
) (x x
1
)(y y
2
)](r
1
+ r
2
)
r
1
r
2
r
1
r
2
[(x x
1
)(x x
2
) + (y y
1
)(y y
2
)]
+
[(x x
3
)(y y
2
) (x x
2
)(y y
3
)](r
2
+ r
3
)
r
2
r
3
r
2
r
3
[(x x
2
)(x x
3
) + (y y
2
)(y y
3
)]
+
[(x x
4
)(y y
3
) (x x
3
)(y y
4
)](r
3
+ r
4
)
r
3
r
4
r
3
r
4
[(x x
3
)(x x
4
) + (y y
3
)(y y
4
)]
+
[(x x
1
)(y y
4
) (x x
4
)(y y
1
)](r
4
+ r
1
)
r
4
r
1
r
4
r
1
[(x x
4
)(x x
1
) + (y y
4
)(y y
1
)]
_
(5.214)
Note that z = 0 must be used in the r
k
terms of equation (5.154) too.
Far Field
The far-eld formulas for a quadrilateral doublet with area A can be obtained by
using the results for point doublet, equations (5.100). So we could apply these
results when we replace point doublet strength with A:
(x, y, z) =
A
4
z
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
3
/
2
u =
3A
4
(x x
o
)z
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
5
/
2
v =
3A
4
(y y
o
)z
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
5
/
2
w =
A
4
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
2z
2
[(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
]
5
/
2
(5.215)
where (x
o
, y
o
, 0) is some point within panel, usually centroid.
Constant Doublet Panel Equivalence to Vortex Ring
Consider the doublet panel with constant strength . Its potential (5.208) can be
written as
(x, y, z) =

4
_
S
z dS
r
3
where r = sqrt(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ z
2
. The velocity is obtained by dierentiating
this equation

V = =

4
_
S

_
z
r
3
_
dS =

4
_
S
_

x
o
z
r
3
+

y
o
z
r
3
+

k
_
1
r
3

3z
r
5
_
_
dS
where we have used

x
1
r
3
=

x
o
1
r
3

y
1
r
3
=

y
o
1
r
3
251
Now, let C represent the curve bounding the panel in the gure (5.33) and consider a
vortex lament of circulation along C. The velocity due to the lament is obtained
from the Bio-Savart law as

V =

4
_
C
d

r
r
3
and for d

= (dx
o
, dy
o
) and r = (x x
o
, y y
o
, z) we get

V =
_
C
_

z
r
3
dy
o

z
r
3
dx
o
+

k
_
(y y
o
)dx
o
(x x
o
)dy
o
_
_
Stokes theorem for the vector

A is
_
C

A d

=
_
S
n

AdS
and with n =

k this becomes
_
C

A d

=
_
S
_
A
y
x
o

A
x
y
o
_
dS
Using Stokes theorem on the above velocity integral we get

V =

4
_
S
_

x
o
z
r
3
+

y
o
z
r
3

k
_

x
o
x x
o
r
3
+

y
o
y y
o
r
3
__
dS
Once the dierentiation si performed, it is seen that the velocity of the lament is
identical to the velocity of the doublet panel if = .
The above derivation is a simplied version of the derivation by Hess, which relates
a general surface doublet distribution to a corresponding surface vortex distribution

V =
1
4
_
S
(n )
r
r
3
dS +
1
4
_
C

r
r
3
whose order is one less that the order of the doublet distribution plus a vortex ring
whose strength is equal to the edge value of the doublet distribution.
5.9 Three-Dimensional Higher-Order Elements
The surface shape and singularity strength distribution over an arbitrarily shaped
panel can be approximated by a polynomial of a certain degree. The surface of such
an arbitrary panel as shown in gure (5.34) can be approximated by a zero-order
at platne
z = a
0
by a rst-order surface
z = z
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
y
252
Figure 5.34: Higher-order three-dimensional surface element.
Figure 5.35: PANAIR singularity element.
by a second order surface
z = a
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
y + c
1
x
2
+ c
2
xy + c
3
y
2
or any higher-order approximations. Evaluation of inuence coecients is possible
only for rst order surfaces as it is shown in the gure (5.35). This approach is used
in the code PANAIR.
The source distribution for such element is approximated by the rst order polyno-
mial:
(x
0
, y
0
) =
0
+
x
x +
y
y
while doublet distribution is approximated by
(x
o
, y
o
) =
0
+
x
x
o
+
y
y
o
+ +
xx
x
2
o
+
xy
x
o
y
o
+
yy
y
2
o
Velocity potential is obtained from

s
=
1
4
_
S
(, ) dS
_
(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2

d
=
1
4
_
S
(, ) z dS
[(x )
2
+ (y )
2
+ z
2
]
3
/
2
253
where index s denote velocity potential due the source distribution, and index d
velocity potential due to doublet distribution. At end velocities a given as linear
function of node values
(u, v, w)
s
= f
s
(
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
,
9
) , (u, v, w)
d
= f
d
(
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
,
5
,
6
,
7
,
8
,
9
)
where, again, index s denote source, and index d denote doublet.
254
Chapter 6
Supersonic Singularity Panels
6.1 Introduction
We have already shown that small disturbance equation for compressible ow looks
similar for both subsonic and supersonic ows. We repeat here for completeness
equation (3.102)

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

< 1 (6.1)

x
2
+

2

y
2
+

2

z
2
= 0 , M

> 1 (6.2)
where

2
=
_
1 M
2

, M

< 1
M
2

1 , M

> 1
When the ow is incompressible, = 1, M

= 0, equation (6.1) reduces to Laplaces

equation for which we have presented singular solutions, such as
=

4
_
(x x
o
)
2
+ (y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
(6.3)
which represents ow due to source of strength located at the point (x
o
, y
o
, z
o
).
Expression (6.3) is regular everywhere except at the point (x
o
, y
o
, z
o
).
For the subsonic case M

< 1 we could rearrange equation (6.1) so that it looks

like Laplace equation

x
2
+

2

(y)
2
+

2

(z)
2
= 0 (6.4)
Simple transformation y = y and z = z formally reduces this equation to Laplace
equation for which our singular solution (6.3) looks
=

4
_
(x x
o
)
2
+
2
[(y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
(6.5)
We could rearrange this equation to obtain
_
x x
o
/4
_
2
+
_
y y
o
/4
_
2
+
_
z z
o
/4
_
2
= 1 (6.6)
255
The equipotential surfaces of this subsonic compressible source are ellipsoids of rev-
olution. Equipotential lines obtained by intersection of this surfaces with xOy-plane
are shown in the gure (6.1a).
a) b)
Figure 6.1: Equipotential lines in xOy-plane for a) subsonic source, and b) supersonic
source.
For the supersonic case, equation (6.2), we could write

x
2
+

2

(y)
2
+

2

(z)
2
= 0 (6.7)
where =

1. By analogy with (6.4), a particular solution is

=

4
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
[(y y
o
)
2
+ (z z
o
)
2
]
(6.8)
which may be rearranged in the form
_
x x
o
/4
_
2

_
y y
o
/4
_
2

_
z z
o
/4
_
2
= 1 (6.9)
It is evident that the equipotential surfaces of supersonic compressible source are
hyperboloids of revolution in the upstream and downstream Mach cones. Intersec-
tion of this surfaces with xOy plane is shown in the gure (6.1b). Only the part of
the ow pattern laying in the downstream Mach cone is physically signicant.
It must be emphasized that equations (6.5) and (6.8) do not truly represent source
ows, but acquire this title in a conceptual sense because of the formal analogy with
the solution of Laplaces equation.
All the singular solutions of the Laplaces equation can be arranged to solutions of
supersonic equation, by substitution instead of y y
o
and (z z
o
) the following
expressions (y y
o
) and (z z
o
) respectively
256
6.2 Greens Second Formulae Analog
We now extend Greens second formula, (3.114), to be valid for the supersonic case.
Let us introduce, rst, the new operator :
=
2

x
2


2

y
2


2

z
2
, =
2

2
x
2


2
y
2


2
z
2

k
Then the Second Greens Theorem Analog for supersonic ow looks
__
S

(
1

1
) dS =
_ _
V
_
_

1
_
d1 (6.10)
where is so called unit co-normal of the surface S, connected to unit normal as
(
x
,
y
,
z
) = (n
x
, n
y
, n
z
)
where indices denote projection to corresponding axis, gure (6.2).
Figure 6.2: Denition of the co-normal of an arbitrary surface.
Again we can choose for
2
= 1/
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
(y y
o
)
2

2
(z z
o
)
2
so that

2
0, and for
1
= we choose velocity potential of the ow we consider,
(6.2), thus
2
0 also. Our problem then, again, is reduced to surface integral
equation:
__
S

(
1

1
) dS = 0 (6.11)
The use of this equation depends on physical understanding of the nature of super-
sonic ow problem. In accordance with these the disturbance can aect the points
only within the after Mach cone. That is, the cone which starts from the point of
disturbance, and its axis extends in the direction of the ow-led. Therefore the
point in the ow-eld can be inuenced only by the disturbances emanating from
the points within the fore-cone, as illustrated in the gure (6.3).
257
Figure 6.3: Part of the surface which inuence an arbitrary point P.
6.3 Two-Dimensional Point Singularities
When the ow eld is the same in all lines parallel to xOy-plane we can drop the
derivatives with respect to z, thus equation (6.2) is reduced to

x
2
+

2

y
2
= 0 (6.12)
which can be formally written in the form

x
2
+

2

(y)
2
= 0 (6.13)
From equation (5.1) we have
=

2
ln
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
(y y
o
)
2
=

2
ln (6.14)
where we have denoted =
_
(x x
o
)
2

2
(y y
o
)
2
. Dierentiating the former
equation with respect to x and y give us velocity components u and v respectively
u =

2

x
ln =

2
x x
o

2
= (6.15)
v =

2

y
ln =

2
y y
o

2
(6.16)
Two-dimensional singularity panels have not found place in aerodynamic solutions of
two-dimensional supersonic ow problems since there exist more ecient and accu-
rate methods, so we skip development of these elements directly to three-dimensional
line elements.
258
6.4 Parametric Dierentiation of Integrals
Induced velocity components for the supersonic ow are obtained by dierentiating
integrals of the form
d
dx
g(x)
_
a
F(x, y, z, ) d (6.17)
We develop this dierentiation in consecutive steps. Let us start from denition
F(x) =
d
dx
x
_
a
F() d (6.18)
Now let us change the upper bound replacing x with g(x). In order to obtain
dierential of such integral we have to apply chain rule
d
dx
g(x)
_
a
F() d =
_
_
_
d
dg(x)
g(x)
_
a
F() d
_
_
_
dg(x)
dx
= F(g(x)) g

(x) (6.19)
We now have to dierentiate integral with respect to parameter which does not
appear in the limits of integration

y
x
_
a
F(y, ) d =
x
_
a
F
y
(y, ) d (6.20)
where indexed symbol F
y
denotes partial dierentiation with respect to y. We are
now ready to nd the parametric dierential of the form given by equation (6.17)
d
dx
g(x)
_
a
F(x, y, z, ) d = F(x, y, z, g(x)) g

(x) +
g(x)
_
a
F
x
(x, y, z, ) d (6.21)
where F
x
is partial dierential of the function F(x, y, z, ) with respect to x when
all remaining parameters are considered to be constant, and g

(x) = d g(x)/dx.
Problem 6.1:
Potential of the supersonic axi-symmetric ow can be expressed in the form
=
xr
_
0
f() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
nd the expression for the induced velocity component along the x-axis!
Solution 6.0:
Velocity component along x-axis (u) is obtained by dierentiating the expression for the
potential with respect to x
u =

x
=

x
xr
_
0
f() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
259
Figure 6.4: Body of revolution coordinate system.
Application of equation (6.21) gives
u =
f()
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
1

xr

xr
_
0
f()(x ) d
[(x )
2

2
r
2
]
3
/
2
where
d
dx
(x r) = 1
Formally we have nished our job here but the rst term is innite, and also the second
term since exponent of the expression in the bracket is greater than 1. If we partially
integrate the last term by choosing
t
2
= (x )
2

2
r
2
, tdt = (x )d
we get
u =
f()
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
1

xr

f()
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
1

xr
0
+
xr
_
0
f

() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
Usually f(0) = 0, thus
u =
xr
_
0
f

() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
what is required expression for axial component of velocity at point (x, r) due to source
distribution f(x) along x-axis.
6.5 Three-Dimensional Line elements
6.5.1 Small Disturbance Flow about Bodies of Revolution
Cylindrical coordinate system is the most suitable coordinate system to study the
ow problems about bodies of revolution. The x-axis is assumed coincident with
the axis of the body, and the r-axis normal to x-axis in the meridian plane in the
direction of radius of every circular cross-section of the body. The meridian plane
is dened by the angle between the meridian plane which contains the direction
260
of the undisturbed velocity and the meridian plane considered, gure (6.4). The
angle of attack of the body is the angle between the direction of the undisturbed
velocity and the x-axis of the body, in the meridian plane = 0.
At every point the velocity

V can be divided into three components: along the x-
and y-axis, and normal to the meridian plane. The components of the velocity can
be dened in the following form:
u = u
1
+ u
2
= u
1
+

2
x
= V

cos +

2
x
v = v
1
+ v
2
= v
1
+

2
r
= V

sin cos +

2
r
(6.22)
w = w
1
+ w
2
= w
1
+
1
r

= V

sin sin +
1
r

where u
1
, v
1
, and w
1
are components of the undisturbed velocity corresponding
to the potential of the undisturbed stream
1
, and
2
is the potential function
which denes the variation of the ow generated by the presence of the body. This
potential function always exists, because the hypothesis of small disturbances is
accepted. Because with the hypothesis accepted must be small, the dierential
equation of motion reduces to:
(1 M
2

2
x
2
+

2

2
r
2
+
1
r
2

2
+
1
r

2
r
= 0 (6.23)
terms v
1
and w
1
could also be considered small (of the same order as disturbances).
The solution of equation (6.23) is found to consists of two parts

2
=

2
+

2
(6.24)
where

2
is the function of x and r only, and is obtained as the solution of the
following partial dierential equation
(1 M
2

2
x
2
+

2

2
r
2
+
1
r

2
r
= 0 (6.25)
which is the equation that denes the ow for the case of the body with axis in the
direction of the velocity. The second component,

2
is given in by the expression

2
= F(x, r) cos (6.26)
where
F(x, r) =

2
r
(6.27)
We could prove that this expression is the solution of the equation (6.23) if the
potential

2
is the solution of (6.25) and at the same time of the equation (6.23)
since

2
does not depend on .
Substituting the expression for

2
given by (6.26) into (6.23) we get
(1 M
2

2
F
x
2
+

2
F
r
2

1
r
2
F +
1
r
F
r
= 0 (6.28)
261
Figure 6.5: Axi-symmetric ow about the body of revolution.
Dierentiating equation (6.25) with respect to r we get
(1 M
2

)

2
x
2
_

2
r
_
+

r
_

2
r
_
+
1
r

r
_

2
r
_

1
r
2
_

2
r
_
= 0 (6.29)
Assuming

2
r
= F
equation (6.28) is coincident with equation (6.29), therefore equation (6.26) is the
solution of equation (6.23).
The velocity potential which describes the ow can therefore be expressed in the
form
=
1
+
2
or
=

1
+

2
+

1
+

2
= xV

cos +

2
+ yV

sin cos +

2
r
cos (6.30)
Velocity potential

1
+

2
describes the axi-symmetric ow about body of revolution.
To determine the eect of the angle of attack it is necessary to determine only the
variation of the phenomenon dependent on the presence of cross ow due to the
angle of attack which is represented by the function

2
+

1
. The part
1
is assumed
independent of the angle of attack, and u
1
is assumed equal to V

(because is
small). The determination of the ow around body of revolution can be considered
therefore divided in two parts. The rst part consists in determination of the value
of the potential function

2
which, with

1
, represents the ow under zero-th angle
of attack. The second part consists in determination of

2
which, with

1
, gives the
variation of the ow parameters dependent on the angle of attack.
This possibility to superpose the eects of the axial ow on the eects on cross ow
is due to hypothesis of small disturbances. This greatly simplies computational
procedure. Procedure we are going to develop is applicable only for the small angle
of attack.
262
6.5.2 Slender Body in Axi-Symmetric Flow
Figure (6.5) shows the ow-eld as seen in any meridian plane, since the ow is
axi-symmetric. Let us distribute the sources along the axis of symmetry of the body
of revolution. Potential at any point P(x, r) of the plane can be determined by

2
=
b
_
a
f() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
(6.31)
It is clear from the gure (6.5) that only part of the source strength distribution
f() can inuence the point P(x, r), only the part within fore-cone which traces
are shown with lines passing under angle from the point P. Lower bound of the
integral is simply a = 0 since body of revolution is placed with the nose tip at the
origin. Upper bound is determined by the intersection of the lower characteristics
line with x-axis. From the Rectangular triangle shown in the gure we have
x
o
= x r , = tan =
_
M
2

1
thus, our upper bound b = x r depends on the position of the point P, i.e. of
the coordinates (x, r). So we have

2
=
xr
_
0
f() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
(6.32)
6.5.3 Boundary Condition
So far we have approximated governing equation of motion. We have to specify
also boundary conditions. We could also apply the approximations to the boundary
conditions of the same order as we used to approximate governing equations of
motion. If the body is dened by r = R(x), the exact tangency condition for the
original problem dened by (6.25) is
R

(x) =
v
U

+ u
, at: r = R(x)
where U

= V

, u =

2
/x, and v =

2
/r. We now drop prime symbol and
index (

2
) to facilitate writing of expressions but we still bear in mind that we are
solving only part of the problem, and we introduce the symbol =

2
/U

. Thus
this equation looks
R

(x) =

r
1 +
x
, or:
r
= R

(1 +
x
) (6.33)
if we neglect
x
<< 1 since (

2
)
x
<< U

we get approximate boundary condition

of our problem

r
(x) = R

(x) , at: r = R(x). (6.34)

Equation (6.25) looks

rr
+

r
r

2

xx
= 0 (6.35)
263
Figure 6.6: Superposition principle for the body of revolution.
After the velocity components are determined, the pressure coecient is given by
C
P
=
2
M
2

_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2

_
1 (1 +
x
)
2

2
r
_
_
/(1)
1
_
(6.36)
6.5.4 The Basic Solutions of the Equation (6.25)
Any rst-order solution may be regarded as resulting from continuous distribution
of supersonic sources along the axis of the body. Therefore the rst-order problem
consists simply in determining the source-distribution function f(x) which produces
the desired shape. However, substituting this expression into tangency condition
yields an integral equation which cannot be solved exactly.
The Karm anMoore procedure for obtaining an approximate numerical solution
involves that the unknown continuous source function f(x) can be replaced by a
broken line as indicated in the gure (6.6). Another (quite equivalent) viewpoint
is that the function f(x) is approximated by the sum of a number of linear source
distributions having various starting points along the body, as it is also shown in the
gure (6.6). The slope of each of these linear elements is determined in succession
b imposing the tangency condition at corresponding points along the body.
Figure 6.7: Superposition principle for the body of revolution with quadratic ele-
ments.
264
Figure 6.8: Square-root strength source distribution to simulate bodies with slope
discontinuities in the shape.
For some applications this broken line approximation to the source strength is too
crude. For higher order approximations we need higher order derivatives of the
distribution function. Since dierentiation is roughening process, this means that
the source distribution function must be one order higher than the order of required
dierentiation. The continuity of the second derivatives is achieved by the quadratic
function for source distribution, as it is shown in the gure (6.7). Only for the nose
tip of the slender body we still need rst order source distribution to ensure sharp,
pointed body.
Linear and quadratic elements are sucient for the bodies of continuous shape. But
if the body has steps or discontinuities in the curvature we need additional elements.
A corner is accounted for by adding a source distribution of square root strength,
which produce discontinuity in streamline slope along its foremost Mach cone. As
indicated in the gure (6.8), this corner solution must be shifted up-stream so that
its eect rst reaches the surface just at the corner. In the same way, a curvature
discontinuity is accounted for by adding a source distribution of
3
/
2
-power strength,
which produces a discontinuity in streamline curvature along its foremost Mach cone.
This curvature solution is required also at a corner, because an apparent curvature
discontinuity remains after the corner solution is added.
Step solution in streamline is achieved by adding inverse square root strength source
distribution, as it is shown in the gure (6.9). To summarize, the rst-order solutions
is obtained by superposing the following ve basic solutions:
1. Linear source solution used at tip of pointed body.
2. Quadratic source solution used thereafter for body having continuous cur-
vature.
3. Corner solution used to account for corner.
4. Curvature solution used to account for curvature discontinuity.
5. Step solution used to cancel steps in second order solutions at corners, if the
second order solution is planned to be applied.
265
Figure 6.9: Source distribution to simulate bodies with steps in the shape.
Homogeneous Solutions
The required solutions are axially symmetric solutions of the wave equation, homo-
geneous in the space variables. The order of homogeneity is integral (1 or 2) in the
rst two cases, and half-integral (
1
/
2
,
3
/
2
,
-3
/
2
) in the other cases. Such solutions have
been studied in detail by Hess. For present purposes
(m)
, the solution homogeneous
of order m, can be obtained by taking the source distribution f(x) in equation (6.32)
proportional to x
m
. It is convenient to choose the source strength as
f(x)
(m)
=
c
m!
x
m
(6.37)
where C is a normalization constant, so that solutions of various orders are related
by

(mp)
=

p
x
p

(m)
(6.38)
For integral m, the solutions have simplest form if the normalization constant C is
taken to be unity. The using various relations for the hyper-geometric functions the
solutions are found to be given by

(m)
(x, r) =
x
m
1 3 (2m1)
(1 t
2
)
m+
1
/
2
F
_
m + 1
2
,
m + 2
2
, m +
3
2
, 1 t
2
_
(6.39)
here the conical variable
t =
r
x
, =
_
M
2

1 (6.40)
is the ratio of the tangent of the polar angle to the tangent of the Mach angle, an
do varies from zero on the axis to unity at the Mach cone. For integral m, the
hyper-geometric functions which occur in equation (6.39) can be expressed in terms
of products of

1 t
2
and sech
1
t with polynomials in t
2
. The rst two required
basic solutions are obtained by setting m equal to 1 and 2 which gives:
Linear Source Solution m = 1
Here are the expressions for the linear source solution for velocity potential and
its derivatives:
266
= x
_
sech
1
t

1 t
2
_

x
= sech
1
t

r
=

1 t
2
t

xx
=
1
x
1

1 t
2

xr
=

x
1
t

1 t
2

rr
=

2
x
1
t
2

1 t
2
(6.41)
where
sech
1
t = ln
_
_
1
t
+

1
t
2
1
_
_
Quadratic source solution m = 2
=
x
2
2
__
1 +
t
2
2
_
sech
1
t
3
2

1 t
2
_

x
= x
_
sech
1
t

1 t
2
_

r
=
x
2
_
1 t
2
t
tsech
1
t
_

xx
= sech
1
t

xr
=

1 t
2
t

rr
=

2
2
_
1 t
2
t
2
+ sech
1
t
_
(6.42)
For half-integral m, it is convenient to choose the normalization constant C as
_
2/,
so that the solutions have simple values at the Mach cone. The dierence in nor-
malization for integral and half-integral m is of no concern, because the connection
between them is never used. Transforming the hyper-geometric function into a more
useful form for this case gives

(m)
(x, r) = x
m

2(1 t)
m+
1
/
2
(m +
3
/
2
)

1 + t
F
_
1
/
2
, m + 1, m +
3
/
2
,
1 t
1 + t
_
(6.43)
Corner Solution m =
1
/
2
The hyper-geometric function occurring here can be expressed in terms of products of
complete elliptic integrals and algebraic functions of t. The remaining three required
basic solutions are obtained by setting m equal to
1
/
2
,
3
/
2
, and
-1
/
2
. For convenience,
asymptotic values valid just inside the Mach cone (where t = 1) are also given below
267
=

x
4

1 + t(K E) , t 1 0

x
=
1

1 + t
K , t 1
x

1

r
=

1 + t
_
1 + t
t
E K
_
, t 1 ,
r

xx
=
1
x
3
/
2

1
(1 t)

1 + t
(K E) , t 1 ,
xx

1
8
1
x
3
/
2

xr
=

x
3
/
2

1
(1 t)

1 + t
_
E
t
K
_
, t 1 ,
xr

3
8

x
3
/
2

rr
=

2
x
3
/
2

1
(1 t)

1 + t
_
2 t
2
t
2
E
2 t
t
K
_
, t 1 ,
rr

7
8

2
x
3
/
2
(6.44)
Here K and E are the complete elliptic integrals of rst and second kind with
modulus k =
_
(1 t)/(1 + t).
Curvature solution m =
3
/
2
= x
3
/
2
8

2
9

1 + t
_
(3 + t)K 4E
_
, t 1 , 0

x
=

x
4

1 + t(K E) , t 1 ,
x
0

r
=

x
4

2
3

1 +t
_
E
t
K
_
, t 1 ,
r
0

xx
=
1

x
2

1 + t
K , t 1 ,
xx

1

xr
=

x
2

1 + t
_
1 + t
t
E K
_
, t 1 ,
xr

rr
=

x
2

2
3
1

1 + t
_
2
1 + t
t
2
E
2 t
t
K
_
, t 1 ,
rr

x
(6.45)
Again the K and E are the complete elliptic functions of the rst and second kind
respectively with modulus k =
_
(1 t)/(1 +t).
268
Step Solution m =
1
/
2
=
1

x
2

1 +t
K , t 1 ,
1

x
=
1
x
3
/
2

1
(1 t)

1 + t
(K E) , t 1 ,
x

1
8
1
x
3
/
2

r
=

x
3
/
2

1
(1 t)

1 + t
_
E
t
K
_
, t 1 ,
r

3
8

x
3
/
2
(6.46)
All three second derivatives are necessary in order to carry out the second-order
solution. Considerable manual labor can be avoided by calculating only one of
them, say
xx
. Then
xr
and
rr
can be obtained form the equation of motion and
tangency condition. Thus the rst-order equation of motion (6.35) gives immediately
an expression for
r
r:

rr
=
2

x
x

r
r
(6.47)
Dierentiating the tangency condition, equation (6.33) with respect to x gives an
expression for
xr
on the surface of the body:

xr
= R

(1 +
x
) +R

xx
, at: r = R(x) (6.48)
6.5.5 Singularity Lines Passing Through Coordinate Origin
Velocity potential of the source distribution along spatial line can be written as
(x, y, z) =
_
(t) dt
_
(x )
2

2
(y )
2

2
(z )
2
(6.49)
where (, , ) are running coordinates along singularity line and are function of
parameter t. In the case that line pass through coordinate origin for the parameter
t we could choose coordinate . Thus,
(x, y, z) =

o
_
0
d
_
(x )
2

2
(y )
2

2
(z )
2
(6.50)
where = / and = / and
o
is the value of for which the denominator of the
integrand becomes zero. We assumed that strength of the source varies linearly with
the coordinate and that is the scale of this variation. Physically interpreted, the
range of integration is from the origin to the last source point which can inuence
the eld point, as it is shown in the gure (6.10). Performing the integration yields
=
_
_
_

_
x
2

2
(y
2
+ z
2
)
1
2
(
2
+
2
)

x
2
(y + z)
[1
2
(
2
+
2
)]
3
/
2
ctnh
1
x
2
(y + z)
_
[1
2
(
2
+
2
)][x
2

2
(y
2
+ z
2
)]
(6.51)
269

p
P(x, y, z)
y
z
x

Figure 6.10: Source distribution along line passing through coordinate origin.
where
ctnh
1
(x) = ln

x + 1
x 1
If two such source lines of opposite strength are brought together from the x-direction
at the xy-plane while the product of source strength and the angle between them
is kept constant, the potential of a line of doublets in the xy-plane at the an angle
arctan from the x-axis is obtained. Thus dierentiating with respect to and
setting = 0 gives
(x, y, z) =
z
2
(1
2

2
)
3
/
2
_

2
1
ctnh
1

_
(6.52)
where
=
x
2
y
_
(1
2

2
[x
2

2
(y
2
+ z
2
)]
and is the doublet strength. Dierentiating the potential function with respect to
z gives the velocity w:
w =

2
(1
2

2
)
3
/
2
_

2
1
ctnh
1

_
+2z
2

2
(x
2
y)
_
x
2

2
(y
2
+ z
2
)
(x
2
y)
2
(1
2

2
)[x
2

2
(y
2
+ z
2
)]
2
(6.53)
Note that the line of doublets creates a conical ow eld as the velocity is only a
function z/x and y/x.
6.6 Surface Distribution of the Singularities
6.6.1 Gotherts Rule
The compressible velocity components induced by the source and vortex distribu-
tions are obtained by applying Gotherts rule to the incompressible velocity com-
ponents derived in the previous chapter. Rule states that the velocity components
270
#

1 2
3
d
1
d
2
d
1
d
2
d
2
d
1
Figure 6.11: For point 1 both distances d
1
and d
2
are imaginary. Only distance d
2
is imaginary for point 2. For point 3 both distances d
1
and d
2
are real.
u, v, and w at a point P(x, y, z) in a compressible ows are equal to the real parts
of u
i
, v
i
, and w
i
, where u
i
, v
i
and w
i
are the incompressible velocity components
evaluated at a point P(x, y, z), and =
_
1 M
2

. In subsonic ow, this rule

agrees exactly with that given by Gothert if each of the compressible velocity com-
ponents are divided by the constant
2
. In supersonic ow, the compressible velocity
components become complex functions, and care must be taken to extract the real
parts of these functions in order to obtain correct results. However, this procedure
is generally much simpler than formally evaluating the velocity components by inte-
gration, and provides straightforward method for obtaining the supersonic velocity
elds corresponding to any existing incompressible ow solution.
A simple example of the extended rule is obtained by transforming the velocity com-
ponents induced by a line source located along the x-axis. The velocity component
formulas given by equations (5.101) to (5.102) are unchanged by this transforma-
tion, except that d
1
=

x
2
+
2
r
2
and d
2
=
_
(x L)
2
+
2
r
2
. Both these terms
are real in subsonic ow; but in supersonic ow, both are imaginary ahead of the
Mach cone from the origin, d
1
is real but d
2
is imaginary between the Mach cone
from the origin and rear Mach cone, and both are real behind the rear Mach cone,
gure (6.5). Thus, the velocity components are zero ahead of the Mach cone from
the origin, and the nite length of the source has no inuence on the velocity eld
except within the rear Mach cone. Considerable advantage is take of this ability
to correctly dene the regions of inuence of each term in the velocity component
formulas in the following applications.
The compressible velocity components for each of the ve basic surface singularity
distributions used for subsonic approximation are presented in the following subsec-
tions.
6.6.2 Integration Procedure
The velocity component integrals appearing in the text, below, may all be reduced
to forms appearing in standard integral tables, and two non-standard integrals given
below:
J
1
=
_
d
(
2
+ e
2
)

a
2
+ 2b + c
271
J
2
=
_
d
(
2
+ e
2
)

a
2
+ 2b + c
The result of integration is summarized below:
J
1
=

4
b
2
e
2
_
bF +

2
e
G
_
J
2
=

4
+ b
2
e
2
_

2
F be G
_
where is a real non-zero root of the equation

4
(ae
2
c)
2
b
2
e
2
= 0
and
F = arctan

a
2
+ 2b + c

2
b
G = tanh
1
+ e
e

a
2
+ 2b + c
= sinh
1
+ e
_
(ae
2

2
)
2
+ (c
2
)e
2
where = be/.
6.6.3 Constant Source Distribution on Un-swept Panel with
Stream-wise Taper
The incompressible velocity components for this source distribution are given by
equations (5.141) to (5.142). The corresponding compressible velocity components
are:
u =
k
4

1 +
2
a
2
_
aF

2
mGH

2
_
(6.54)
v =
k

1 +
2
a
2
4
G (6.55)
w =
k
4

1 +
2
a
2
_
F + a(
2
mGH)
_
(6.56)
where is the source distribution strength, and
F = arctan
(z ax)d
x(y mx)
2
z(ay mz)
(6.57)
G =
1
e
sinh
1
x

(6.58)
H = sinh
1
y

x
2
+
2
z
2
(6.59)
272

z = ax
z
y
y = mx

y =
(mae

)x
1e
2
}
y =
(m+ae

)x
1e
2

x =
my+az+|mzay|e

a
2
+m
2

x =
my+az+|mzay|e

a
2
+m
2
Figure 6.12: Traces of the Mach waves and Mach cone.
and
2
= 1 M
2

, and
k =
_
1 for: M

1
2 for: M

> 1
d =
_
x
2
+
2
r
2
e =
_
1 +
2
(a
2
+ m
2
)
d

= de
r

=
_
(y mx)
2
+ (z ax)
2
+
2
(ay mz)
2
x

= x +
2
(my + az)
The k gives the correct scaling factor for the supersonic velocity components, since
contribution to the up-stream cone is delivered to downstream.
We have to determine real parts of the functions F, G, and H for the supersonic
ow. The function F is zero everywhere ahead of the Mach cone from the origin,
except for panels having supersonic side edges, when F = within the two-
dimensional region bounded by the Mach waves from the side edge and the Mach
cone from the origin. The boundaries of the two-dimensional region are given in the
following sketch, gure (6.12), which shows the traces of the Mach waves and Mach
cone from the origin on a plane perpendicular to the x-axis.
The function G takes several dierent forms depending on the relative sweep-back
on the side edges. Expressing the function in logarithmic form,
G =
_

_
1
e
ln
x

+d

for: e
2
> 0
d
x

for: e
2
= 0
1
e

arccos
x

for: e
2
< 0, and:

< x

<

for: e
2
< 0, x

and: x >
my+az+|aymz|e

a
2
+m
2
0 elsewhere
(6.60)
273
where

=
_
M
2

1 e

=
_
1
2
(a
2
+ m
2
)
Finally, in supersonic ow, the function H becomes:
H =
_

arctan
d

y
for: x > r
0 elsewhere
(6.61)
6.6.4 Constant Source Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper
Incompressible velocity components for this source distribution are given by system
of equations (5.147). The corresponding compressible velocity components are:
u =
kG
1
4
(6.62)
v =
k
4
(G
1
G
2
) (6.63)
w =
k
4
(F
1
F
2
) (6.64)
where
F
1
= arctan
z d
xy + r
2
(6.65)
F
2
= arctan
z
y
(6.66)
G
1
=
1
e
sinh
1
x +
2
y

_
(x y)
2
+ (
2
+
2
)z
2
(6.67)
G
2
= sinh
1
x
r
(6.68)
and
k =
_
1 for: M

1
0 for: M

> 1
d =
_
x
2
+
2
r
2
e
2
=
2
+
2
r
2
= y
2
+ z
2
In supersonic ow, the real parts of the functions F
1
, F
2
, G
1
, and G
2
must be
determined. The function F
2
is always real, and can be dropped from equation
(6.64) without aecting the results since the contributions from the four corners of
the panel always cancel. The function F
1
, is zero everywhere ahead of the Mach cone
from the origin, except for panel having supersonic leading edges, when F
1
=
within the two-dimensional region bounded by the Mach waves form the leading
edge and the Mach cone from the origin. The boundaries of the two-dimensional
region for this case are shown in the gure (6.13).
274

x = y
y
z
y = x/

x = y + e

[z[
Figure 6.13: Traces of the Mach waves and Mach cone for the supersonic leading
edge.
The function G
1
takes several dierent forms depending on the relative sweep-back
of the panel leading edge. Expressing the function in logarithmic form,
G
1
=
_

_
1
e
ln
x

+d

for: e
2
> 0
d
x

for: e
2
= 0
1
e

arccos
x

for: e
2
< a
and:

< x

<

for: e
2
< 0, x

<

and: x > y + e

[z[
0 elsewhere
(6.69)
where

=
_
M
2

1
x

= x +
2
y
e

=
_

2
r

=
_
(x y)
2
+ e
2
z
2
d

= ed
The function G
2
becomes:
G
2
=
_
ln
x+d

r
for: x > r
0 elsewhere
(6.70)
6.6.5 Linearly Varying Source Distribution on Swept Panel
with Span-wise Taper
The incompressible velocity components for this source distribution are given by the
system of equations (5.164), the corresponding compressible velocity components
275
are:
u =
k
4
_
(x y)G
1
+ yG
2
z(F
1
F
2
)
_
(6.71)
v =
k
4
_
(x y)(G
1
G
2
) + x + d z(F
1
F
2
)
_
(6.72)
w =
k
4
_
(x y)(F
1
F
2
) + z(e
2
G
1
G
2
)
_
(6.73)
where the functions F
1
, F
2
, G
1
, G
2
, d, e, k, and r are dened by equations (6.65)
to (6.68). In supersonic ow, the behaviour of the functions F
1
and F
2
is described
following equation (6.68) and the real parts of G
1
and G
2
are given by equations
(6.69) and (6.70). In supersonic ow, the sum x+d appearing in the above equations
is replaced by d, and is real only within the Mach cone from the origin.
6.6.6 Constant Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel with
Span-wise Taper
The incompressible velocity components for the bound vortex distribution are given
by equations (5.166). The corresponding compressible velocity components are:
u =
k
4
(F
1
F
2
) (6.74)
v = u (6.75)
w =
k
4
(e
2
G
1
G
2
) (6.76)
where the functions F
1
, F
2
, G
1
, G
2
, d, e, k, and r are dened by equations (6.65) to
(6.68).
The contribution of the edge vortices in compressible ow is given by
u = 0 (6.77)
v =
kz
4
x + d
r
2
(6.78)
w =
ky
4
x + d
r
2
(6.79)
In supersonic ow, the sum x + d appearing in the above equations is replaced by
d, and is real only within the Mach cone from the origin.
6.6.7 Linearly Varying Vortex Distribution on Swept Panel
with Span-wise Taper
The incompressible velocity components for the bound vortex distribution are given
by equations (5.194) to (5.197) The corresponding compressible velocity components
are:
u =
k
4
2
_
sF
1
+ z[e
2
G
1
(c ax)G
2
]
_
c
0
(6.80)
v = (c ax)(c ay)
u

2
azt (6.81)
w = (c ay)t + (c ax)
azu

2
(6.82)
276
where
t =
ck
4
2
_
s

2
[e
2
G
1
(c ax)G
2
]
ze
2

2
F
1
+
2
_
y
ar
2
c
_
G
2
+ (c ax)d
_
c
0
(6.83)
and
k =
_
1 for: M

1
2 for: M

> 1
a =
2

1
d =
_
(x )
2
+
2
r
2
r
2
= y
2
+ z
2

2
= (c ay)
2
+ a
2
z
2
e
2
= (c ax)
2
+
2

2
s = (c ay)(x y) + az
2
and
F
1
= arctan
zd
y(x ) + ( a/c)r
2
(6.84)
G
1
=
1
e
sinh
1
(c ax)(x ) +
2
[y(c ay) az
2
]
c
_
[x y + (c ay)/c]
2
+ z
2
[
2
+ ( + a/c)
2
]
(6.85)
G
2
= sinh
1
x
r
(6.86)
In supersonic ow, the behaviour of function F
1
is described following equation
(6.68), and the real parts of G
1
and G
2
are given by equations (6.69) and (6.70),
where
x

= (c ax)(x ) +
2
[y(c ay) az
2
]
r

= c
_
[x y + (c ay)/c]
2
+ z
2
[
2
+ ( + a/c)
2
]
d

= ed
e

=
_
(c ax)
2

2
Finally, the contribution of the vortex sheet in the wake in compressible ow is given
by
u = 0 (6.87)
v =
a
8
_
k(F
1
F
2
)
zt
c
+
(x y)(c ay) + az
2
(c ay)
2
+ a
2
z
2
u
_
c
0
(6.88)
where u and t are given by the equations (6.80) and (6.83) respectively. The contri-
bution to the third component of velocity is given as
w =
ka
4c
2
(I
1
I
2
+ I
3
) (6.89)
where I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
are given by the equations (5.203) to (5.205), with the Gothert
transformation applied.
277
Figure 6.14: Non-planar quadrilateral.
6.6.8 Panel Geometry
In all our derivations we assumed that panel is at i.e. it lies in the xOy-plane. Real
congurations are far from being at, so we need procedure to ensure attens of the
three-dimensional surface panels we use in our calculations.
Let the four node points which dene quadrilateral lies arbitrary in the space. We
show here procedure how to make them planar. The gure (6.14) we show such
panel. We also introduce vectors which connects diagonal points

T
1
=

13 and

T
2
=

24. The components of these vectors are

T
1x
= x
3
x
1
T
1y
= y
3
y
1
T
1z
= z
3
z
1
T
2x
= x
4
x
2
T
2y
= y
4
y
2
T
2z
= z
4
z
2
We could now generate vector

N orthogonal to both vectors

T
1
and

T
2

N =

T
2

T
1
=

k
T
2x
T
2y
T
2z
T
1x
T
1y
T
1z

The unit normal vector n of the element can be now dened as

n
x
=
N
x
N
, n
y
=
N
y
N
, n
z
=
N
z
N
where (N
x
, N
y
, N
z
) are components of the vector

N and N =
_
N
2
x
+ N
2
y
+ N
2
z
. The
plane of the element is completely dened if we besides unit normal specify also one
point in the plane. Let this point be the centroid of the four corner nodes:
x =
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
4
y =
y
1
+ y
2
+ y
3
+ y
4
4
z =
z
1
+ z
2
+ z
3
+ z
4
4
We need now to project along unit vector n the four corner nodes to the newly
dened plane. The resulting points are the corner points of the required quadrilateral
element. Let us write the equations of the plane with unit vector n passing through
point ( x, y, z)
n
x
(x x) + n
y
(y y) + n
z
(z z) = 0
278
and equation of the line passing through the corner node i in the direction of the
unit vector n
x x
i
n
x
=
y y
i
n
y
=
z z
i
n
z
= t
Let us express point coordinates (x, y, z) laying on this line as a function of parameter
t
x = n
x
t + x
i
, x = n
y
t + y
i
, x = n
z
t + z
i
Substituting this expression into equation of the plane we get
n
x
(n
x
t + x
i
x) + n
y
(n
y
t + y
i
y) + n
z
(n
z
t + z
i
z) = 0
from which follows
t
i
=
n
x
( x x
i
) + n
y
( y y
i
) + n
z
( z z
i
)
n
2
x
+ n
2
y
+ n
2
z
where we added the index to parameter t to denote that it corresponds to corner
node i. Changing the coordinates of corners (x
i
, y
i
, z
i
), i = 1, 2, 3, 4 we calculate all
four values of parameter t. The new i-th node coordinates are
X
i
= n
x
t
i
+ x
i
, Y
i
= n
y
t
i
+ y
i
, Z
i
= n
z
t
i
+ z
i
where (X
i
, Y
i
, Z
i
) are the new planar coordinates of the quadrilateral.
All expressions given so far are given in global coordinate system, we need to build
local coordinate system. Let us choose point 2 for coordinate origin, and vector

21
for the direction of the local x-axis. Local unit vector

is dened thus

21
[

21[
=
(X
1
X
2
) + (Y
1
Y
2
) + (Z
1
Z
2
)

k
_
(X
1
X
2
)
2
+ (Y
1
Y
2
)
2
+ (Z
1
Z
2
)
2
If we orient local z-axis in the direction of the unit vector n, then the third unit
vector

is obtained as

= n
We have expressed all three unit vectors, so we can apply coordinate transformations
between global and local coordinate system and vice verse to calculate induced
velocity components in the global coordinate system.
6.6.9 Coordinate Transformation Again
We now extend the coordinate transformation procedure developed in the section
(5.5) for two-dimensional ows. Again primed symbols denote the values of unit
vectors in the local coordinate system.
The new local coordinates of the panel corners (in accordance to the node numbering
dened for vortex panels) are given below, rst corner number 1:
_

_
x
1
y
1
z
1
_

_
=
_

_
0
0
0
_

_
279
coordinates of the point 2 are
_

_
x
2
y
2
z
2
_

_
=
_

k



k



k

k
_

_
_

_
X
1
X
2
Y
1
Y
2
Z
1
Z
2
_

_
coordinates of the point 3 are
_

_
x
3
y
3
z
3
_

_
=
_

k



k



k

k
_

_
_

_
X
3
X
2
Y
3
Y
2
Z
3
Z
2
_

_
and nally coordinates of the point 4 are
_

_
x
4
y
4
z
4
_

_
=
_

k



k



k

k
_

_
_

_
X
4
X
2
Y
4
Y
2
Z
4
Z
2
_

_
We could perform similarly transformation of coordinates for source panels. We
choose again local point 2 for local coordinate origin, and direction of the vector

23
for the direction of local y-axis. So unit vector along y-axis (

) is dened as

=
(X
3
X
2
) + (Y
3
Y
2
) + (Z
3
Z
2
)

k
_
(X
3
X
2
)
2
+ (y
3
y
2
)
2
+ (Z
3
Z
2
)
2
Again we choose vector n for the direction of the z-axis, remaining unit vector

is
obtained as

=

n
Again point two is origin (that is point 1 in discussions about source panels) so
(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) = (0, 0, 0). Local point 2 is obtained from transformation
_

_
x
2
y
2
z
2
_

_
=
_

k



k



k

k
_

_
_

_
X
1
X
2
Y
1
Y
2
Z
1
Z
2
_

_
Coordinates of the points (x
3
, y
3
, z
3
) and (x
4
, y
4
, z
4
) are obtained the same way as
the points for vortex panel. The only dierence is the denition of the coordinate
axes unit vectors. We could reduce computational time by specifying z coordinate
to 0, since surface panels are assumed to be planar. Thus, we reduce the problem
to calculate only two coordinates.
280
Chapter 7
Applications
In this chapter we illustrate some of the basic concepts developed so far on a few
simple examples.
7.1 Incompressible Flow about Airfoil
We generate, rst, the analytical case which will be used to compare results of
calculation using panel method with analytically exact solution. We plan to ap-
ply complex mapping of the ow about circle to the airfoil shape. Thus, we need
expression for the velocities on the circle placed out the coordinate origin.
7.1.1 Flow about Circle with Circulation
Equation (4.45) give us general expression for the ow about the circle with singular-
ities around it. We have to adjust that equation for our needs keeping only vortex
at the center of the circle and moving the circle at the position z
c
. So, complex
velocity potential for our case looks
F(z) = (U

)(z z
c
) + (U

+ V

)
a
2
z z
c
+

2
ln(z z
c
) (7.1)
Dierentiating this equation with respect to z give us complex velocity W
W = u v =
dF
dz
= U

(U

+ V

)
a
2
(z z
c
)
2
+

2
1
z z
c
(7.2)
It is possible to dene any point on the circle (z z
c
= ae

) as stagnating point
(W = 0). Thus, Circulation which ensures that this point is stagnating point is
obtained from (7.2) when W = 0
= 4a(U

sin + V

cos )
= 4a
_
U
2

+ V
2

sin( + ) (7.3)
where
= arctan
V

281
is the angle of attack. From the Kutta-Joukowsky theorem we have
1
/
2
(U
2

+ V
2

)C
L
1 =
_
U
2

+ V
2

or:
C
L
= 8
a

sin( + ) (7.4)
Gradient of the lift slope is obtained from this equation after dierentiating it with
respect to .
dC
L
d
= 8
a

cos( + ) (7.5)
where = '()
max
'()
min
[, and '() means real part of the complex number.
7.1.2 Conformal Mapping
Flow about airfoil-like shapes can be obtained by conformal mapping of the ow
about circular cylinder. Let the circle be dened in the z-plane, and airfoil-like
shape in the -plane. Also, let us assume one to one mapping of the form = (z).
The value of the velocity potential of the ow must be the same in the corresponding
points. This property will be used to nd velocity distribution around airfoil-like
shape from the velocity distribution around circular cylinder. Complex velocity is,
thus
W =
dF
d
=
dF
dz
dz
d
(7.6)
If the mapping function = (z) is given than former equation should be arranged
in the more suitable form
W =
dF
d
=
dF
dz
1
d/dz
(7.7)
Derivative dF/dz is dened by the equation (7.2), while equation (7.3) denes circu-
lation for the ow about circle. Circulation is chosen such that when z = z
T
, and
d/dz = 0 at the same tame is dF/dz = 0 so we have the ratio 0/0 in the equation
(7.7) for z = z
T
. To obtain the velocity W in such case we need to apply LHopitals
rule:
W =
d
2
F/dz
2
d
2
/dz
2
It remains to dene 1/(d/dz).
7.1.3 Transformation of a Circle into and Airfoil
We now consider the problem of generating airfoil-like proles by choosing a circle
and transformation function. The transformation from a circle to an airfoil may be
expressed as
(z) = z +

n=1
C
n
z
n
(7.8)
Such a function meets the requirements at innity: that the point at innity in the
-plane goes into the point at innity in the z-plane, and that the complex velocity
at innity be mapped into itself.
282
Derivative of the transformation (7.8) is
d
dz
= 1
C
1
z
2
2
C
2
z
3
3
C
3
z
4
(7.9)
This becomes innite at the point z = 0, that is, at the origin of the coordinates. It
may become zero at a number of points. Let us say that there are k such points and
let us denote them by z
1
, z
2
,. . . ,z
k
. These are then the solutions of the equation
_
1
z
1
z
__
1
z
2
z
_

_
1
z
k
z
_
=
d
dz
= 0
In the expansion of the left-hand side of this equation, the coecient of the 1/z
term is
k

i=1
z
i
This must equal the coecient of 1/z in the expansion given in (7.9). This latter
coecient is, however, zero. Therefore we should have
k

i=1
z
i
= 0 (7.10)
This means that the centroid of the critical points of the transformation is the origin
of coordinates in the z-plane.
We now have sucient information to choose the circle and construct the transfor-
mation. The procedure is as follows:
1. Choose k points in the z-plane to be the zeros of d/dz. We denote these
zeroes, as done above, by the indices z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
k
.
2. The transformation is then given by
d
dz
=
_
1
z
1
z
__
1
z
2
z
_

_
1
z
k
z
_
(7.11)
The integral of this equation may be expressed as
(z) = z +
C
1
z
+
C
2
z
2
+ +
C
k
z
k
(7.12)
where the complex coecients C
1
, C
2
, . . . , C
k
are determined by z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
k
.
3. Choose the centroid of the zeros of d/dz as the origin O of the coordinates.
4. Choose one of these zero points to be the trailing-edge point, and denote it by
z
T
.
5. Draw the circle passing through z
T
which enclose all other zeros of d/dz.
Denote the center of the circle by z
c
. The radius of the circle is then given by
a = [z
T
z
c
[
6. Choose the line O to z
T
as the real axis x. The imaginary y-axis is automati-
cally xed. Denoting by the argument of z
T
z
c
we have
ae

= z
T
z
c
So we have the parameter to x the value of the circulation.
283
7.1.4 The Joukowsky Transformation
We now apply preceding ideas to obtain the simplest transformation. For this pur-
pose we look for a function (z) whose derivatives has only two zeros. Denoting
them by z
1
and z
2
we should have, according to (7.10),
z
1
+ z
2
= 0
or
z
2
= z
1
Now, one of these points should be the trailing-edge point. Let us set
z
1
= z
T
(7.13)
Then it follows that
z
2
= z
T
(7.14)
Equation (7.11) now takes the form
d
dz
=
_
1
z
T
z
__
1 +
z
T
z
_
= 1
z
2
T
z
2
(7.15)
Integrating with respect to z we get the transformation
(z) = z +
z
2
T
z
(7.16)
Choosing the real axis along the vector z
T
we set
z
T
= C (7.17)
where C is real positive number. The transformation (7.16) then takes the form
(z) = z +
C
2
z
(7.18)
This simple transformation is known as Joukowsky transformation.
The points z = C and z = C map into the points = 2C and = 2C re-
spectively. Consider the circle described by z = Ce

, substituting into (7.16) we

get
= Ce

+ Ce

= 2C cos
Thus, the points on the circumference of this circle go into points on the real axis
along the strip 2C 2C. Figure (7.1) sows the circles and the result of
mapping. Let us now choose circle of the larger radius then C in z-plane, then in
the -plane we have
=
_
r +
C
2
r
_
cos +
_
r
C
2
r
_
sin
284
circle
circle
Figure 7.1: Mapping of the circles to the elliptic shapes.
If we denote to be the real part of = '(), and to be imaginary part of = ()
than we can eliminate by squaring and adding these terms to get

2
_
r +
C
2
r
_
2
+

2
_
r
C
2
r
_
2
= 1
what represents ellipse in the -plane.
We could now imagine that circle which simultaneously touch from outer side circle
[z[ = C, and from inside circle [z[ = r
o
, where r
o
> C, must have common point
with these circles also in the -plane, and that rest of points must lay between the
images of these circles. This is claried in the following subsection.
Joukowsky Airfoils
We now apply Joukowsky transformation to a circle. We choose the circle that pass
through point z
T
= C, and encloses the point z = z
T
= C. If, as before, z
c
denotes the center of the circle and a is its radius, we have
z
c
= C ae

= me

(7.19)
The quantities m and may be taken as parameters dening the circle. Generally
m and are chosen small.
To calculate velocity distribution around airfoil contour we need derivative (7.15)
and expression for velocity around circle (7.2). As we said, exception to this is the
trailing edge point for which we need to apply LHopitals rule
W =
d
2
F
dz
2
d
2

dz
2
=
2(U

+ V

)
a
2
(zz
c
)
3


2
1
(zz
c
)
2
2
z
2
T
z
3
(7.20)
285
So, we have all components of equation (7.6) ready. Pressure coecient can be
obtained from incompressible form of Bernouli equation
C
P
= 1
[W[
2
U
2

+ V
2

(7.21)
Example 7.1:
Write program to generate Joukowsky airfoil coordinates and to calculate pressure co-
ecient data. Suppose that circle pass through point C = (1, 0) and that this point
should be mapped to the trailing-edge. Take the radius of the circle to be a = 1.08,
and = 5

. Let U

= 1.0 and V

= 0.
Solution 7.1:
First we have to determine circulation so that velocity at the trailing edge is nite,
equation (7.3). Than we have to distribute NP points on the circle to be mapped to
the airfoil

i
=
2(i 1)
NP 1
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP
and
z
i
= z
c
+ ae

i
The rst and the last point of the circle fall on the point to be mapped on the trailing-
edge. Then, apply mapping of the circle to the airfoil-like shape

i
= z
i
+
C
2
z
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP
and calculate modulus of the mapping
d
dz
= 1
C
2
z
2
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP
where C = 1 for our example. Now, we have to calculate velocity W
i
around the circle
by using equation (7.2) for each of the points z
i
. Velocity at the airfoil-like shape is
obtained form W
i
when we divide it by modulus of transformation. Pressure coecient
is obtained from (7.21). Everything said so far is realized in the short program given
below.
! File : jouk.for
! Zlako Petrovic, 5-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Program calculates pressure distribution around Joukowski airfoil
! =============================================================
program JOUK
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex zc, z, zeta, zT, W, dzetadz, CircW, AirfW
real x(200), y(200), xi(200), eta(200), CP(200)
! Specify parameters
Call InputData(Uinf, Vinf, a, zT, zc, beta, NP)
dfi = TwoPi/(NP-1)
C = real(zT)
! Calculate circulation for
286
! stagnating point at zT
alpha = atan2(Vinf,Uinf)
UV = sqrt(Uinf**2+Vinf**2)
Gamma = -4*Pi*a*UV*sin(alpha+beta)
ximax = 0.0
ximin = 0.0
!
do i = 1, NP
! Points on the circle
fi = dfi*(i-1) - beta
z = zc + a*exp(cmplx(0.0,fi))
! Calculate airfoil coordinates
! and modulus of transformation
Call Joukowsky(C, z, zeta, dzetadz)
! Velocity around circle
W = CircW(Uinf, Vinf, a, zc, Gamma, z)
! Velocity around airfoil
W = AirfW(W, Uinf, Vinf, a, z, zc, Gamma, C, dzetadz)
! Pressure coefficient
CP(i) = 1 - abs(W)**2/(Uinf**2+Vinf**2)
! Remember coordinates
x(i) = real(z)
y(i) = aimag(z)
xi(i) = real(zeta)
eta(i) = aimag(zeta)
! Needed for chord length
ximax = max(ximax,xi(i))
ximin = min(ximin,xi(i))
end do
! Chord length
b = ximax-ximin
! Calculate CL, dCL/d Alpha
CL = 8*Pi*a/b*sin(alpha+beta)
dCLda = 8*Pi*a*cos(alpha+beta)/b
print 101, alpha*180./Pi,CL,dCLda
! Write data to a file
Call Output(x, y, xi, eta, CP, NP)
stop JOUK - End of run!
101 format( alpha = ,F5.1/ CL = ,F5.2/ dCL/da = ,F5.2//)
end
! *************************************************************
complex function AirfW(W,Uinf,Vinf, a, z, zc, Gamma, C, dzetadz)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex z, zc, W, dzetadz, WW
if(abs(dzetadz) .lt. 0.001) then
! LHopitals rule
WW = 2*cmplx(Uinf,Vinf)*a**2/(z-zc)**3
WW = WW + cmplx(0.0,Gamma/TwoPi)/(z-zc)**2
WW = WW/(2*C**2/z**3)
else
WW = W/dzetadz
end if
AirfW = WW
return
end
! *************************************************************
287
complex function CircW(Uinf, Vinf, a, zc, Gamma, z)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex z, zc
CircW = cmplx(Uinf,-Vinf) - cmplx(Uinf,Vinf)*a**2/(z-zc)**2
& - cmplx(0.0,Gamma/TwoPi)/(z-zc)
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine Joukowsky(C, z, zeta, dzetadz)
complex z, zeta, dzetadz
! Points on the airfoil
zeta = z + C**2/z
! Modulus of transformation
dzetadz = 1. - (C/z)**2
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine Output(x, y, xi, eta, CP, NP)
real x(NP), y(NP), xi(NP), eta(NP), CP(NP)
open(unit=1,file=JOUK.DAT,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) NP
101 format( variables = "xi", "eta", "Cp", "x", "y" /
& zone i =,I3)
write(1,111) (xi(i),eta(i),CP(i),x(i),y(i),i=1,NP)
111 format(5F12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine InputData(Uinf, Vinf, a, zT, zc, beta, NP)
complex zT, zc
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, toRad=Pi/180.)
zT = (1.0,0) ! Pozition of the trailing-edge
beta = 5. * toRad ! Small angle in radians
a = 1.08*zT ! Radius of the circle
zc=zT-a*exp(cmplx(0.0,-beta)) ! Center of the circle
V = 1.0 ! unidisturbed Velocity
! Number of points around airfoil
print 101
101 format( Number of points around airfoil : ,$)
read *, NP
! Angle of attack
print 111
111 format( Angle of attack : ,$)
read *, alpha
alpha = alpha*toRad
! Find undisturbed components
Uinf = V*cos(alpha)
Vinf = V*sin(alpha)
return
end
! *************************************************************
Pressure distribution for the data dened in the program for = 4

are given in the

gure (7.2).
288
-2 -1 0 1 2
xi
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
C
p
Joukowsky Airfoil
=4
Figure 7.2: Pressure coecient distribution around Joukowsky airfoil.
7.1.5 The KarmanTretz Airfoils
The Joukowsky family and the Mises family of airfoils all have cusped trailing edges.
Naturally it is not possible to construct such edges in practice. Hence one seeks a
transformation that will generate from a circle an airfoil prole whose trailing-edge
angle is not zero. A simple transformation of this kind is set up as follows.
We had seen that if z = z
o
is a critical point (specially zero of the rst derivative) of
the transformation = (z), then we may express (z) in a series expansion about
the point z
o
and write
(z) (z
o
) = (z z
o
)
n
f(z) (7.22)
where n is the order of the rst nonzero derivative of (z) at z
o
, and f(z) and its
rst derivative does not become zero or innite at z
o
. At z
o
angles are not preserved
but are multiplied by the factor n.
In application to the airfoil problem, the trailing edge point z = z
T
is a zero of
d/dz. Hence the transformation may be expressed in the form
(z) (z
T
) = (z z
T
)
n
f(z) (7.23)
Now, if we choose only the zeros for d/dz, as done in the case of the Joukowsky
transformation, the other zero is at the point
z = z
T
because the origin of coordinates is to be at the centroid of the zeros. Then the
transformation may also be expressed as
(z) (z
T
) = (z + z
T
)
n
f(z) (7.24)
Dividing corresponding sides of equations (7.23) and (7.24) we obtain
(z) (z
T
)
(z) + (z
T
)
=
(z z
T
)
n
(z + z
T
)
n
289
Setting
T
= (z
T
) and
T
= (z
T
), we gave
(z)
T
(z) +
T
=
(z z
T
)
n
(z + z
T
)
n
(7.25)
This equation can be also expressed in the form
=

T
nz
T
z +
n
2
1
3
z
2
T
z
+ (7.26)
We require that the transformation should be such that for z , d/dz = 1. To
satisfy this requirement, from (7.26), we should set

T
= nz
T
(7.27)
Then the transformation takes the form
= z +
n
2
1
3
z
2
T
z
+
or the form
nz
T
+ nz
T
=
(z z
T
)
n
(z + z
T
)
n
(7.28)
Finally, if we set z
T
= C, where C is a real positive number, we may write this
equation as
nC
+ nC
=
(z C)
n
(z + C)
n
(7.29)
This is the simplest transformation that will produce a sharp trailing edge with a
nite angle. The trailing-edge angle is given by
= (2 n)
If the trailing edge is required to be cusp, we set = 0, whence equation (7.29)
reduces to
2C
+ 2C
=
(z C)
2
(z + C)
2
(7.30)
what is exactly Joukowsky transformation we already studied. So equation (7.29)
is the simplest extension of Joukowsky transformation which generates airfoil-like
shapes with nite trailing-edge angles. The airfoils generated by it are known as the
Karm anTretz family of airfoils.
Performing logarithm on both sides of equation (7.29) and dierentiating we can
express modulus of transformation in the form
d
dz
=

2
n
2
C
2
z
2
C
2
(7.31)
We also express in terms of z from equation (7.29)
= nC
1 +
_
zC
z+C
_
n
1
_
zC
z+C
_
n
(7.32)
290
Example 7.2:
Write program to generate KarmanTretz airfoil coordinates and to calculate pressure
coecient data. Suppose that circle pass through point C = (1, 0) and that this point
should be mapped to the trailing-edge. Take the radius of the circle to be a = 1.08,
and = 5

. Let V

= 1.0 is magnitude of undisturbed velocity and = 4 deg be the

angle of attack. Specify parameter n = 1.97, so = 0.03.
Solution 7.2:
The solution procedure closely follows one given for Joukowsky airfoils. We changed
little bit the the input data. Instead of components of undisturbed velocity we read
magnitude of it and angle of attack, then u

= V

cos and v

= V

sin .
The only essential dierence is the subroutine which calculates airfoil-like coordinates and
modulus of transformation. In this program that is done in the subroutine KarmanTrefftz,
by employing equations (7.31) and (7.32). The following listing is possible solution of
our problem.
! File : Treftz.for
! Zlako Petrovic, 6-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Program calculates pressure distribution around Karman-Trefftz airfoil
! =================================================================
program TREFFTZ
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex zc, z, zeta, zT, W, dzetadz, AirfW, CircW
real x(200), y(200), xi(200), eta(200), CP(200), n
! Specify parameters
Call InputData(V, alpha, a, n, zT, zc, beta, NP)
dfi = TwoPi/(NP-1)
C = real(zT)
! Calculate circulation for
! stagnating point at zT
Gamma = -4*Pi*a*V*sin(alpha+beta)
Uinf = V*cos(alpha)
Vinf = V*sin(alpha)
ximax = 0.0
ximin = 0.0
!
do i = 1, NP
! Points on the circle
fi = dfi*(i-1) - beta
z = zc + a*exp(cmplx(0.0,fi))
! Points on the airfoil
Call KarmanTrefftz(n, C, z, zeta, dzetadz)
! Velocity around circle
W = CircW(Uinf, Vinf, a, zc, Gamma, z)
! Velocity around airfoil
W = AirfW(W, Uinf, Vinf, a, z, zc, Gamma, C, dzetadz)
! Pressure coefficient
CP(i) = 1 - abs(W)**2/(Uinf**2+Vinf**2)
! Remember coordinates
x(i) = real(z)
y(i) = aimag(z)
xi(i) = real(zeta)
291
eta(i) = aimag(zeta)
! Needed for chord length
ximax = max(ximax,xi(i))
ximin = min(ximin,xi(i))
end do
! Chord length
b = ximax-ximin
! Calculate CL, dCL/d Alpha
CL = 8*Pi*a/b*sin(alpha+beta)
dCLda = 8*Pi*a*cos(alpha+beta)/b
print 101, alpha*180./Pi,CL,dCLda
! Write data to a file
Call Output(x, y, xi, eta, CP, NP)
stop Treftz - End of run!
101 format( alpha = ,F5.1/ CL = ,F5.2/ dCL/da = ,F5.2//)
end
! *************************************************************
complex function AirfW(W,Uinf,Vinf, a, z, zc, Gamma, C, dzetadz)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex z, zc, W, dzetadz, WW
if(abs(dzetadz) .lt. 0.001) then
! LHopitals rule
WW = 2*cmplx(Uinf,Vinf)*a**2/(z-zc)**3
WW = WW + cmplx(0.0,Gamma/TwoPi)/(z-zc)**2
WW = WW/(2*C**2/z**3)
else
WW = W/dzetadz
end if
AirfW = WW
return
end
! *************************************************************
complex function CircW(Uinf, Vinf, a, zc, Gamma, z)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
complex z, zc
CircW = cmplx(Uinf,-Vinf) - cmplx(Uinf,Vinf)*a**2/(z-zc)**2
& - cmplx(0.0,Gamma/TwoPi)/(z-zc)
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine Output(x, y, xi, eta, CP, NP)
real x(NP), y(NP), xi(NP), eta(NP), CP(NP)
open(unit=1,file=TREF.DAT,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) NP
101 format( variables = "xi", "eta", "Cp", "x", "y" /
& zone i =,I3)
write(1,111) (xi(i),eta(i),CP(i),x(i),y(i),i=1,NP)
111 format(5F12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine InputData(V, alpha, a, n, zT, zc, beta, NP)
complex zT, zc
real n
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, toRad=Pi/180.)
292
zT = (1.0,0) ! Pozition of the trailing-edge
beta = 5. * toRad ! Small angle in radians
a = 1.08*zT ! Radius of the circle
zc=zT-a*exp(cmplx(0.0,-beta)) ! Center of the circle
V = 1.0 ! Uniform velocity
tau = 5. ! Trailing-edge angle
n = 2. - tau/180. ! Mapping parameter -- f(tau)
! Number of points around airfoil
print 100
100 format( Number of points around airfoil : ,$)
read *, NP
print 110
110 format( Angle of attack : ,$)
read *, alpha
alpha = alpha*toRad ! Angle of attack
return
end
! *************************************************************
subroutine KarmanTrefftz(n, C, z, zeta, dzetadz)
complex z, zeta, dzetadz, zz
real n, C
zz = ((z-C)/(z+C))**n
! Airfoil coordinate
zeta = n*C*(1. + zz)/(1. - zz)
! Modulus of transformation
dzetadz = (zeta**2 - (n*C)**2)/(z**2-C**2)
return
end
The shape of the Karman-Tretz airfoil for the input data dened in the program is
shown in the gure (7.3).
Figure 7.3: K arm anTretz airfoil.
7.1.6 The Point-Vortex Solution
Let us now summarize the procedure of calculation basic airfoil parameters when
the point vortices are used to simulate ow about airfoil, gure (7.4). Note again
that we dont need to solve Laplaces equation

x
2
+

2

y
2
= 0
293
since it is already solved, because we are combining singular solutions, and because
Laplaces equation is linear one. We only have to worry not to place singularities in
the ow eld. Placing singularities inside airfoil contour or on it doesnt brake this
requirement.
Figure 7.4: Airfoil contour approximated by point vortices.
The rst step is to read input parameters which dene airfoil shape: number of points
which dene that shape, and coordinates of the points (x
i
, y
i
), i = 1, 2, . . . , NP.
It will be assumed that the points are dened in anti-clockwise direction. We must
issue the warning that the rst and the last point of the airfoil must not coincide
since they will then generate the same inuence coecients what will make our
system of equations singular, since we will have two rows of the system of equations
with identical coecients. So we must have small gap at the trailing edge. We also
need to specify undisturbed velocity V

and angle of attack, (). Thus

u

= V

cos , v

= V

sin . (7.33)
In the step two we have to dene control point coordinates and components of the
unit normal to the contour of the airfoil at the control points. We assume that the
airfoil shape is approximated by the strait-line segments drawn between (x
i
, y
i
) and
(x
i+1
, y
i+1
), obviously there are one segment less than number of points. Also there
are one control point less then the number of coordinates (x
i
, y
i
)
xc
i
=
x
i
+ x
i+1
2
, yc
i
=
y
i
+ y
i+1
2
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1. (7.34)
To calculate unit normal we need rst the unit vector in the direction of the panel
segment
t
i
=
_
(x
i+1
x
i
)
2
+ (y
i+1
y
i
)
2
and
t
x
i
=
x
i+1
x
i
t
i
, t
y
i
=
y
i+1
y
i
t
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1
The unit normal is then obtained from the expression
n
i
=

k

t =

k
0 0 1
t
x
i
t
y
i
0

= t
y
i
+ t
x
i
= n
x
i
+ n
y
i
(7.35)
for i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1.
The third step is consisted of determination two matrices u
i,j
, and v
i,j
which repre-
sents induced velocity components at the control point i due to the unit point vortex
294
at the panel-segment edge j. Obviously there are NP 1 NP such values, since
there are one control point less the number of the edges of the strait-line segments. It
is advisable to place induced velocity calculation in one subroutine with parameters
(xc
i
, yc
i
, x
j
, y
j
, u
i,j
, v
i,j
), where (xc
i
, yc
i
)are coordinates of the control point (x
j
, y
j
)
are the coordinate of the point vortex placed at the j-th panel edge, and u
i,j
, v
i,j
are induced velocity components. The induced velocity components due to the unit
vortex are calculated as follows
r
2
i,j
= (xc
i
x
j
)
2
+ (yc
i
y
j
)
2
u
i,j
=
yc
i
y
j
r
2
i,j
(7.36)
v
i,j
=
xc
i
x
j
r
2
i,j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1 , j = 1, 2, . . . , NP.
The fourth step is consisted of generation Aerodynamic inuence matrix and right-
hand side of the system of equations. Since any combination of the point vortices
will satisfy Laplaces equation the system of equations is build from the boundary
conditions of the problem

V
i
n
i
= 0 (7.37)
where

V
i
=

V

+
NP

j=1
(u
i,j
+ v
i,j
)
j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1 (7.38)
where
j
are unknown values of the point vortex strength at point (x
j
, y
j
) and
u
i,j
and v
i,j
are induced velocities (7.36) at the control point (xc
i
, yc
i
), due to unit
strength vortex placed at (x
j
, y
j
). If we substitute this equation into (7.37) and
substitute (7.35) instead of n
i
we get
NP

j=1
(u
i,j
n
x
i
+ v
i,j
n
y
i
)
j
= u

n
x
i
v

n
y
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1 (7.39)
what represents the system of NP 1 equations for NP unknowns. Let us denote
a
i,j
= u
i,j
n
x
i
+ v
i,j
n
y
i
, and: b
i
= u

n
x
i
v

n
y
i
then we have generated so far everything, but last row of the system of equations
for the unknown strengths of the point vortices
_

_
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
1,NP
a
2,1
a
2,2
a
2,NP
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
NP1,1
a
NP1,2
a
NP1,NP
0 0 0
_

_
_

2
.
.
.

NP1

NP
_

_
=
_

_
u

n
x
1
v

n
y
1
u

n
x
2
v

n
y
2
.
.
.
u

n
x
NP1
v

n
y
NP1
0
_

_
The last row of the equation system is lled from the Kutta-Joukowsky condition.
Numerical equivalent of the Kutta-Joukowsky condition is given as

1
+
NP
= 0 (7.40)
295
which states that the vortex strength at the trailing edge should be zero. Thus, our
complete system of equations looks
_

_
a
1,1
a
1,2
a
1,NP1
a
1,NP
a
2,1
a
2,2
a
2,NP1
a
2,NP
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
NP1,1
a
NP1,2
a
NP1,NP1
a
NP1,NP
1 0 0 1
_

_
_

2
.
.
.

NP1

NP
_

_
=
_

_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
NP1
0
_

_
(7.41)
Next step (fth) is to solve the system of equations (7.41). We use library routines
for this purpose so we will not devote space for this step.
The sixth step is to calculate tangential velocities at the control points, for the
now known point vortex strengths. Since we have found these strengths from the
condition of zero-th normal component of the velocities at the control points, we
need to nd total velocities which are at the same time tangential components of
velocity at the control points. Thus

V
i
=

V

+
NP

j=1
(u
i,j
+ v
i,j
)
j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1
or
U
i
= u

+
N

j=1
u
i,j

j
,
V
i
= v

+
N

j=1
v
i,j

j
, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1.
(7.42)
The pressure coecient is determined from
C
P
i
= 1
U
2
i
+ V
2
i
V
2

, i = 1, 2, . . . , NP 1. (7.43)
The last step (seventh) is to calculate remaining aerodynamic parameters by inte-
grating pressure distribution. We show alternative approach for the lift coecient
determination. Total circulation about airfoil is obtained after summing all vortex
strengths
=
NP

j=1

j
(7.44)
From Kutta-Joukowsky theorem we have
1
/
2
V
2

SC
L
= V

or
C
L
=
2
V

(7.45)
where characteristic area S is replaced by 1, and is the chord length of the airfoil.
It remains only to plot the obtained results.
296
Example 7.3:
Write the program which will be capable to calculate aerodynamic parameters for the
arbitrary airfoil in the incompressible inviscid ow.
Solution 7.3:
The program which follows fulll all what is said about solution procedure in this sub-
section.
! File: PMV.FOR
! Z. Petrovic, 7-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Point vortex simulation of the flow about airfoil
! ****************************************************************
program PMV
parameter (MP=60,MM=MP*MP)
real x(MP), y(MP) ! Panel edge coordinates
real xc(MP), yc(MP) ! Control point coordinates
real nx(MP), ny(MP) ! Unit normal components
real CP(MP) ! Pressure coefficient
real uij(MM), vij(MM) ! Induced velocity components
real A(MM), b(MP) ! Influence matrix and RHS
real Gamma(MP) ! Vortex strengths
!
equivalence (Gamma(1), b(1))
! This is necessary because
common /c1/ uij ! of the bad compiler
common /c2/ vij
common /c3/ a
!
Call Spec_Input(NP, x, y, alpha, VV)
! Undisturbed components
Uinf = VV*cos(alpha)
Vinf = VV*sin(alpha)
! Control points and nx, ny
Call Define_Geometry(NP, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny, bb)
! Induced velocity components
Call Induced_Vel(NP, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
! Aerodynamic matrix and RHS
Call Aero(NP, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
! Solve system of equations
Call SIMQ(A,Gamma,NP,KS)
! Is solution O.K.
if(KS .ne. 0) then
stop *** Singular matrix *** !
end if
! Calculate CP
Call CP_Calculation(NP, uij,vij, x,y, bb,Gamma, Uinf,Vinf, CP,CL)
! Write data for plotting
Call Output(NP, xc, CP, Gamma)
print 101, alpha*180/acos(-1.0), CL
101 format( alpha = ,F10.3/ CL = ,F10.3//)
stop PMV - End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Spec_Input(NP, x, y, alpha, V)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, ToRad=Pi/180.)
297
real x(*), y(*)
character FileName*20
!
alpha = 4.*ToRad ! Angle of attack
V = 1.0 ! Undisturbed Velocity
!
print 101
101 format( File with airfoil coordinates : ,$)
read (A), FileName
open(unit=1,file=FileName,form=formatted,status=old)
read(1,111) NN
NP = NN - 2 ! Trailing edge must NOT be
111 format(/9x,I3) ! closed so
read(1,(1x)) ! Skip first point
read(1,121) (x(i),y(i),i=1,NP)
121 format(2F12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Define_Geometry(NP, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny, b)
real x(NP), y(NP), xc(NP), yc(NP), nx(NP), ny(NP)
xmax = x(1)
xmin = x(NP)
do i = 1, NP-1
! Control point coordinates
xc(i) = (x(i) + x(i+1))/2
yc(i) = (y(i) + y(i+1))/2
xmin = min(xmin, x(i))
! Unit normal components
tx = x(i+1) - x(i)
ty = y(i+1) - y(i)
t = sqrt(tx**2 + ty**2)
nx(i) = -ty / t
ny(i) = tx / t
end do
! Chord length
b = xmax-xmin
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced_Vel(NP, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
real x(NP), y(NP), xc(NP), yc(NP), uij(NP,NP), vij(NP,NP)
! For each control point
do i = 1, NP-1
! From each vortex
do j = 1, NP
Call Vortex(xc(i), yc(i), x(j), y(j), u, v)
uij(i,j) = u
vij(i,j) = v
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Vortex(xc, yc, x, y, u, v)
298
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi)
xx = xc - x
yy = yc - y
rr = xx*xx + yy*yy
u = yy /(TwoPi * rr)
v = -xx /(TwoPi * rr)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(NP, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
real A(NP,NP), b(NP), uij(NP,NP), vij(NP,NP), nx(NP), ny(NP)
do i = 1, NP-1
b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i) - Vinf*ny(i)
do j = 1, NP
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i)
end do
end do
! Kutta-Joukowsky condition
A(NP,1) = 1.0
A(NP,NP) = 1.0
b(NP) = 0.0
do j = 2, NP-1
A(NP,j) = 0.0
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine CP_Calculation(NP,uij,vij,x,y,b,Gamma,Uinf,Vinf,CP,CL)
real uij(NP,NP), vij(NP,NP), Gamma(NP), CP(NP), x(NP), y(NP)
VV = Uinf**2 + Vinf**2
! Kutta-Condition if the
! airfoil is closed
Gamma(1) = 0.0
Gamma(NP) = 0.0
Gam = 0.0
do i = 1, NP-1
u = Uinf
v = Vinf
do j = 1, NP
u = u + uij(i,j)*Gamma(j)
v = v + vij(i,j)*Gamma(j)
end do
t = sqrt((x(i+1)-x(i))**2 + (y(i+1)-y(i))**2)
gh = (Gamma(i)+Gamma(i+1))/(4*t)
ug = gh*(x(i+1)-x(i))/t
vg = gh*(y(i+1)-y(i))/t
u = u - ug
v = v - vg
CP(i) = 1. - (u**2 + v**2)/VV
! Total circulation
Gam = Gam + Gamma(i)
end do
CL = 2*Gam/(b*sqrt(VV))
return
end
! ****************************************************************
299
subroutine Output(NP, xc, CP, Gamma)
real xc(NP), CP(NP), Gamma(NP)
open(unit=1,file=PMV.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) NP-1
! Tecplot header
101 format( variables = "x", "Cp", "G"/ zone i= ,I3)
write(1,111) (xc(i), CP(i), Gamma(i), i = 1, NP)
close(unit=1)
111 format(3F12.3)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include simq.for
7.1.7 Solution using Constant-Strength Vortex Distribution
We must issue immediate warning that this distribution leads to ill conditioned
matrix, so it is not of practical use, but we develop here procedure as a logical
extension of the point vortex solution procedure. This development will be a nice
introduction to linearly-varying vorticity distribution solution. Comparing this pro-
cedure to the previous one we nd a lot of common points. There are two serious
weakness of this method why it is unusable for applications:
1. The impossibility to specify Kutta-Joukowsky condition. Since constant vor-
ticity distribution is unknown of the panel we have the same number of un-
knowns as we have the number of control points. There are no room for
additional condition to x the value of circulation at the trailing-edge.
2. The property of the constant vorticity distribution which does not induce
velocity in normal direction when the control point is in the middle of the
panel. The consequence is that the generated aerodynamic inuence matrix
have all zeros along main diagonal. This property disqualify the matrix for the
solution of the large system of equations. Some usable results can be obtained
if we move control point from the middle of panel to some side, but in this
way we can obtain only the solution for symmetric airfoils.
Let us review the necessary steps for this method.
Step one is exactly the same as one we gave in previous subsection. We need to read
the number of points (NP) by which the contour is dened, the coordinates of the
lifting contour, intensity of the undisturbed velocity, and angle of attack. Never-
theless, this step is greatly revised in the following program to allow determination
of the pressure distributions around airfoils of the NACA series, besides ones we
generated analytically. After competition of this step we will have:
1. N the number of points by which airfoil is dened.
2. (X
i
, Y
i
) , i = 1, 2, . . . , N coordinates of the airfoil given from the upper
trailing edge in the anti-clockwise direction. Capital letters denote coordinates
in the global coordinate system.
300
3. Angle of attack.
4. V

Velocity of the uniform ow eld.

In step two we calculate control point coordinates and components of the unit normal
at the control point in the exact way we done in the previous section. Actually we
use the same subroutine.
Step three is greatly revised. The reason is that we have expressions for induced
velocities when the panel coincides with x-axis. Since in the practice this is rarely
the case we need coordinate transformation to place the panel and control point in
the local coordinate system. Than we need to calculate induced velocities parallel
to local coordinates, and nally to determine the induced velocity components in
the global coordinate system. Expressions for induced velocities, in local coordinate
system, are given by equations (5.70) for arbitrary position of the control point
(x, y), and with equation (5.71) for the case when control point is at the x-axis such
that x (x
1
, x
2
), we repeat these expressions for reference
u =
1
2
(
2

1
)
v =
1
4
ln
r
2
2
r
2
1
(7.46)
where is the strength of vorticity distribution, and

1
= arctan
y
x x
1
,
2
= arctan
y
x x
2
and
r
2
1
= (x x
1
)
2
+ y
2
, r
2
2
= (x x
2
)
2
+ y
2
.
where (x, y), x
1
, and x
2
are the coordinates in the local coordinate system. For the
case when y = 0, and at the same time x
1
< x < x
2
the former expressions reduces
to
u(x, 0) =
1
2
v(x, 0) =
1
2
ln

x x
2
x x
1

(7.47)
In the gure (7.5) we show the rst sub-step the transformation of coordinates
between global and local coordinate system. The x-axis of the local coordinate
system is directed form the point (X
i
, Y
i
) to the point (X
i+1
, Y
i+1
). With capital
symbols we denote coordinates dened in global coordinate system. Let us express
the unit vector of this axis in the terms of global coordinate system unit vectors.
Let

t = (X
i+1
X
i
) + (Y
i+1
Y
i
)
be the vector along x-axis and t is its length
t =
_
(X
i+1
X
i
)
2
+ (X
i+1
X
i
)
2
, t
x
= X
i+1
X
i
, t
y
= Y
i+1
Y
i
301
Figure 7.5: Sketch for the transformation between coordinate systems.
then

=
x
+
y
(7.48)
is the unit vector along x-axis, where =

t/t, and
x
= t
x
/t and
y
= t
y
/t are
the components of unit vector along x-axis. Components of the unit vector

are
determined by

=

k

=

k
0 0 1

x

y
0

=
y
+
x
(7.49)
Let us return to our coordinate transformation. With

R = X + Y we denote the
position of the control point in the global coordinate system, with r = x

+y

the
position of the same point in the local coordinate system, and with

R
o
= X
i
+ Y
i

the position of the coordinate origin. Note that we place coordinate origin of the
local coordinate system to coincide with the rst point of the panel, so x
1
= 0 the
x
2
coordinate is simply the distance between points (X
i
, Y
i
) and (Y
i+1
, Y
i+1
)
x
2
=
_
(X
i+1
X
i
)
2
+ (Y
i+1
Y
i
)
2
t
Since the control point is dened in two ways it must be

R =

R
o
+r
or in component form
(X X
i
) + (Y Y
i
) = x

+ y

(7.50)
We obtain x coordinate in the local coordinate system when we multiply this equa-
tion by

, and y coordinate when we multiply it by

. Or in matrix form
_
x
y
_
=
_








_ _
X X
i
Y Y
i
_
or when we substitute expressions (7.48) and 7.49 in this equation to get
_
x
y
_
=
_

x

y

y

x
_ _
X X
i
Y Y
i
_
(7.51)
We use x
1
, x
2
and (x, y) coordinates to calculate local velocity components u and
v. Transformation of these components in global components is done in reverse way
302
to equation (7.51). We use here property of transformation matrix that its inverse
matrix is equal to its transpose matrix. Thus,
_
U
V
_
=
_

x

y

y

x
_ _
u
v
_
(7.52)
where U and V are induced velocity components in the global coordinate system,
and u and v are induced velocities calculated in the local coordinate system.
The remaining steps follow exactly the procedure described for the calculation of
the ow-led by using point vortices. The only dierence is how we could calculate
circulation around airfoil. By denition circulation is given by
=
_
C

V dr
what could be approximated as
=
NP1

V
i

t
where

t = (X
i+1
X
i
)+(Y
i+1
Y
i
) is the vector along panel side,

V
i
is the velocity
at the control point, minus sign comes from the way we dene our contour (anti-
clock wise direction) since that numbering is in opposite direction the circulation is
dened. Once circulation is dened we can calculate the lift coecient as
C
L
=
2
V

where, again, is the chord length, V

is the free-stream velocity, and is circulation

around airfoil.
Note again that the results obtained using this approach are of poor quality. Program
which follows realize what is said in this subsection.
! File: pmvv.for
! Z. Petrovic, 10-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Calulation of theflow about lifting bodies - constant strength vorticity
! ================================================================
program PMVV
parameter (MM=99, MMM=MM*MM)
real x(MM), y(MM) ! Panel edge coordinates
real xc(MM), yc(MM) ! Control point coordinates
real A(MMM), b(MM), G(MM) ! Aerodynamic influence mtrix
real nx(MM), ny(MM) ! Unit normals at control pts
real uij(MMM), vij(MMM) ! Induced velocities due to
! unit strength source distr.
equivalence (b(1), G(1))
common /c1/ A
common /c2/ uij
common /c3/ vij
!
Call Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
Uinf = VV*cos(alpha)
Vinf = VV*sin(alpha)
303
! Control point and unit normal
Call Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
! Calculate induced velocity
Call Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
! Influence matrix
Call Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, N-1, A, b)
! Solve the equation system
Call SIMQ(A, G, N-1, Ierr)
Call Test(N-1, xc, G)
if(Ierr .ne. 0) then
stop *** Singular Influence Matrix *** !
end if
! Calculate pressure coeff.
Call CP_Calc(N, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP)
! Prepare results for plotting
Call Output(xc, CP, N-1)
stop PMVV - End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Test(N, x, y)
real x(N), y(N)
open(unit=1,file=test.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,101) N
101 format(variables = "x", "y"/zone i =,I3)
write(1,105) (x(i),y(i),i=1,N)
close(unit=1)
105 format(2F12.3)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine CP_Calc(N, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP)
real G(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N), CP(N)
VV = Uinf**2 + Vinf**2
! For each control point
do i = 1, N-1
u = Uinf
v = Vinf
! From each panel
do j = 1, N-1
u = u + uij(i,j)*G(j)
v = v + vij(i,j)*G(j)
end do
CP(i) = 1.0 - (u**2 + v**2)/VV
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(x, CP, NA)
real x(NA), CP(NA)
open(unit=1, file=PMVV.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) NA
100 format( variables = "x", "G"/ zone i=,I3)
write(1,110) (x(i),CP(i), i=1,NA)
110 format(2f12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
304
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, NA, A, b)
real uij(N,N), vij(N,N), nx(N), ny(N), A(NA,NA), b(NA)
do i = 1, NA ! For each control point
b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i) -Vinf*ny(i)
do j = 1, NA ! For each panel
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i)
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
do j = 1, N-1 ! For each panel
xf = x(j)
yf = y(j)
xs = x(j+1)
ys = y(j+1)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, uL, vL)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Translates local velocity
! components (uL,vL) to global
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
! rotation cosines
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Global velocity components
u = uL*cost - vL*sint
v = uL*sint + vL*cost
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc,yc, x1,x2, x,y)
! Transforms the panel and
! contrlo point coordinates
! from global to local CooSys
305
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Panel coordinates
x1 = 0.0
x2 = s
! Control point coordinates
x = cost*(xc-xf) + sint*(yc-yf)
y = -sint*(xc-xf) + cost*(yc-yf)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
Subroutine Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), nx(N), ny(N)
o = 0.8
oo = 1-o
do i = 1, N-1
if(i .gt. N/2) o = oo
xc(i) = o*x(i) + x(i+1)*(1.-o)
yc(i) = o*y(i) + y(i+1)*(1.-o)
tx = x(i+1) - x(i)
ty = y(i+1) - y(i)
t = sqrt(tx**2 + ty**2)
nx(i) = -ty/t
ny(i) = tx/t
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine cv2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
! Calculates induced velocities
! u and v at the point (x,y)
! due to constant unit-strength
! VORTEX distribution along x-
! axis between x1,x2.
!
if(abs(y).lt.0.001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
! x is between x1 and x2
u = -0.5
v = log(abs((x-x2)/(x-x1)))/TwoPi
else
u = (atan2(y,x-x2)-atan2(y,x-x1))/TwoPi
v = log(((x-x2)**2+y**2)/((x-x1)**2+y**2))/FourPi
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, ToRad = Pi/180.)
character FileName*20
real x(*), y(*)
!
! Angle of attack and Vinf
306
VV = 1.0
alpha = 4.0
alpha = alpha*ToRad ! Convert to radians
!
print 100
100 format( 10x,1- NACA airfoil /
& 10x,2- Joukowsky or Trefftz airfoil ///
& 10x,Your choice: ,$)
read *, Ichoice
if(Ichoice .eq. 1) then
! NACA 4 or 5 digit airfoils
print 131
131 format( Number of the points around airfoil : ,$)
read *, N
N = N/2*2+1 ! Make it odd number
print 141
141 format( Chord length : ,$)
read *, b
print 151
151 format( NACA airfoil : ,$)
read *, NACA
dt = Pi/(N/2) ! Angle increment
do i = 1, N/2
xx = ( 1. + cos(dt*(i-1)) )/2
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(i) = xg*b
y(i) = yg*b
x(N-i+1) = xd*b
y(N-i+1) = yd*b
end do
xx = 0.0
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(N/2+1) = xg*b
y(N/2+1) = yg*b
else if(Ichoice .eq. 2) then
! Trefftz or Joukowsky airfoil
! Analytical pressure distri-
! bution exists.
print 101
101 format( File with airfoil coordinates : ,$)
read (A), FileName
open(unit=1, file=FileName, form=formatted, status=old)
read(1,111) N
111 format(/9x,I3)
read(1,121) (x(i), y(i), i = 1, N)
121 format(2F12.3)
close(unit=1)
else
stop *** Wrong choice ***
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include simq.for
include naca45.for
307
This program needs subroutine for the generation of NACA airfoil coordinates. We
give this subroutine without explanation.
SUBROUTINE NACA45(NACA, X, XG, YG, YGp, XD, YD, YDp)
real mt(5), kt(5), k1, m
! Calculates coordinates and slope for the
! 4 and 5 digit NACA airfoils
integer NACA ! Designation of NACA airfoil 0012=12
real X ! We need data for this coordinate
real XG, YG, YGp ! Data for upper surface of the airfoil
real XD, YD, YDp ! Data for lower surface of the airfoil
!
data mt /0.0580, 0.1260, 0.2025, 0.2900, 0.3910/
data kt /361.4, 51.64, 15.957, 6.643, 3.23/
im = NACA/1000
m = 0.01*im ! Maximum ordinate of the camberline (4)
ip = NACA/100 - 10*im
p = 0.1*ip ! Position of the maximum camberline (4)
if(p.eq.0.0) p = -1.
ideb = NACA - 1000*im - 100*ip
t = 0.01*ideb ! Relative thickness of the airfoil
yt = t*(1.4845*sqrt(X)-0.63*X-1.758*X**2+1.4215*X**3-0.5075*X**4)
!
if(x.gt.1.e-37) then
ytp = t*(.74225/sqrt(X) -0.63-3.516*X +4.264*X**2 -2.03*X**3)
else
ytp = 1.0E37
end if
!
if(im .gt. 9) then ! Five digit airfoil
m = mt(im-20)
k1 = kt(im-20)
if(X .gt. m) then
yc = k1*m**3*(1-X)/6 ! Camberline ordinate
ycp = -k1*m**3/6 ! Slope of the camberline
ycs = 0 ! yc"
teta = atan(ycp) ! Angle wich corresponds to
else ! slope
yc = k1*(X**3-3*m*X**2+m**2*(3-m)*X)/6
ycp = k1*(3*X**2-6*m*X+m**2*(3-m))/6
ycs = k1*(X - m)
teta = atan(ycp)
end if
else ! Four digit airfoil
if(X .le. p) then
yc = m*(2*p*X - X**2) / p**2
ycp = 2*m*(p - X) / p**2
ycs = -2*m/p**2
teta = atan(ycp)
else
yc = m*((1-2*p) + 2*p*X - X**2)/(1-p)**2
ycp = 2*m*(p - X)/(1-p)**2
ycs = -2*m/(1-p)**2
teta = atan(ycp)
end if
308
Figure 7.6: Decomposition of trapesoidal distribution to constant vortex distribution
and linearly varying vortex distribution.
end if
! Upper surface data
XG = X - yt*sin(teta)
YG = yc + yt*cos(teta)
YGp = ycp + ytp*cos(teta) - yt*sin(teta)*ycs/(1 + ycp**2)
! Lower surface data
XD = X + yt*sin(teta)
YD = yc - yt*cos(teta)
YDp = ycp - ytp*cos(teta) + yt*sin(teta)*ycs/(1 + ycp**2)
!
return
end
7.1.8 Linearly Varying Vortex Panel Application
Constant strength panel we extend in this subsection to linearly varying vortex
panel. We keep the same overall structure of the solution method and concentrate
only on dierences. All the steps mentioned for the constant panel vorticity distri-
bution are the same except the step in which we calculate induced velocities. That
step require additional extension.
We now have panel edge variables instead of panel variables, so there are one un-
known more than we have control points. Thus, we need Kutta-Joukowsky condition
to close the equation system. Compared to the constant strength vorticity distri-
bution procedure we need the extension of the step where we generate aerodynamic
inuence matrix, but that step is equal to the step described by the point vortex
approximation.
Let us now consider what is really new for this panels. Figure (7.6) shows, al-
ready explained decomposition of the trapesoidal vorticity distribution to constant
vorticity distribution and triangular vorticity distribution.
We have considered constant vorticity inuence given by equations (7.46) and (7.47).
Now we need to extend this to the linearly varying distribution. In gure (7.7) we
show that value at some panel edge i generally belongs to two panels, so to obtain
inuence of this value to the some control point we need to consider both panels.
The rst panel have at the edge i 1 value of vorticity 0, and at edge i vorticity
is equal to 1 what corresponds to x
1
and x
2
respectively. For the panel between
edge i and i + 1 at the edge x
1
we have value of vorticity 1 and at edge x
2
we have
309
Figure 7.7: Value of the vorticity at node i is common to two neighboring panels.
zero. This is known the gure (7.8), from which it is clear that we need to perform
similar calculation twice (for each) panel in order to obtained contribution of the
unit vorticity at arbitrary edge i. Exception to this are rst and last edge. Both
edges belongs only to one panel.
Figure 7.8: Inuence of the edge i must be calculated by considering both panels
which share this edge.
First we consider the case shown in the gure (7.9). Vorticity distribution for this
case is given by
() =

x
2
x
1

x
1
x
2
x
1
when = x
2
vorticity (x
2
) = 1, and when = x
1
then (x
1
) = 0. Substituting
this expression for vorticity strength in the equation for inuence velocities we get
u =
1
x
2
x
1
_
_
y
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
_
_

x
1
x
2
x
1
_
_
y
2
x
2
_
x
1
d
(x )
2
+ y
2
_
_
(7.53)
v =
1
x
2
x
1
_
_
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x )d
(x )
2
+ y
2
_
_

x
1
x
2
x
1
_
_
1
2
x
2
_
x
1
(x ) d
(x )
2
+ y
2
_
_
(7.54)
or
u =
1
x
2
x
1
u

x
1
x
2
x
1
u
c
v =
1
x
2
x
1
v

x
1
x
2
x
1
v
c
(7.55)
where u

and v

represents contribution from the triangular distribution given by

equations (5.73) for arbitrary position of the control point, we repeat expressions
for velocities here for reference
310
Figure 7.9: Left-hand panel inuence of the common edge.
u

=
1
4
_
y ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
2x(
2

1
)
_
v

=
1
4
_
x
2
ln
r
2
1
r
2
2
(x
2
x
1
) + y(
2

1
)
_
(7.56)
for the case when the control point falls on the x-axis (y = 0) and x
1
< x < x
2
we
have
u

(x, 0) =

1
2
x
v

(x, 0) =

1
2
_
xln
x x
1
[x x
2
[
(x
2
x
1
)
_
(7.57)
expressions for u
c
and v
c
are already given for constant vorticity distribution by
(7.46) and (7.47).
Now it is time to take into account contribution from the second panel. Figure (7.10)
shows the vorticity distribution used for the calculation of the contribution of the
vorticity of unit strength at the common node. This distribution can be expressed
as
() =
x
2
x
2
x
1

x
2
x
1
Substitution of this expression into the integrals for inuence velocities we get
u =
1
x
2
x
1
u

+
x
2
x
2
x
1
u
c
v =
1
x
2
x
1
v

+
x
2
x
2
x
1
v
c
(7.58)
where u

, u
c
, v

, and v
c
are dened as before.
The remaining steps to complete solution of our airfoil problem are the same already
described with point vortex, and constant vorticity distribution examples. Program
which follows is possible realization what is said in this subsection.
! File: pmlv.for
! Z. Petrovic, 11-Feb-2001, Baghdad
311
Figure 7.10: Right-hand panel inuence of the common edge.
! Calulation of theflow about lifting bodies - linear strength vorticity
! ================================================================
program PMLV
parameter (MM=99, MMM=MM*MM)
real x(MM), y(MM) ! Panel edge coordinates
real xc(MM), yc(MM) ! Control point coordinates
real A(MMM), b(MM), G(MM) ! Aerodynamic influence mtrix
real nx(MM), ny(MM) ! Unit normals at control pts
real uij(MMM), vij(MMM) ! Induced velocities due to
! unit strength source distr.
equivalence (b(1), G(1))
common /c1/ A
common /c2/ uij
common /c3/ vij
!
Call Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
Uinf = VV*cos(alpha)
Vinf = VV*sin(alpha)
! Control point and unit normal
Call Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
! Calculate induced velocity
Call Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
! Call WriteTable(vij,N)
! Call Test(N,x,y)
! Influence matrix
Call Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
! Solve the equation system
Call SIMQ(A, G, N, Ierr)
if(Ierr .ne. 0) then
stop *** Singular Influence Matrix *** !
end if
! Calculate pressure coeff.
Call CP_Calc(N, x, y, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP, CL)
! Prepare results for plotting
Call Output(xc, CP, N-1)
print *,CL=,CL
stop PMLV - End of run !
end
312
! ****************************************************************
subroutine LifCalc(N, x, y, G, V, CL)
real x(N), y(N), G(N)
xmin = x(1)
xmax = x(1)
GG = 0.0
do i = 2, N
t = sqrt( (x(i)-x(i-1))**2 + (y(i)-y(i-1))**2 )
GG = GG + (G(i)+G(i-1))*t/2
xmin = min(xmin,x(i))
xmax = max(xmax,x(i))
end do
b = xmax-xmin
CL = 2*GG/(b*V)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
! First edge calculation
xf = x(1)
yf = y(1)
xs = x(2)
ys = y(2)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = -ulL/(x2-x1) + x2*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = -vlL/(x2-x1) + x2*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,1) = u ! future reference
vij(i,1) = v
do j = 2, N-1 ! For each edge
! LEFT-HAND PANEL CONTRIBUT.
xf = x(j-1)
yf = y(j-1)
xs = x(j)
ys = y(j)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = ulL/(x2-x1) - x1*ucL/(x2-x1)
313
vL = vlL/(x2-x1) - x1*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v
! RIGHT-HAND PANEL CONTRIB.
xf = x(j)
yf = y(j)
xs = x(j+1)
ys = y(j+1)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = -ulL/(x2-x1) + x2*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = -vlL/(x2-x1) + x2*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u + uij(i,j) ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v + vij(i,j)
end do
! Last Point Calclation
xf = x(N-1) !========================
yf = y(N-1)
xs = x(N)
ys = y(N)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = ulL/(x2-x1) - x1*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = vlL/(x2-x1) - x1*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,N) = u ! future reference
vij(i,N) = v
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine cv2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
314
! Calculates induced velocities
! u and v at the point (x,y)
! due to constant unit-strength
! VORTEX distribution along x-
! axis between x1,x2.
!
if(abs(y).lt.0.001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
! x is between x1 and x2
u = -0.5
v = log(abs((x-x2)/(x-x1)))/TwoPi
else
u = (atan2(y,x-x2)-atan2(y,x-x1))/TwoPi
v = log(((x-x2)**2+y**2)/((x-x1)**2+y**2))/FourPi
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine lv2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
r1=(x-x1)**2 + y**2
r2=(x-x2)**2 + y**2
t1=atan2(y,x-x1)
t2=atan2(y,x-x2)
if(abs(y) .lt. 0.0001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
u = -x/2
v = -(x*log(r1/r2)-2*(x2-x1))/FourPi
else
u = -(y*log(r1/r2)-2*x*(t2-t1))/FourPi
v = -(x*log(r1/r2)/2-(x2-x1)+y*(t2-t1))/TwoPi
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine CP_Calc(N, x, y, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP, CL)
real G(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N), CP(N), x(N), y(N)
VV = Uinf**2 + Vinf**2
xmin = x(N)
xmax = x(N)
Gam = 0.0
! For each control point
do i = 1, N-1
u = Uinf
v = Vinf
xmax = max(xmax,x(i))
xmin = min(xmin,x(i))
tx = x(i+1)-x(i)
ty = y(i+1)-y(i)
! From each edge
do j = 1, N
u = u + uij(i,j)*G(j)
v = v + vij(i,j)*G(j)
end do
CP(i) = 1.0 - (u**2 + v**2)/VV
Gam = Gam - tx*u - ty*v
end do
b = xmax-xmin
315
CL= 2*Gam/(b*sqrt(VV))
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(x, CP, NA)
real x(NA), CP(NA)
open(unit=1, file=PMLV.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) NA
100 format( variables = "x", "G"/ zone i=,I3)
write(1,110) (x(i),CP(i), i=1,NA)
110 format(2f12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
real uij(N,N), vij(N,N), nx(N), ny(N), A(N,N), b(N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i) -Vinf*ny(i)
! b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i)/ny(i) -Vinf
do j = 1, N ! For each panel edge
! A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i)/ny(i)+ vij(i,j)
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i)
end do
end do
! Kutta-Joukowsky condition
A(N,1) = 1.0
A(N,N) = 1.0
b(N) = 0.0
do j = 2, N-1
A(N,j) = 0.0
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Translates local velocity
! components (uL,vL) to global
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
! rotation cosines
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Global velocity components
u = uL*cost - vL*sint
v = uL*sint + vL*cost
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc,yc, x1,x2, x,y)
! Transforms the panel and
! contrlo point coordinates
! from global to local CooSys
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
316
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Panel coordinates
x1 = 0.0
x2 = s
! Control point coordinates
x = cost*(xc-xf) + sint*(yc-yf)
y = -sint*(xc-xf) + cost*(yc-yf)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
Subroutine Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), nx(N), ny(N)
o = 0.5
oo = 1-o
do i = 1, N-1
if(i .gt. N/2) o = oo
xc(i) = o*x(i) + x(i+1)*(1.-o)
yc(i) = o*y(i) + y(i+1)*(1.-o)
tx = x(i+1) - x(i)
ty = y(i+1) - y(i)
t = sqrt(tx**2 + ty**2)
nx(i) = -ty/t
ny(i) = tx/t
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, ToRad = Pi/180.)
character FileName*20
real x(*), y(*)
!
! Angle of attack and Vinf
VV = 1.0
alpha = 4.0
alpha = alpha*ToRad ! Convert to radians
!
print 100
100 format( 10x,1- NACA airfoil /
& 10x,2- Joukowsky or Trefftz airfoil ///
& 10x,Your choice: ,$)
read *, Ichoice
if(Ichoice .eq. 1) then
! NACA 4 or 5 digit airfoils
print 131
131 format( Number of the points around airfoil : ,$)
read *, N
N = N/2*2+1 ! Make it odd number
print 141
141 format( Chord length : ,$)
read *, b
print 151
151 format( NACA airfoil : ,$)
read *, NACA
317
N2 = N/2
dt = Pi/N2 ! Angle increment
do i = 1, N2
! xx = ( 1. + cos(dt*(i-1)) )/2
gama = float(i-1)/N2
Ci = FjaNabiranja(.5, 1.08, gama)
xx = 1.0 - Ci
! xx = 1. - 1./(N/2)*(i-1)
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(i) = xg*b
y(i) = yg*b
x(N-i+1) = xd*b
y(N-i+1) = yd*b
end do
xx = 0.0
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(N/2+1) = xg*b
y(N/2+1) = yg*b
else if(Ichoice .eq. 2) then
! Trefftz or Joukowsky airfoil
! Analytical pressure distri-
! bution exists.
print 101
101 format( File with airfoil coordinates : ,$)
read (A), FileName
open(unit=1, file=FileName, form=formatted, status=old)
read(1,111) N
111 format(/9x,I3)
read(1,121) (x(i), y(i), i = 1, N)
121 format(2F12.3)
close(unit=1)
else
stop *** Wrong choice ***
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
function FjaNabiranja(alfa, beta, gama)
bb = ((beta+1)/(beta-1))**((gama-alfa)/(1-alfa))
FjaNabiranja = ((2*alfa+beta)*bb+2*alfa-beta)/((2*alfa+1)*(1+bb))
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include simq.for
include naca45.for
7.1.9 Two Airfoil Problem
We continue to continually modify our examples, to take a new things one by one.
Now our problem is aerodynamic interference between two airfoils. Better said
demonstration of aerodynamic interference. We could approach to this problem in
various way. The most general one is the substructure approach, in which we keep
tracking various components of the our problem. Let us assume that we wish to
calculate ow about a few aerodynamic contours at the same time, and let the rst
318
Figure 7.11: Two airfoils as single contour.
contour be dened by N
1
points, second by N
2
points and so on. Each contour has
exactly N
i
unknowns where index i denotes contour numbering, and N
i
1 control
points. Missing equation is obtained from the Kutta-Joukowsky condition which is
expressed as

1
i
+
N
i
= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , K
Here we introduced local numbering of the unknowns for each of K lifting contours.
In order to solve our aerodynamic problem we need to assemble our problem into
single system of equations, or single aerodynamic matrix and single right-hand side
_

_
[A
1,1
] [A
1,2
] [A
1,K
]
[A
2,1
]
.
.
.
[A
1,K
]
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
[A
K,1
] [A
K,2
] [A
K,K
]
_

_
_

.
.
.

_
=
_

_
b
1

b
2

.
.
.
b
K

_
(7.59)
where [A
i,j
] is the sub-matrix of the aerodynamic inuence coecients for the control
points at structure i from the unknown vorticity strengths at the structure j. The
last row of these matrices is either empty or contains Kutta-Joukowsky condition.
Only sub-matrices [A
i,i
] have rst and last column of the last row lled with 1, all
other [A
i,j
] when i ,= j contain in the last row only zeros. Our problem is mainly
bookkeeping one. The question is where to put in this matrix coecient which is
obtained for the control point k at the i-th structure, from the unknown n at the
j-th structure. We have to determine row (r) and column (c) in the matrix where
we have to place our coecient
r = k +

m=1
i 1N
m
, c = n +
j1

m=1
N
m
But in our two airfoils problem we take dierent approach. We connect both contours
in our mind, as it is shown in the gure (7.11). So we have added non-existing portion
of the contour in the ow eld, we must take care about it.
Let the number of points dening the rst contour is N
1
, and N
2
is the number
of points by which the second contour is dened. Then the panel between points
319
(X
N
1
, Y
N
1
) and (X
N
1
+1
, Y
N
1
+1
) should not exist. The total number of unknowns is
N = N
1
+ N
2
. We keep this ctional panel in order to calculate induced velocities
table in one loop. But, we must calculate induced velocities form edge-points 1 and
N
1
+ 1 the same way because there are no panels preceding this edge points.
The same is true for the contributions of the vorticity strengths at points N
1
and
N = N
1
+ N
2
. In this case there are no panels following this edge point.
Row N
1
and N of the aerodynamic matrix is left for Kutt-Joukowsky condition.
The N
1
row is lled with zeros except at column 1 and N
1
which contain 1. Similar
is true for row N which is also lled with zeros except the columns N
1
+ 1 and N
which contain 1. The right-hand side of these columns is zero.
We give below program which solves our two airfoil problem. For simplicity we take
the same contour for both airfoils, and dene them with the same number of points.
! File: pmlv2.for
! Z. Petrovic, 11-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Calulation of theflow about lifting bodies - linear strength vorticity
! ================================================================
program PMLV2
parameter (MM=150, MMM=MM*MM)
real x(MM), y(MM) ! Panel edge coordinates
real xc(MM), yc(MM) ! Control point coordinates
real A(MMM), b(MM), G(MM) ! Aerodynamic influence mtrix
real nx(MM), ny(MM) ! Unit normals at control pts
real uij(MMM), vij(MMM) ! Induced velocities due to
! unit strength source distr.
equivalence (b(1), G(1))
common /c1/ A
common /c2/ uij
common /c3/ vij
!
Call Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
Uinf = VV*cos(alpha)
Vinf = VV*sin(alpha)
! Control point and unit normal
Call Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
! Calculate induced velocity
Call Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
! Call WriteTable(vij,N)
! Call Test(N,x,y)
! Influence matrix
Call Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
! Solve the equation system
Call SIMQ(A, G, N, Ierr)
if(Ierr .ne. 0) then
stop *** Singular Influence Matrix *** !
end if
! Calculate pressure coeff.
Call CP_Calc(N, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP)
! Prepare results for plotting
Call Output(xc, CP, N/2-1)
stop PMLV2 - End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced(N, x, y, xc, yc, uij, vij)
320
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
do j = 1, N ! For each edge
! LEFT-HAND PANEL CONTRIBUT.
! First edge calculation
if(j.eq.1 .or. j.eq. N/2+1) then
xf = x(j)
yf = y(j)
xs = x(j+1)
ys = y(j+1)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = -ulL/(x2-x1) + x2*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = -vlL/(x2-x1) + x2*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,1) = u ! future reference
vij(i,1) = v
else if (j.eq.N .or. j.eq.N/2) then
! Last Point Calclation
xf = x(j-1) !========================
yf = y(j-1)
xs = x(j)
ys = y(j)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = ulL/(x2-x1) - x1*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = vlL/(x2-x1) - x1*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,N) = u ! future reference
vij(i,N) = v
else
xf = x(j-1)
yf = y(j-1)
xs = x(j)
ys = y(j)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
321
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = ulL/(x2-x1) - x1*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = vlL/(x2-x1) - x1*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v
! RIGHT-HAND PANEL CONTRIB.
xf = x(j)
yf = y(j)
xs = x(j+1)
ys = y(j+1)
! Coordinate transformation
Call ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc(i),yc(i), x1,x2, xx,yy)
! Induced vel. in local C.S.
! constant vorticity distrib.
Call cv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ucL, vcL)
! linear vorticity distribut.
Call lv2d(x1, x2, xx, yy, ulL, vlL)
! Calculate local vel. comp.
uL = -ulL/(x2-x1) + x2*ucL/(x2-x1)
vL = -vlL/(x2-x1) + x2*vcL/(x2-x1)
! Transform velocities to
! global coordinate system
Call ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Remember velocities for
uij(i,j) = u + uij(i,j) ! future reference
vij(i,j) = v + vij(i,j)
end if
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine cv2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
! Calculates induced velocities
! u and v at the point (x,y)
! due to constant unit-strength
! VORTEX distribution along x-
! axis between x1,x2.
!
if(abs(y).lt.0.001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
! x is between x1 and x2
u = -0.5
v = log(abs((x-x2)/(x-x1)))/TwoPi
else
u = (atan2(y,x-x2)-atan2(y,x-x1))/TwoPi
v = log(((x-x2)**2+y**2)/((x-x1)**2+y**2))/FourPi
end if
322
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine lv2d(x1, x2, x, y, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, TwoPi=2*Pi, FourPi=4*Pi)
r1=(x-x1)**2 + y**2
r2=(x-x2)**2 + y**2
t1=atan2(y,x-x1)
t2=atan2(y,x-x2)
if(abs(y) .lt. 0.0001 .and. (x-x1)*(x-x2).lt.0.0) then
u = -x/2
v = -(x*log(r1/r2) - 2*(x2-x1))/FourPi
else
u = -(y*log(r1/r2) - 2*x*(t2-t1))/FourPi
v = -(x*log(r1/r2)/2 - (x2-x1) + y*(t2-t1))/TwoPi
end if
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine CP_Calc(N, G, uij, vij, Uinf, Vinf, CP)
real G(N), uij(N,N), vij(N,N), CP(N)
VV = Uinf**2 + Vinf**2
! For each control point
do i = 1, N/2-1 ! of the first airfoil
u = Uinf
v = Vinf
! From each edge
do j = 1, N
u = u + uij(i,j)*G(j)
v = v + vij(i,j)*G(j)
end do
CP(i) = 1.0 - (u**2 + v**2)/VV
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(x, CP, NA)
real x(NA), CP(NA)
open(unit=1, file=PMLV2.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) NA
100 format( variables = "x", "G"/ zone i=,I3)
write(1,110) (x(i),CP(i), i=1,NA)
110 format(2f12.3)
close(unit=1)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(N, uij, vij, nx, ny, Uinf, Vinf, A, b)
real uij(N,N), vij(N,N), nx(N), ny(N), A(N,N), b(N)
do i = 1, N-1 ! For each control point
b(i) = -Uinf*nx(i) -Vinf*ny(i)
do j = 1, N ! For each panel edge
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i)
end do
end do
! Kutta-Joukowsky condition
323
N2 = N/2
do j = 1, N
A(N2,j) = 0.0
A(N,j) = 0.0
end do
A(N2,1) = 1.0
A(N2,N2) = 1.0
b(N2) = 0.0
A(N,N2+1) = 1.0
A(N,N) = 1.0
b(N) = 0.0
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToGlobalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, uL,vL, u,v)
! Translates local velocity
! components (uL,vL) to global
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
! rotation cosines
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Global velocity components
u = uL*cost - vL*sint
v = uL*sint + vL*cost
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine ToLocalCS(xf,yf, xs,ys, xc,yc, x1,x2, x,y)
! Transforms the panel and
! contrlo point coordinates
! from global to local CooSys
xx = xs - xf
yy = ys - yf
s = sqrt(xx**2 + yy**2)
cost = xx/s
sint = yy/s
! Panel coordinates
x1 = 0.0
x2 = s
! Control point coordinates
x = cost*(xc-xf) + sint*(yc-yf)
y = -sint*(xc-xf) + cost*(yc-yf)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
Subroutine Geometry(N, x, y, xc, yc, nx, ny)
real x(N), y(N), xc(N), yc(N), nx(N), ny(N)
o = 0.5
oo = 1-o
do i = 1, N-1
if(i .gt. N/2) o = oo
xc(i) = o*x(i) + x(i+1)*(1.-o)
yc(i) = o*y(i) + y(i+1)*(1.-o)
tx = x(i+1) - x(i)
324
ty = y(i+1) - y(i)
t = sqrt(tx**2 + ty**2)
nx(i) = -ty/t
ny(i) = tx/t
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Input_Data(N, x, y, alpha, VV)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, ToRad = Pi/180.)
character FileName*20
real x(*), y(*)
!
! Angle of attack and Vinf
VV = 1.0
alpha = 4.0
print 160, alpha, VV
160 format( Two airfoil interference//
& alpha = ,F5.1,5x,V=,F5.1//)
alpha = alpha*ToRad ! Convert to radians
!
print 170
170 format( (x,y) shift of the seccond airfoil : ,$)
read *, xs, ys
print 100
100 format( 10x,1- NACA airfoil /
& 10x,2- Joukowsky or Trefftz airfoil ///
& 10x,Your choice: ,$)
read *, Ichoice
if(Ichoice .eq. 1) then
! NACA 4 or 5 digit airfoils
print 131
131 format( Number of the points around airfoil : ,$)
read *, N
N = N/2*2+1 ! Make it odd number
print 141
141 format( Chord length : ,$)
read *, b
print 151
151 format( NACA airfoil : ,$)
read *, NACA
N2 = N/2
do i = 1, N2
gama = float(i-1)/N2
Ci = FjaNabiranja(.5, 1.08, gama)
xx = 1.0 - Ci
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(i) = xg*b
y(i) = yg*b
x(N-i+1) = xd*b
y(N-i+1) = yd*b
end do
xx = 0.0
Call NACA45(NACA, xx, xg, yg, YGp, xd, yd, YDp)
x(N/2+1) = xg*b
y(N/2+1) = yg*b
325
else if(Ichoice .eq. 2) then
! Trefftz or Joukowsky airfoil
! Analytical pressure distri-
! bution exists.
print 101
101 format( File with airfoil coordinates : ,$)
read (A), FileName
open(unit=1, file=FileName, form=formatted, status=old)
read(1,111) N
111 format(/9x,I3)
read(1,121) (x(i), y(i), i = 1, N)
121 format(2F12.3)
close(unit=1)
else
stop *** Wrong choice ***
end if
! Generate the second airfoil
do i = 1, N
x(i+N) = x(i) + xs
y(i+N) = y(i) + ys
end do
N = 2*N
return
end
! ****************************************************************
function FjaNabiranja(alfa, beta, gama)
bb = ((beta+1)/(beta-1))**((gama-alfa)/(1-alfa))
FjaNabiranja = ((2*alfa+beta)*bb+2*alfa-beta)/((2*alfa+1)*(1+bb))
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include simq.for
include naca45.for
Note the great similarity with the program for isolated airfoil, with linearly varying
vorticity application.
7.1.10 Numerical Integration
We illustrate in this subsection procedure for numerical integration. It is possible
to calculate induced velocities in the global coordinate system directly. But that
is not the biggest advantage of numerical integration over exact integration, if any.
For some applications numerical integration is only possible since exact integration
does not exists.
Let us consider procedure to calculate induced velocities at arbitrary point (X, Y )
by numerical integration for the panel given between points (X
i
, Y
i
) and (X
i+1
, Y
i+1
).
Assume that vorticity vary from value
i
at point i to
i+1
at point i + 1, gure
(7.12). Coordinates of arbitrary point along panel are dened as
X() =
(X
i+1
X
i
) + (X
i
+ X
i+1
)
2
Y () =
(Y
i+1
Y
i
) + (Y
i
+ Y
i+1
)
2
(7.60)
326
Figure 7.12: Panel denition for numerical integration.
() =
(
i+1

i
) + (
i
+
i+1
)
2
Induced velocities at arbitrary point (X, Y ) are given as
u =
_
(X
i+1
X
i
)
2
+ (Y
i+1
Y
i
)
2
4
+1
_
1
()Y d
[X X()]
2
+ [Y Y ()]
2
(7.61)
v =
_
(X
i+1
X
i
)
2
+ (Y
i+1
Y
i
)
2
4
+1
_
1
()[X X()] d
[X X()]
2
+ [Y Y ()]
2
(7.62)
where (), X(), and Y () are dened by (7.60). In order to compare results
obtained from numerical integration with those obtained with exact integration we
developed small program given below. For numerical integration we use Gauss-
Legendre quadrature procedure.
Example 7.4:
Illustrate application of numerical integration technique to strait linearly varying vorticity
distribution panels.
Solution 7.4:
We use described technique to calculate induced velocities with three similar programs
of dierent order of accuracy. So we could test the inuence of order of integration
formula used on accuracy of the computed induced velocities. Program which follows
illustrates the numerical integration technique.
! File: NU.FOR
! Z. Petrovic, 13-Feb-2001
! This program compares numerical integration results with
! exact expressions for induced velocities
! ****************************************************************
program NU
real X(2), Y(2), uij(2,2), vij(2,2), xc(2), yc(2)
print 100
100 format( First edge coordinates of the panel (X,Y) : ,$)
327
read *, X(1), Y(1)
print 110
110 format( Second edge coordinates of the panel (x,Y) : ,$)
read *,X(2), Y(2)
print 120
120 format( Vorticity intensities at panel edges G1 and G2 : ,$)
read *, G1, G2
print 130
130 format( Control point coordinates (X,Y) : ,$)
read *, XC(1), YC(1)
! Exact integration
Call Induced(2,X,Y,XC,YC,uij,vij)
u = uij(1,1)*G1 + uij(1,2)*G2
v = vij(1,1)*G1 + vij(1,2)*G2
! Exact rezults
print 140, u, v
140 format( Exact results/ u = ,F10.3,5x,v = F10.3/)
! Numerical integration
Call InducedN(X(1),Y(1),X(2),Y(2),XC(1),YC(1),G1,G2,u,v)
print 150, u,v
150 format( Approximate results/ u = ,F10.3,5x,v = F10.3/)
Call InducedNN(X(1),Y(1),X(2),Y(2),XC(1),YC(1),G1,G2,u,v)
print 150, u,v
Call InducedNNN(X(1),Y(1),X(2),Y(2),XC(1),YC(1),G1,G2,u,v)
print 150, u,v
stop
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine InducedNNN(x1, y1, x2, y2, X, Y, G1, G2, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, FourPi=4*Pi, NPT=6)
real W(NPt), Z(NPt)
data Z/0.2386192,-0.2386192,0.6612094,-0.6612094,0.9324695,
& -0.9324695/
data W/0.4679139,0.4679139,0.3607616,0.3607616,0.1713245,
& 0.1713245/
! Internal function
f(a1,a2,xi)=((a2-a1)*xi+(a1+a2))/2
s = sqrt((x2-x1)**2+(y2-y1)**2)/FourPi
su = 0.0
sv = 0.0
do i = 1, 6
xi = Z(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
su = su + g*W(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(X-f(x1,x2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
sv = sv + g*W(i)
end do
u = su*s
v = -sv*s
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine InducedNN(x1, y1, x2, y2, X, Y, G1, G2, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, FourPi=4*Pi, NPt=3)
328
real W(NPt), Z(NPt)
data Z/0.0, 0.7745967, -0.7745967/
data W/0.88888889, 0.55555556, 0.55555556/
! Internal function
f(a1,a2,xi)=((a2-a1)*xi+(a1+a2))/2
s = sqrt((x2-x1)**2+(y2-y1)**2)/FourPi
su = 0.0
sv = 0.0
do i = 1, 3
xi = Z(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
su = su + g*W(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(X-f(x1,x2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
sv = sv + g*W(i)
end do
u = su*s
v = -sv*s
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine InducedN(x1, y1, x2, y2, X, Y, G1, G2, u, v)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, FourPi=4*Pi, NPt=4)
real W(NPt), Z(NPt)
data Z/-0.8611363, -0.3399810, 0.3399810, 0.8611363/
data W/0.3478548, 0.6521452, 0.6521452, 0.3478548/
! Internal function
f(a1,a2,xi)=((a2-a1)*xi+(a1+a2))/2
s = sqrt((x2-x1)**2+(y2-y1)**2)/FourPi
su = 0.0
sv = 0.0
do i = 1, 4
xi = Z(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
su = su + g*W(i)
g = f(G1,G2,xi)*(X-f(x1,x2,xi))/
& ((X-f(x1,x2,xi))**2+(Y-f(y1,y2,xi))**2)
sv = sv + g*W(i)
end do
u = su*s
v = -sv*s
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include induced.for ! Subroutines used for analytic calcula-
! tion of induced velocities.
329
7.2 Axi-Symmetric Supersonic Flow
We now illustrate solution procedure for the potential dened by equation (6.32)
together with boundary condition (6.33). We repeat these equations for reference
=
xr
_
0
f() d
_
(x )
2

2
r
2
(7.63)
where
2
= M
2

1, and is velocity potential. If the body of the axi-symmetric

shape is dened as r = (x), then velocity potential should satisfy the following
boundary condition

(x) =
v
U

+ u
, or: v =

(U

+ u) (7.64)
where u =
x
, and v =
r
. After the velocity components are determined we
calculate pressure coecient as
C
P
=
2
M
2

_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2

_
1 (1 +u/U

)
2
(v/U

)
2
_
_
/(1)
1
_
(7.65)
Substituting for the variable the expression
= x r cosh z
equation (7.63) becomes
=
0
_
cosh
1
x/r
f(x r cosh z) dz (7.66)
We assumed as before that our body starts at point x = 0. Any point P can be
inuenced by source distribution along x-axis contained within fore cone with apex
in P, what is clearly given by boundaries of integration. Sources which inuence
arbitrary point P can be distributed between coordinate origin and the point B at
the x-axis determined from relation
x
B
= x
P
r
P
If we assume f(x r cosh z) be proportional to its argument we have
= K
o
0
_
cosh
1
x/r
(x r cosh z) dz (7.67)
where
cosh
1
z = ln
_
z +

z
2
1
_
after integration yields the following
= K
o
_
xcosh
1
x
r
+
_
x
2

2
r
2
_
(7.68)
330
where K
o
is the constant of integration having the dimensions of velocity. The
disturbance velocities are obtained by dierentiation
u =
x
= K
o
0
_
cosh
1
x/r
dz (7.69)
v =
r
= K
o
0
_
cosh
1
x/r
cosh z dz (7.70)
The velocity components are
u = U

K
o
cosh
1
x
r
(7.71)
v = K
o

x
2

2
r
2
1 (7.72)
Equations (7.71) and (7.72) shows that the components of the velocity are constant
for constant ration x/r, and therefore are constant along every strait line that passes
through the point x = 0, r = 0. Equations (7.71) and (7.72) can be used to determine
the pressure distribution around a circular cone with axis parallel to the ow. If the
is the semi-vertex angle of the cone, than the value of x/r at the cone is given by
r
x
= tan
The ratio between velocity components v/u must also be equal to tan or
tan =
K
o

_
x
2

2
r
2
1
U

K
o
cosh
1 cot

(7.73)
and
K
o
=
U

tan
_
cot
2

2
+ tan cosh
1
(cot /)
(7.74)
in order to obtain the real values for K
o
in this equation, the value of cot must be
larger than , or the value of must be smaller than the Mach angle , (cot = ).
7.2.1 Calculation of the Flow around Sharp-Nose Body of
Revolution
Figure (7.13) shows sharp-nose slender body of revolution with the axis parallel to
the free-stream velocity. For any point P on the body we can determine the point B
at the x-axis which determines which part of the singularity distribution inuences
the ow at point P. So point P
i
(x
i
,
i
) is inuenced by the source distribution
between coordinate origin and point B
i
on the x-axis, where
x
B
i
= x
i

i
(7.75)
331
Figure 7.13: Determination of points B
i
along x-axis.
where symbol
i
denotes that we are talking about the point at the surface of the
body, x
B
i
denotes the point on x-axis where Mach line drawn from the point P
i
intersects x-axis, and x
i
is the abscisa of the point P
i
.
Let us distribute our source singularities to start from points B
i
. It is clear that
source distribution starting from the point B
i
cannot inuence point on the surface
P
i
, but it inuence points behind that point, i.e. P
i+1
, P
i+2
, . . . . If we need to
calculate inuence velocities due to singularity distribution along x-axis we have to
consider all points B
i
from which singularity starts between origin and point B
i1
.
Example 7.5:
Develop program to calculate distribution of the pressure coecient for the Ogive-
cylinder body. For the approximation at the nose use linear strength singularity (m = 1),
for other points use basic solution corresponding to m = 2, section (6.5.4).
Solution 7.5:
We solve our problem in few steps. The rst step is as usually denition of geometric
data. We denote by = /d, gure (7.14). From the notation in the gure it is clear
that
R =
_
1
4
+
2
_
d
and
r
c
=
_
1
4

2
_
d , = d
Equation of the ogive part is given as
(x) =

R
2
x
2

_
1
4

2
_
d
The slope at arbitrary point on the body is

(x) =
_

x

R
2
x
2
< x < 0
0 0 < x < L
The semi-vertex angle is determined from
tan =

_
(0.25 +
2
)
2

2
332
Figure 7.14: Denition of geometric data.
To dene our problem we need , d, L, number of points at which we wish to satisfy
boundary conditions on ogive part of the body, N
o
, and number of points at which we
wish to satisfy boundary conditions at cylindrical part, N
c
. Since we are only illustrating
procedure we will distribute points evenly. We also need free-stream Mach number to
calculate =
_
M
2

1.
We dene the points on the body contour at which we satisfy boundary conditions in
the step two. First we dene coordinates of the points P
i
. Coordinate increment x
along x-axis and x coordinates of the points P
i
, for the ogive part we determine from
x =

N
o
, x
P
i
= + x (i 1) , i = 1, 2, . . . , N
o
(7.76)
The radius of the ogive body is given by
R =
_
1
4
+
2
_
d
And ordinates for selected points

i
=
_
R
2
x
2
P
i
r
c
, r
c
= (
1
/
4

2
) d
Slope at the body contour at points P
i
is obtained by dierentiating this equation with
respect to x

(x
P
i
) =
x
P
i
_
R
2
x
2
P
i
Now we dene points x
B
i
at x-axis which correspond to each of the points P
i
x
B
i
= x
P
i

i
For the cylindrical part again we rst distribute points along x-axis
x =
L
Nc 1
, x
P
i
= x (i 1 No) , i = N
o
+ 1, N
o
+ 2, . . . , N
o
+ N
c
Ordinates are the same for all points
i
= d/2, ad the slope at these points is

i
= 0.
Points B
i
for the cylindrical part are determined the same way as for ogive part
x
B
i
= x
P
i

d
2
, i = N
o
+ 1, N
o
+ 2, . . . , N
o
+ N
c
333
In the third step we decide upon the type singularities used to start from the points x
B
i
.
To simplify the procedure we use for all points the same type of singularity except for the
rst point, from which two types of singularity will start. Linear distribution is used to
approximate semi vertex angle of the ogive body, while the quadratic distribution (which
also starts from point 1) will be determined so that the boundary condition is satised
at point P
1
. Semi-vertex angle is determined from
tan =

_
(
1
/
4
+
2
)
2

2
The intensity for the linear distribution is determined from equation (7.74)
K
o
=
U

tan
_
cot
2

2
+ tan cosh
1
(cot /)
Linear singularity starting from the nose of the body inuence all other points on the
body. We calculate contribution of this distribution to any point with the expressions
(7.71) and (7.72)
u
i
= u
P
i
= K
o
cosh
1
x
i

i
v
i
= v
P
i
= K
o

_
x
2
i

2
i
1
where cosh
1
z = ln
_
z +

z
2
1
_
. One index symbol is used to dierentiate contribu-
tion of this linear distribution from the contributions of the quadratic distributions. To
calculate contribution of the distribution starting from the point B
j
(x
j
, 0) to the control
point P
i
(x
i
,
i
) we dene
t
i,j
=

i
x
i
x
j
, again:
2
= M
2

1
so induced velocities are calculated from (6.42) for unit strength coecient
u
i,j
= (x
i
x
j
)
_
sech
1
t
i,j

_
1 t
2
i,j
_
v
i,j
=
(x
i
x
j
)
2
_
_
_
1 t
2
i,j
t
i,j
t
i,j
sech
1
t
i,j
_
_
At the rst glance it may seem that we need to solve system of equations in order to
determine unknown strengths K
i
but that is not necessary. At the rst control point
(P
2
) we determine the strength of the rst quadratic distribution starting from the point
B
1
. At point B
2
starts the second source distribution its strength is determined from
the conditions at point (P
3
), and so on. Let us determine velocity at arbitrary point P
i
.
u(P
i
) = U

+ u
i
+
i1

j=1
K
j
u
i,j
v(P
i
) = v
i
+
i1

j=1
K
j
v
i,j
(7.77)
334
In this expression only K
i1
coecient is unknown because all others are determined in
a such way that ow tangency condition is satised in previous points. We determine
this coecient from ow tangency condition at point P
i
:
v(P
i
)
u(P
i
)
=

i
=
v
i
+

i2
j=1
K
j
v
i,j
+ K
i1
v
i,i1
U

+ u
i
+

i2
j=1
K
j
u
i,j
+ K
i1
u
i,i1
We introduce now the new symbols
U = 1 +
u
i
U

+
i2

j=1
K
j
u
i,j
U

and
V = v
i
+
i2

j=1
K
j
v
i,j
U

thus

i
=
V + K
i1
v
i,i1
U

U + K
i1
u
i,i1
U

From this equation we have:

K
i1
=

i
U V
v
i,i1
U

i
u
i,i1
U

After the coecient K

i
is known we are ready to calculate inuence velocities at point
P
i
u(P
i
)
U

= U + K
i1
u
i,i1
U

,
v(P
i
)
U

= V + K
i1
v
i,i1
U

than we calculate the pressure coecient either form the expression (7.65) or from
simplied expression
CP
i
= 2
u
P
i
U

From preceding explanations it is clear that velocity U

is not necessary to be specied

to determine C
P
(P
i
) distribution. So we can assume that U

= 1 in this example.
Program which follow is possible realization of explained algorithm.
! File: OGIVE.FOR
! Z. Petrovic, 17-Feb-2001, Baghdad
! Supersonic flow about combination tangent ogive cylinder
! ****************************************************************
program Ogive
parameter (NN=100)
real xP(NN), ro(NN), rop(NN), xB(NN), CP(NN)
real lam, Lc
! Read data about ogive-cyl
Call InputData(beta, lam, Lc, d, No, Nc)
! Generate control point coord.
Call Geometry(beta, lam, Lc, d, No, Nc, N, xP, ro, rop, xB, tge)
! Pressure coefficient calculation
Call Aero(beta,tge, N,xP,ro,rop,xB, CP)
! Prepare for plotting
335
Call Output(xP, CP, N)
stop Ogive -- End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(xP, CP, N)
real xP(N), CP(N)
open(unit=1,file=ogive.dat,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) N
100 format(variables = "X", "Cp" /zone i=,I4)
write(1,110) (xP(i), CP(i), i = 1, N)
close(unit=1)
110 format(2F12.3)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(beta,tge, N,xP,ro,rop,xB, CP)
real xP(N), ro(N), rop(N), xB(N), CP(N), Ko, K(100), Ma2
! Strength of linear distribution
cge = 1./tge
Ma2 = beta**2+1. ! Mach squared
Ko = tge/( sqrt(cge**2 - beta**2) + tge*acosh(cge/beta) )
! Velocities at the vertex
uo = 1. - Ko*acosh(cge/beta)
vo = Ko*sqrt(cge**2 - beta**2)
! Pressure distribution at vertex
CP(1) = CpCalc(Ma2, uo, vo)
do i = 2, N
! Contribution from cone
t = beta*ro(i)/(xP(i)-xB(1))
u = 1.-Ko*acosh(1./t)
v = Ko*beta*sqrt(1./t**2-1.)
! Contribution from quadratic
do j = 1, i-2
t = beta*ro(i)/(xP(i) - xB(j))
u = u - K(j)*(xP(i)-xB(j))*(asech(t)-sqrt(1.-t**2))
v = v + K(j)*beta*(xP(i)-xB(j))*
& (sqrt(1./t**2-1.) - t*asech(t))/2
end do
t = beta*ro(i)/(xP(i)-xB(i-1))
uij = -(xP(i)-xB(i-1))*(asech(t) - sqrt(1.-t**2))
vij = beta*(xP(i)-xB(i-1))*(sqrt(1./t**2-1.) - t*asech(t))/2
! Strength of singularity at xB(i-1)
K(i-1)=(rop(i)*u - v)/(vij - rop(i)*uij)
! Velocity at xP(i)
u = u + K(i-1)*uij
v = v + K(i-1)*vij
CP(i) = CpCalc(Ma2, u, v)
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
function CpCalc(Ma2, u,v)
parameter(g=1.4, f=(g-1.)/2, h=g/(g-1.))
real Ma2
CpCalc = -2*(u-1.) ! Small disturbance expression
! Complete expression
336
c = 2/(g*Ma2)
! CpCalc = c*( ( 1. + f*Ma2*(1. - u**2 - v**2) )**h - 1.)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
function acosh(x)
acosh = log( x + sqrt(x**2-1.) )
return
end
! ****************************************************************
function asech(x)
asech = log( 1./x + sqrt(1./x**2 - 1.) )
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine InputData(beta, lam, Lc, d, No, Nc)
real lam, Lc, Mach
lam = 3.5 ! Slenderness of the ogive part
Lc = 2.0 ! Length of the cyllindrical part
d = 1.0 ! Calibar of the body
No = 10 ! Number of points defining ogive
Nc = 10 ! Number of points defining cyl.
Mach = 2.0 ! Free-stream Mach number
beta = sqrt(Mach**2 - 1)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Geometry(beta, lam,Lc,d,No,Nc,N, xP, ro, rop, xB, tge)
real lam, Lc, xP(*), xB(*), ro(*), rop(*)
! Data for the ogive part ******
el = lam*d ! Ogive length
Dx = el/No
R = (0.25 + lam**2)*d ! Ogive shape radius
rc = (0.25 - lam**2)*d
do i = 1, No
xP(i) = -el + Dx*(i-1) ! Control point abscisa
! Distance of the C.P. from x-axis
ro(i) = sqrt(R**2 - xP(i)**2) + rc
! The slope of the contour at C.P.
rop(i)= -xP(i)/sqrt(R**2 - xP(i)**2)
! Here starts the new singularity
xB(i) = xP(i) - beta*ro(i)
end do
! The data for cylindrical part
Dx = Lc/(Nc-1)
N = No + Nc
do i = No+1, N
xP(i) = Dx*(i - 1 - No)
ro(i) = d/2
xB(i) = xP(i)-beta*ro(i)
rop(i) = 0.0
end do
! Tangent of the semi-vertex angle
tge = lam/sqrt( (.25 + lam**2)**2 - lam**2 )
return
end
337
7.3 Vortex Lattice Method
We illustrate now method which is simple enough to be presented as example com-
pletely, and at same time by which is possible to study three-dimensional congura-
tions. The key building block for the application of this method is subroutine which
calculates induced velocity at arbitrary point from the polygonal, and in general
case three-dimensional, vortex line. It is expected that the polygonal line is dened
by its corner points.
Subroutine PolyVortex(Gama, x,y,z,N, xP,yP,zP, u,v,w)
!
real Gama ! Intensity of the vortex line per
! unit length
real x(N) ! x-coordinate of polygonal line
real y(N) ! y-coordinate of polygonal line
real z(N) ! z-coordinate of polygonal line
real xP, yP, zP ! Control point coordinates
!
real u, v, w ! Induced velocities
!
u = 0.0
v = 0.0
w = 0.0
! Call subroutine which calculates
! contribution of one segment
! required number of times
do i = 1, N-1
Call LV3D( Gama,
& xP, yP, zP,
& x(i), y(i), z(i),
& x(i+1), y(i+1), z(i+1),
& uu, vv, ww)
u = u + uu
v = v + vv
w = w + ww
end do
!
return
end
This subroutine repeatedly calls subroutine which calculates induced velocity from
one line segment, and which is given below
Subroutine LV3D(Gama, x,y,z, x1,y1,z1, x2,y2,z2, u,v,w)
parameter (pi = 3.141592654, eps = 1.0e-10)
real Gama ! Vortex filament strength per unit
! length
real x, y, z ! Control point coordinates for
! which influence velocities are calculated
real x1, y1, z1 ! First point of the vortex filament
real x2, y2, z2 ! Last point of the vortex filament
!
real u, v, w ! Induced velocities at point P
! *************************************
! Subroutine LV3D
! calculates induced velocities (u,v,w)
338
! at point (x,y,z) induced by vortex
! filament of intensity Gama per unit
! length for the segment, between points
! (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2)
! *************************************
!
! Components R1 X R2
!
R1R2X = (y-y1)*(z-z2) - (z-z1)*(y-y2)
R1R2Y = -( (x-x1)*(z-z2) - (z-z1)*(x-x2) )
R1R2Z = (x-x1)*(y-y2) - (y-y1)*(x-x2)
!
! Calculate (R1 X R2)**2
!
R1R2KV = R1R2X**2 + R1R2Y**2 + R1R2Z**2
!
! Calclate R1 i R2
!
R1 = sqrt( (x-x1)**2 + (y-y1)**2 + (z-z1)**2 )
R2 = sqrt( (x-x2)**2 + (y-y2)**2 + (z-z2)**2 )
!
! Calculate R0*R1 i R0*R2
!
R0R1 = (x2-x1)*(x-x1) + (y2-y1)*(y-y1) + (z2-z1)*(z-z1)
R0R2 = (x2-x1)*(x-x2) + (y2-y1)*(y-y2) + (z2-z1)*(z-z2)
!
! Calculate u, v, w
!
if( R1.lt.eps .or. R2.lt.eps .or. R1R2KV.lt.eps) then
u = 0
v = 0
w = 0
else
gampi = Gama/(4*pi*R1R2KV)*(R0R1/R1 - R0R2/R2)
u = gampi*R1R2X
v = gampi*R1R2Y
w = gampi*R1R2Z
end if
!
return
end
We develop program which accepts only at-plate trapezoidal panels. Inclinations
of such panels are realized through denition of unit normal. Figure (7.15) shows
possible combinations of trapezoidal shapes.
Each trapezoidal shape has unique unit normal and associated number of rows NR
i
and columns NC
i
by which trapezoidal element is divided into elementary panels.
To calculate forces on various congurations we need
1. To read parameters of the problem, such as number of trapezoidal elements;
For each element NR
i
and NC
i
and coordinates of the corner points (x
1
, y
1
)
i
,
(x
2
, y
2
)
i
, (x
3
, y
3
)
i
, and (x
4
, y
4
)
i
. For each element unit normal components n
x
i
,
n
y
i
and n
z
i
. Free-stream velocity components U

, V

, and W

. Flag which
dierentiate symmetric from asymmetric problem.
339
Figure 7.15: Combination of trapezoidal elements.
2. In this step we generate all required geometry data such as: coordinates of
the control points, and unit normal components for each control point. Bound
vortex coordinates.
3. We generate tables of induced vortices for each control point and from each
vortex lament.
4. Next, we build equation system by requiring satisfaction of boundary condi-
tions.
5. Finally we calculate forces at each bound vortex.
Everything said so far is implemented in the program which follow.
! File: VLMN.FOR
! Z. Petrovic, 18-Feb-2001
! Vortex lattice method for planars tructures
! ****************************************************************
program VLM
parameter (ND=125, NDND=ND*ND)
real xB(2,ND), yB(2,ND), xCP(ND), yCP(ND), nx(ND), ny(ND), nz(ND)
real uij(NDND), vij(NDND), wij(NDND)
real A(NDND), G(ND), Lift(3), Mom(3), CG(3), VV(3)
structure /welement/
real x(4), y(4)
integer NR, NC
real nx,ny,nz
end structure
record /welement/ trapez(20)
logical symm
! Compiler problems
common /c01/ uij
common /c02/ vij
common /c03/ wij
common /c04/ G
! Read data about the geometry
! of the problem
Call Input(N, trapez, VV, symm, alpha, ro, CG)
Ui = VV(1)
Vi = VV(2)
340
Wi = VV(3)
! Calculate geometry of the prob.
Call Geometry(N, trapez, xB, yB, xCP, yCP, nx, ny, nz, NCP)
! Induced velocity calculation
Call Induced(NCP, xCP, yCP, xB, yB, uij, vij, wij, symm, Ui, Vi)
! Build system of equations
Call Aero(uij, vij, wij, nx, ny, nz, A, G, NCP, Ui, Vi, Wi)
! Solve system of equations
Call SIMQ(A, G, NCP, Ierr)
if(Ierr .ne. 0) then
stop Singular matrix !
end if
Call Forces(NCP, xB, yB, G, VV, ro, CG, Lift, Mom, symm)
print *, Lift : ,Lift
print *, Moment : ,Mom
Call Output(xCP, yCP, G, NCP)
stop VLMN --- End of run !
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Forces(N, xB, yB, G, V, ro, CG, Lift, Mom, symm)
real xB(2,N), yB(2,N), V(3), CG(3), Lift(3), Mom(3), G(N), F(3)
real t(3), M(3), FF(3)
logical symm
t(3) = 0.0
Call ScalVec(0.0, Lift, Lift, 3)
Call ScalVec(0.0, Mom, Mom, 3)
do i = 1, N
! Bound vortex vector
t(1) = xB(1,i) - xB(2,i)
t(2) = yB(1,i) - yB(2,i)
Call VecPr3(t, V, F)
! Lift of the bound vortex
Call ScalVec(ro*G(i), F, F, 3)
! Total lift
Call VecAdd(F, Lift, Lift, 3)
if(symm) then
t(2) = -t(2)
Call VecPr3(t, V, FF)
Call ScalVec(ro*G(i), FF, FF, 3)
Call VecAdd(FF, Lift, Lift, 3)
end if
! Distance between CG and
! bound vortex force
t(1) = (xB(1,i) + xB(2,i))/2 - CG(1)
t(2) = (yB(1,i) + yB(2,i))/2 - CG(2)
t(3) = -CG(3)
! Bound vortex contribution to
! moment about CG
Call VecPr3(t, F, M)
! Total Moment
Call VecAdd(M, Mom, Mom, 3)
if(symm) then
t(1) = (xB(1,i) + xB(2,i))/2 - CG(1)
t(2) = -(yB(1,i) + yB(2,i))/2 - CG(2)
t(3) = -CG(3)
Call VecPr3(t, FF, M)
341
Call VecAdd(M, Mom, Mom, 3)
end if
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Aero(uij, vij, wij, nx, ny, nz, A, G, N, Ui, Vi, Wi)
real uij(N,N), vij(N,N), wij(N,N), nx(N), ny(N), nz(N)
real G(N), A(N,N)
do i = 1, N
G(i) = -(Ui*nx(i) + Vi*ny(i) + Wi*nz(i))
do j = 1, N
A(i,j) = uij(i,j)*nx(i) + vij(i,j)*ny(i) + wij(i,j)*nz(i)
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Output(x,y,G, N)
real G(N), x(N), y(N)
open(unit=1,file=VLMN.DAT,form=formatted,status=unknown)
write(1,100) N
100 format(variables = "x", "y", "G" /zone i=,I4, f=point)
write(1,110) (x(i), y(i), G(i), i = 1, N)
110 format(3G15.6)
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Induced(NCP,xCP,yCP,xB,yB,uij,vij,wij,symm,Ui,Vi)
real xCP(NCP), yCP(NCP), xB(2,NCP), yB(2,NCP), uij(NCP,NCP)
real vij(NCP,NCP), wij(NCP,NCP)
real x(10), y(10), z(10)
logical symm
Dt = 1.e15
do i = 1, NCP
xp = xCP(i)
yp = yCP(i)
do j = 1, NCP
x(1) = xB(1,j) + Ui*Dt
y(1) = yB(1,j) + Vi*Dt
x(2) = xB(1,j)
y(2) = yB(1,j)
x(3) = xB(2,j)
y(3) = yB(2,j)
x(4) = xB(2,j) + Ui*Dt
y(4) = yB(2,j) + Vi*Dt
N = 4
if(symm) then
x(5) = x(4)
y(5) = -y(4)
x(6) = x(3)
y(6) = -y(3)
x(7) = x(2)
y(7) = -y(2)
x(8) = x(1)
y(8) = -y(1)
342
N = 8
end if
do k = 1, N
z(k) = 0.0
end do
Call PolyVortex(1., x,y,z,N, xP,yP,0.0, u,v,w)
uij(i,j) = u
vij(i,j) = v
wij(i,j) = w
end do
end do
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Geometry(N,trapez,xB,yB,xCP,yCP,nx,ny,nz,NCP)
real xB(2,*), yB(2,*), xCP(*), yCP(*), nx(*), ny(*), nz(*)
real x(4), y(4)
structure /welement/
real x(4), y(4)
integer NR, NC
real nx,ny,nz
end structure
record /welement/ trapez(20)
L = 0
do i = 1, N
NR = trapez(i).NR
NC = trapez(i).NC
do j = 1, 4
x(j) = trapez(i).x(j)
y(j) = trapez(i).y(j)
end do
do ir = 1, NR
do ic = 1, NC
L = L + 1
Call PanelData(ir,ic,NR,NC,x,y,xB(1,L),yB(1,L),
& xCP(L),yCP(L))
nx(L) = trapez(i).nx
ny(L) = trapez(i).ny
nz(L) = trapez(i).nz
end do
end do
end do
NCP = L
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine PanelData(ir,ic,NR,NC,x,y,xB,yB,xCP,yCP)
real x(4), y(4), xB(2), yB(2)
real xp(4), yp(4)
! Find the row data
xp1 = x(1)+(x(2)-x(1))/NR*(ir-1)! 1 4
yp1 = y(1)+(y(2)-y(1))/NR*(ir-1)! +-----+-----+-----+-----+
xp2 = x(1)+(x(2)-x(1))/NR*ir ! ! ! ! ! !
yp2 = y(1)+(y(2)-y(1))/NR*ir ! ! ! ! ! !
xp4 = x(4)+(x(3)-x(4))/NR*(ir-1)! ! ! ! ! !
yp4 = y(4)+(y(3)-y(4))/NR*(ir-1)! ! ! ! ! !
343
xp3 = x(4)+(x(3)-x(4))/NR*ir ! +-----+-----+-----+-----+
yp3 = y(4)+(y(3)-y(4))/NR*ir ! 2 3
! Find the column data
xp(1) = xp1+(xp4-xp1)/NC*(ic-1)
yp(1) = yp1+(yp4-yp1)/NC*(ic-1)
xp(4) = xp1+(xp4-xp1)/NC*ic
yp(4) = yp1+(yp4-yp1)/NC*ic
xp(2) = xp2+(xp3-xp2)/NC*(ic-1)
yp(2) = yp2+(yp3-yp2)/NC*(ic-1)
xp(3) = xp2+(xp3-xp2)/NC*ic
yp(3) = yp2+(yp3-yp2)/NC*ic
! Bound Vortex coordinates
xB(1) = xp(1) + (xp(2)-xp(1))*.25
yB(1) = yp(1) + (yp(2)-yp(1))*.25
xB(2) = xp(4) + (xp(3)-xp(4))*.25
yB(2) = yp(4) + (yp(3)-yp(4))*.25
! Control point coordinates
xCP = (xp(1) + (xp(2)-xp(1))*.75 + xp(4) + (xp(3)-xp(4))*.75)/2
yCP = (yp(1) + (yp(2)-yp(1))*.75 + yp(4) + (yp(3)-yp(4))*.75)/2
return
end
! ****************************************************************
subroutine Input(N, trapez, V, symm, alpha, ro, CG)
parameter (Pi=3.14159265, ToRadians=Pi/180.)
real V(3), CG(3), nx, ny, nz
logical symm
!
structure /welement/
real x(4), y(4)
integer NR, NC
real nx,ny,nz
end structure
record /welement/ trapez(*)
!
open(unit=1,file=vlmn.inp,form=formatted,status=old)
read(1,*) symm ! .true. for xz-symetric bodies
! .false. for unsimetric case
read(1,*) N, ! Number of trapez shapes
& alpha, ! Angle of attack
& Vinf, ! Free-stream velocity
& ro, ! Density of the air
& CG ! X,Y,Z of the center of grafity
!
alpha = alpha*ToRadians
Ui = Vinf*cos(alpha)
Vi = 0.0
Wi = Vinf*sin(alpha)
!
V(1) = Ui
V(2) = Vi
V(3) = Wi
do i = 1, N
do k = 1, 4
read(1,*) x,y ! Read coordinates of trapez
trapez(i).x(k) = x ! corners 1-----4
trapez(i).y(k) = y ! ! !
344
end do ! 2-----3
read(1,*) NR, NC ! Divide it to NR rows and NC cols
trapez(i).NR = NR
trapez(i).NC = NC
read(1,*) nx, ny, nz ! Unit normal components for trapez
trapez(i).nx = nx
trapez(i).ny = ny
trapez(i).nz = nz
end do
!
return
end
! ****************************************************************
include polivrt.for
include lv3d.for
include simq.for
include vecopn.for
The program requires input le given below.
.false.
2
4.559453
1.
1.225
0 0 0
0 0
0.2 0
0.7 0.5
0.5 0.5
1 4
0 0 1
0.5 -0.5
0.7 -0.5
0.2 0.0
0.0 0.0
1 4
0 0 1
read(1,*) N, ! Number of trapez shapes
& alapha, ! Angle of attack
& Vinf, ! Free-stream velocity
& ro, ! Density of the air
& CG ! X,Y,Z of the center of grafity
do i = 1, N
do k = 1, 4
read(1,*) x,y ! corners of the trapez
end do
read(1,*) NR, NC ! Number of rows, Number of columns
read(1,*) nx, ny, nz ! Unit normal components
end do
345
Bibliography
[1] Brandao, M. P., Improper Integrals in Theoretical Aerodynamics: The Probelm
Revisited, AIAA Journal, Vol. 25, No. 9, September 1987.
[2] Katz, J., Plotkin, A., Low-Speed Aerodynamics From Wing Theory to Panel
Methods, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1991.
[3] Van Dyke, M., First- and Second-Order Theory of Supersonic Flow Past Bodies
of Revolution, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 3, March 1951.
[4] Milne-Thompson, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynamics, MacMillan Co. Ltd, Lon-
don, 1955.
[5] Milne-Thompson, L. M., Theoretical Aerodynamics, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New Yourk, 1958.
[6] Karamacheti, K., Principles of Ideal-Fluid Aerodynamics,
[7] Belotserkowski, S. M., The Theory of Thin Wings in Subsonic Flow, Plenum
Press, New York, 1967.
[8] Belotserkowski, S. M., Modelirovanie Plosko-Paralelnogo Otrivnogo Obtekania
Tel, Nauka, Moscow, 1988.
[9] Krasnov, N. F., Aerodynamics 2 Methods of Aerodynamic Calculations, Mir
Publishers Moscow, 1985.
[10] Murray, R. S., Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables, Schaums
Outline Series in Mathematics, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1968.
[11] Moran, J., An Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics,
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[12] Glauert, H., The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory, 2d edition, Cam-
bridge University Press, 1959.
346