Chapter 1: Sociology and the Study of Society 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM
Who coined the term Sociology?
o Auguste Comte, a French Philosopher, used the term sociology in 1838.
Sociology o Sociology tries to make sense of the world that we live in which we live is what makes it such an interesting discipline, although this also makes it very challenging. o Sociology offers a new way of looking at familiar matters. o It forces us to re-examine ourselves, our strongly held beliefs and values, and the social institutions we belong to. o It critically examines our taken for granted assumptions about the world that we live in. o It systematically studies and analyzes the various elements that constitute a societys structure and the relationships among these elements. o Sociology studies past patterns, to detect the current strains, and, within limits, predict the future direction of social change. o Sociology is particularly challenging since it forces us to re-examine ourselves, our strongly held beliefs and values, and the social institutions to which we belong. o Tries to make sense of the very world in which we live is what makes it such an interesting discipline, although this also makes it very challenging. o Is particularly challenging since it forces us to re-examine ourselves, our strongly held beliefs and values, and the social institutions to which we belong.
What do Sociologists do? o Disentangle the complex relationships between individuals and their social world. o Sociologists are interested in collecting data, but they are also interested in explaining their findings. o Sociologists examine relations of power, particularly in the distal sphere and link them to the life experiences of individuals. o Sociologists not only explain the ordered patterns in society but also analyze a social world that changes over time. o Sociologists study patterned human behaviours and on the basis of past patterns try to predict future behaviours. The predictions are not about specific individuals but about social groups. o Individuals create society, but society, in turn, creates them. o Sociologists, therefore, have to disentangle the complex relationships between individuals and their social world. o Sociologists focus on general patterns, or regularities, in the behavior o E.g. Study of suicide. If suicide were based primarily on individual motives, then it should be random that is, showing no particular pattern in the population. Study showed that men were more likely to end their own life than women, single and divorced individuals more likely than married people, city people more than country people o Individuals create society, but society, in turn, creates them. Sociologists, therefore, have to disentangle the complex relationships between individuals and their social world. o Sociologist have the difficult task of not only explaining the ordered patterns in society but also analyzing a social world that changes over time
SOCIETY o A society consists of a group of people within a limited territory who share a common set of behaviours, beliefs, values, material objects (together referred to as culture), and social institutions that exist as a coherent system (Naiman, 2008). o Societies are organized structures with rules for behaviour that people create in order to survive and carry out their daily activities in an organized manner. o Societies are structures that are consistent or ordered but are simultaneously in flux and change. o These structures can vary from the very simple to be the very complex, and once they come into being, they can exist for very long periods of time. o One key goal of sociology, then, is to systematically study and analyze the various elements that constitute a societys structure and the relationships among these elements. o If society is the term generally used to describe the structure of our social world, then culture is the term to describe its contents. o Sociocultural system - ther terms society, social structure, and culture are often used interchangeably within social sciences so some anthropologist use this word.
POWER o Power is the ability of an individual or a group to carry out its will even when opposed by others. o Power is a result of the control individuals or groups have on societys resources, including human resources. o Although we feel its affects, it is hard to locate both what it is and where it is. o Types of Power Relations: o Proximal relations of power: exist within personal relationships. e.g. power that parents have over their children. We can speak of parent, child, teacher, or student as a status, or position within the social structure; statuses can be ranked in relation to each other Those with higher statuses have more privileges and power than lower-status individuals o Distal relations of power: exist at a societal level. e.g. power of legal system, governments. o Power is the ability of an individual or a group to carry out its will even when opposed by others, and although we all feel its effects, it is hard to actually locate both what it is and where it is. o Power is largely a result of the control individuals or groups have of a societys resources, including HR. It exist within personal relationships which we might term proximal relations of power and at a more abstract level in society as a whole which we might term distal relations of power o We live in a society that teaches us to look inward to our own individual failings or to nearby proximal relations of power when we experience the negative consequences of distal relations of power, rather than outward to the broader social system We apply for a job and fail, we are more likely to blame ourselves than to link it to such abstract things as government polices, discriminatory hiring practices, or corporate globalization. o Sociological imagination is the ability to go beyond the personal issues we all experience and connect them to broader social structures. If one person is barely getting by, thats their problem; if, as in Canada, millions are living in poverty, thats a social issue.
Definitions o Sociology is the systematic study of human society and the behaviour of people in the society. o Sociological Imagination by C. Wright Mills o It is the ability to see the intimate realities of our own lives in the context of common social structures. It is the ability to go beyond the personal issues we all experience and connect them to broader social structures.
Dialectics o Change is a result of internal stresses. o Principles of dialectics: o Everything is related o Change is constant o Change proceeds from quantitative to the qualitative o Change is the result of the unity and struggle of opposites
Micro and Macro Sociology o Macro-Sociology o Focuses on the ways individual human behaviour is influenced by broader society. o Concentrates on analyzing social structures. o When a sociologists engages in research and writing that focuses primarily on the big picture of society and its institutions, they are involved with macro-sociology. o Macro-Sociologists: Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton and Karl Marx. o Emile Durkheim published what has become a classic study of suicide. o If suicide were based primarily on individual motives, then it should be random that is, showing no particular pattern in the population o Found patterns i.e. men were more likely to end their own life than women, single and divorced individuals more likely than married people, city people more than country people.
Micro-Sociology o Focuses primarily on the way individual behaviour and perceptions influence society. o Human agency is primary. o When the focus is more on the plans, motivations, and actions of the individual or a specific group, then we are looking at micro- sociology. o Micro level societies are families, church groups, schools and the like. o Micro-Sociologists: Erving Goffman was the pioneer of micro- sociology
Sociological Theories o In macro-sociology two perspectives are very influential: o Order Theories: Focus on and support the current order of things. Functionalism or structural functionalism (Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons) o Change Theories: Focus on how things have changed in the past and ways they might change in the future. Also known as conflict theories or critical theories (Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels). o Structural-Functional Theory: Addresses the question of social organization and how it is maintained. It is interested in why certain structures exist in a society and especially what purpose, or function do they serve. o Society consists of a number of interdependent elements o Every element performs some function o Societies tend toward stability and equilibrium o Societies tend toward consensus o Consensus and stability are desirable in society (Farley, 2000:73) o Conflict Theory: Addresses the points of stress and conflict in society and the ways in which they contribute to social change. Takes a critical look at the social patterns that are part of the social routine. o Assumption associated with conflict theory is that society is made up of groups with competing self-interests. Often the competing groups have unequal power. People compete for resources that are in scarce supply. Generally, the resources that are in short supply involve wealth and power. o Conflict is built into society o One group becomes dominant o Consensus is artificial o Conflict in society is desirable (Farley, 2000:74)
Structural Functional Theory o the society works best if different types of the society work coehevisly together. o e.g engine o All the parts of the society have to work together in order to provide a stable society. o How to maintain this form of stability? o We need to assign different functions to different ppl
Conflict Theory o There must be social change o The interest between the lower class and higher class are always in conflict o One group becomes dominant not only because it has all the resources but it also is the one who creates rules for the lower class to follow. o Conflict is desirable because thats the only way frustrated people can let their anger out. o CHAPTER 3: Culture, Society, and History 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM What is Culture? o Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society including both the material and non-material elements. o The non-material elements of culture include the cognitive, that is, the knowledge and beliefs of a people; the symbolic, which include verbal and non-verbal forms of communication; and the normative, or values, beliefs , and behavioural expectations of a people. o The material elements of a culture include all of a groups material artifacts and products created by it members
o Culture is essentially the complete way of life shared by people, including both the material and non-material elements.
Culture o Subcultures o Subcultures are groups that share in the overall culture of society but also maintain a distinctive set of values, norms, life-styles, and even language. Example: subculture at one stage in its historysuch as jazz, punk, hip hop and rave culturesmay represent mainstream taste within a short period of time o Countercultures o Countercultures are groups having values, interests, beliefs, and life-styles that are opposed to those of the larger culture. Example: During the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. LGBT of present times.
Elements of Culture o Non-Material Elements o Cognitive: knowledge and beliefs of people What people believe, what knowledge is passed down o Symbolic: verbal and non-verbal forms of communication e.g wedding ring means something to people o Normative: values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations of people. e.g Canadians are expected to be polite. o Material Elements o Material artifacts, products created by groups members e.g church Note: Both elements are interrelated.
Theoretical Perspective o First Approach o Culture is the underlying basis of interaction o It accepts culture as a given and is more interested in how culture shapes us than in how culture itself is shaped. Example: Scholars taking this approach have concentrated on illustrating how norms, values, and language guide our behaviour. o Second Approach o Focuses on culture as a social product. Focuses on why particular aspects of culture develop. How did this culture come to be Example: Scholars would be interested in why the content of commercial television is so different from content of public television.
Theoretical Perspectives On Culture o First Approach o Culture is the underlying basis of interaction. o Is characteristic of structural-functional theory. Structure is created to facilitate their own rules and resources
o Second Approach o Focuses on culture as a social product. Focuses on why particular aspects of culture develop. o Is characteristic of conflict theorists interested in the determinants of culture culture develops in order to facilitate those who have resources
Cultural Perspective o Whether structural functionalists or conflict theorists, sociologists share some common orientations towards culture: o Culture is Problem Solving: People share common problems (food, shelter etc.) These problems are universal but the solutions highly vary. o Example: Trobriand Islands- matrilineal society-childrearing may be assigned to mothers brother; U.S-to natural mother & father; Israeli kibbutz-communal nurseries o Functionalists argue that the solutions have evolved over generations of trial and error, and they survive because they work o Conflict theorists argue that these solutions work better for some people than others. Elites manipulate culture. o o Culture is Relative: The solutions that each culture devises may be startlingly different. o Example: Wodaabe of Niger-Parents are not allowed to talk directly to their two first born children, who will often be cared for by their grandparents ( Beckwith 1983). o Is it functional?: If it helps meet recurrent problems and maintain society. o Cultural Relativity requires that each cultural trait be evaluated in the context of its own culture. No cultural practice is universally good or bad; goodness and badness are relative, not absolute. o you dont compare youre culture with other cultures. It is biased because youll always think your is better. o No culture is good or bad, it is relative towards the culture o Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view the norms and values of our own culture as standards against which to judge the practices of other cultures. o we think our culture is better than everyone elses. It more functional than everyone elses o It is good as long it creates social cohesion within your group. It gives you rules and a mechanism to understand your own group. o It is bad when you start treating other people in a bad manner because you think your culture and practices are better than others. When it translates to discrimination to others it is bad. o Culture is a Social Product: Culture is a social, not a biological, product. o Some aspects of culture are deliberate. Example: designing of homes, buying publishing empires to spread own version of truth. o It is socially construct, created by people. o e.g In Canada house are generally have a triangle roof because of snow whereas others have flat o Other aspects of culture develop gradually out of social interaction. Example: dress patterns and its language
Characteristics of Culture 1. Culture is learned, rather than being simply the result of some biological predictability o Example New Guinea-Arapesh (non-aggressive, nurturing, gender differences minimum), Mundugumor (both sexes violent, competitive), Tchambuli (women dominant and aggressive sex, traders, men engaged in art & ceremony) 2. Culture is rooted in symbols-physical, vocal, or gestural signs that have arbitrary, socially learned meanings. o e.g diamonds in a marriage means love 3. Culture is a system shared by all members of a society. o It is the embodiment of a collective of individuals, past and present , rather than simply the behavior of any one of them. 4. Elements of culture are generally integrated, i.e., the various components fit into a coherent whole, even though there may be contradictory elements within the whole. o Cultural Universals: While each culture is unique, they all share certain common elements. Example: rules of inheritance, myths, legends, taboos, marriage etc.
What are the Elements of Canadian Culture Emphasis on market place Emphasis on profit Emphasis on perpetual economic growth Emphasis on competition, hard work, individual enterprise. Emphasis on personal accumulation of wealth
Why do we create cultures and how do cultures arise? Survival in order to meet needs Humans create culture because they live together in social groups to survive. feeling of belongings differentiate from other cultures we need to live by rules, we like structure, we like stability and these are created in order to facilitate Example: Muslims or Jews generally would say that they dont eat pork; Hindus dont eat beef because of religious reasons. Anthropologist Marvin Harris (1989) was interested in linking the origins of religious practices, not primarily to beliefs, but to issues of environment and survival. According to Harris, construction of certain food taboos can help increase the likelihood of survival. Shared eating patterns are both a way to bind people together and distinguish them from others. Understanding of material conditions is important to understand the working of society. According to Sanderson(1999), in the process of acquiring and distributing their means of existence, humans as social animals enter into certain social relations with each other, keeping in mind: a) What nature provides (Ecology) b) Characteristics of their own population (Demography) c) Develop their tools and methods of survival (Technology)
Personal property doesnt give you power it only gives you status ** exam
Features of Foraging Societies Small Groups (50-80 people) Autonomous, Self Sufficient Unit Relatively cooperative and egalitarian societies Bands connected through ties of marriage to a broader network of bands. Wider network shared same general cultural patterns, common language group People could move from one band to another Kinship a central organizing feature of foraging people Kinship is the most universal and basic of all human relationships and is based on ties of blood, marriage, or adoption. There are two basic kinds of kinship ties: those based on blood ties that trace descent and those based on marriage, adoption, or other connections. Exogamy-keeping gene pool open, also served the vital purpose of maintaining kin links with neighbouring bands Marriage partners had to be sought outside the local band This helped minimize tensions between bands in possible competition for resurources, allowed for movement of individuals between bands, and increased the likelihood of sharing and cooperation. Foraging people relied on simple but effective technology to obtain food, build their dwellings, and so on. No private ownership of main productive forces, land & natural resources Minimal personal possessions Because all possessions had to be carried to the next site Division of labour that is, how various tasks in a society are divided up - was simple on the basis of sex and age. The gender division of labour that is, assigning different tasks to men and women varied from society to society, although big-game hunting was almost always a male activity, and women were more often food collectors. The gender division of labour did not seem to automatically lead to male dominance. Men and women were essentially equal in early foraging societies Interdependence of both sexes for economic survival and group solidarity Status inequalities within genders were minimal Warfare relatively low Its not that foragers were naturally peaceable people, but rather that, under conditions of economic scarcity, fighting battles would have been highly risky for group survival. No major inequalities in society. What existed was on the basis of skills not heredity. No special privileges Decisions made through consensus Modesty and humility essential behaviour expectations Stinginess or arrogance considered offence Dispute settled informally, through elders or by moving to other bands. Emphasize the notion of reciprocity as well as the notion of redistribution (Polanyi 1957,68). Example: Potlatch ceremony- redistribution of surplus and pushes individuals to be more productive.
What Foraging Societies Tell Us o Such societies tent to emphasize the notion of reciprocity as well as the notion of redistribution o Reciprocity means that each member of a society has duties and obligations to all others. o The notion of redistributions means that the community transfer wealth to those who have less. o The extreme inequalities of wealth and power have not been a part of most societies down through the ages
Decline of Foraging Societies Changes Shift to farming and herding Shift to domesticated plants and animals as major food source Humans gained an increasing measure of control over the natural environment Changes in human social organization Increased specialization led to new technological innovations, greater surplus, greater specialization, and so on, in never- ending process. Reasons Population pressures Decline in availability of wild foods Cumulative development of new technologies Climate change Results Further growth of human populations Greater permanence of settlements Possibility of stable economic surplus Increased specialization of tasks New technological innovations- Greater surplus- Greater specialization
Social Inequality Structured social inequality means both unequal allocation of resources and unequal distribution of power. According to Karl Marx, societies and cultures worked based on their Modes of Production (material infrastructure). The mode of production is a central concept in Marxism and is defined as the way a society is organized to produce goods and services. It consists of two major aspects: the forces of production and the relations of production. The forces of production include all of the elements that are brought together in production from land, raw material, and fuel to human skill and labor to machinery, tools, and factories. The relations of production include relationships among people and peoples relationships to the forces of production through which decisions are made about what to do with the results. Marx emphasized a societys economy- organized production, distribution, and exchange of good and services. Forms of property : Personal possessions and Productive property Productive property: gives one power E.g a factory is productive property, part of means of production You gain control over others you can hire or fire them and gain control over the productive process. You can expand the factory or shut it down Personnel possessions do not give power but can give status Once Surplus comes to be produced, advances in technology and expansion of division of labour enlarge inequalities between people. Private property comes under control of some, who are removed from production and enables them to accumulate wealth. Others are forced to be producers. Structured inequality, once in existence, becomes self perpetuating. Social Class: Each of these groups, which have distinct relation to the means of production, is referred to as a Social Class. In societies where private appropriation (taking something for one's own use) of surplus occurs, there are always at least two major classes: A relatively large subordinate class that produces the surplus and a relatively small appropriating class that, through ownership or control of the means of production, gets to keep all or part of that surplus. Modes of production: a sum total of a system. Feudalism and captilaism is a mode of a productions Means of production includes all the things that humans use to produce what we need, including tools, natural resources, the land on which production occurs, and the buildings where production takes place If you own the means of productions you a buguous Chapter 4: Feudalism to Capitalism 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM Feudalism o Was an agricultural system that grew out of the ruins of the old slave societies o An agricultural system in the 5 th to 16 th century o This was a system of private ownership of the productive units, there was an appropriating class of owners, the nobility and a producing class of serfs, or peasants o Also minor class such as artisans, soldiers o Lands was a mean of production o Commodity Production and the growth of Markets o A market exists when people offer goods and services for sale to others in a more or less systematic and organized way. o An object that is produced specifically for exchange is referred to as a commodity
Decline of Feudalism, Rise of Capitalism o Capitalism developed out of the feudal system, beginning in England and gradually spreading to parts of Europe. The decline of feudalism is linked to many variables which fed on and reinforced the others. o Capitalism is not a natural and inevitable outcome of human existence; rather it should be seen as the result of certain events that occurred in the past few centuries in one small part of the globe o Capitalism is the socioeconomic formation or an economic system in which all production is subordinated to the imperatives of the market: accumulation, labour productivity, competition, and profit maximization. o New class relations: Rise of agrarian capitalism and growth of capitalist markets. o Slavery was the most extreme form in which extra-economic coercion was used; feudal forms were somewhat more moderate. o The first major change to feudal class relations occurred in England, where a variable rent system replaced fixed rent; in others words as in todays world a landlord could independently set the amount that the peasant had to pay in rent to work the land o Economic coercion (first time) played a role in production of surplus Coercion - the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats: o As a result of the shift to a variable rent system, both feudal lords & tenant farmers wanted improvements for increased profits o Urban centers grew increase in number of merchants and crafts people. o Merchants became class of owners (Bourgeoisie) They realized that they could improve profits via greater control over the productive process Began to provide the raw materials and later the tools to those who made the products for them. o Capitalist enterprise thrives on competition- more expansion for maximization of profits not just profits You grow or you die It is not simply the profits that the capitalist seeks, but rather the maximization or profits. o Capitalist owning class, could not survive without a class of workers Workers (Proletariat) made of displaced or dispossessed peasants, artisans, crafts people who could survive only by selling labor power for wages. o Accumulation of Capital o Capital used by Feudal lords to maintain entourage of servants, lived in opulence, catholic church viewed usury as sin. o Capital came from the expansion of trade as well as from new technologies and increased rates of productivity. o Source of capital: Expansion of trade, some nobles turned their wealth into capital and colonial expansion. o European powers expanded around the globe in competition for valuable resources, new markets and a cheap labour force o In England, new wealth retained by powerful monarchy and England became the center for industrial production. o In England, much of the wealth was used o develop a capitalist market, while in most of continental Europe, the new wealth was retained by a powerful monarchy. o Capitalists, saw potential in human beings as commodities leading to modern slave trade. o Capitalism had to wrest people from their land, alter traditional ways of life, destroy social bonds and leave most people economically destitute. o You grow or you die o Technological Development and Growth of Labour Force o New technologies developed, including harnessing power, iron mining, important to agriculture. o 16th century: workers drawn to manufactory system , in which all the operations involved in a specific type of production took place in articular locations under the direction of the owner o dispossessed peasants who couldnt pay their rent were driven into urban centers to find some means of survial o Many lords, looking for new ways to increase their wealth, began to enclose the public commons land that was collectively farmed by all peasants - as well as the forests on or around their estates,, and turned them into private grazing land for their own sheep and cattle. Feudal lords, to make profits, enclosed the common lands (enclosure movement) o As capitalism developed, workers needed to be disciplined to help increase productivity and profits Workers under the control of employers. Shift from small scale to wage work Low wages required all families to work for survival. o Industrial Revolution occurred not simply because of the new technologies, but because there was a group of individuals with enough capital to purchase them, as well as an available labour force to work at them o Political Transformations and Rise of Nation States o A nation is not simply a political entity; it also embodies the notion of a group of people living within a geographical boundary o who share a common language, culture, and history o Concept of nation state grew in market economy. o As market economies began to grow and the traditional feudal relations began to decline, two groups began to expand their power: monarch (political power) and the growing capitalist class(economic power) the former began to gain political power as that of the feudal lords began to weaken, while the capitalist gained economic power through their expanding wealth. o Both powers depended on each other for expansion The monarchs realized that their political power could be expanded via the wealth of the rapidly expanding capitalist class. o The capitalists benefited from a powerful soverign at the head of a united kingdom, or nation A nation is not simply a political entity; it also embodies the notion of a group of people living within a geographical boundary who share a common language, culture and history The growth of nation-states in Europe gave momentum to the further expansion of trade and commerce, and colonialism was largely fuelled by competition for power between heads of European states Nation-states developed concurrently with capitalist economic relations. o By late 18th century capitalist consolidated its power further and absolutist monarchies were replaced by republic or constitutional monarchy. o Religious and Philosophical Transformations o John Locke(1632-1704), British Philosopher: Individuals have inherent rights such as right to life, liberty and property, independent of the laws of any particular society; Lockes views on individual rights as well as on democratic forms of government, appealing to bourgeois class. o Max Weber (1864-1920), German Sociologist: felt that the origins of capitalism were closely linked to a new form of Christianity that spread across northern Europe starting around the fifteenth century. o Protestant churches attached moral value to rational pursuit of economic gain. o Capitalism has always been a world system to some extent, and Canada from the outset was economically and politically tied to a European power
What the Transition to Capitalism Teaches Us o We can see se that change proceeds from the quantitative to the qualitative; that is, change within feudal societies occurred in numerous small ways until, finally, the sum total of many gradual changes led to the radical transformation of whole societies o Market is the center feature of a capitalism economy o Market is controlled by the capitalism o The short term goal of a capitalism is maximization of profit o The long term goal of a capitalism is to sustain the capital system as a whole. o In order to maximize profits, you must go global. o You gotta grow, or you die o If you are an owner of a system, and you decide to pay your employees more. Your employees might think you are great but you are not growing. Other companies will take over. o The coercion in feudailism was not economic whereas capitalism was economic o Feadalism says you are not going to get protection.. whereas captilism says you are out of a job o Alienation o Who gave the concept of sociological imagination .. Mills o if you were to use your sociological imagination, what you predict for capitalism? o E.g we have become under one organization o The transition from feudalism to capitalism teaches us that even the most rigid of socioeconomic formations can eventually decay and disappear. A clue that a social system is on the decline is the increasing inability of the dominant class to maintain its political and moral authority.
Perspectives o Adam Smith (1723-1790) Scottish Political Economist o Free markets, while appearing to be chaotic and unpredictable, was actually guided by an invisible hand that made it work for the benefit of all. o The wealth and collective well-being of society was invariably produced in the marketplace as individuals pursued their own self-interest. o Karl Marx o The capitalist marketplace primarily benefited the owners of the largest productive units. o Workers received a small share of what they produced, and small business owners struggled hard to survive in the competitive marketplace. o Capitalism in Canada o Canada seen as a source of raw material and market for goods produced. o Control of French until 1760, followed by England o 1867, mainly agricultural, by early 20th century 7th in industrial output. o Immigration for labour power. o o Halifax, center for industrial production until 1867.
Capitalism Explained o Capitalism is , at its core, an economic system in which all production is subordinated to the needs of those who own the productive units. o Capitalism is an extremely complex and ever-changing system; second, unlike slave or feudal systems, the class structure of capitalism is very hard to see o Capitalism is a mode of production with private appropriation of surplus o Two classes o Appropriating class or owning class This class owns or controls the principal means of production, distribution, or exchange of goods and services Also referred to as capital o The producing class or working class They must work for a wage because they own no significant means of production Also referred to as labour o Between these two major classes is another class, reffered to as the petite bourgeoisie. o This class is made up of small business owners, independent farmers, craftspeople, and self-employed professionals those who have a small amount of capital and may or may not employ a few workers, but who survive largely through their own labour o Capitalism is mode of production with private ownership of the means of production. In capitalist societies, as compared to earlier class formations, all production is subordinated to the imperatives of the market, and all things become potential commodities.
Features of Capitalism o A true capitalist no longer interested in the simple buying and selling of commodities, capitalists are concerned with investements or what is also referred to as the circulation of capital It enters the market with the sole purpose of coming back as an increased amount, which is realized as profits o Capitalists are primarily concerned with the rate of profit that is, the amount of return they get on their initial investment. o Because of the competitiveness within capitalist markets, the owner of the businesses cannot just sit around waiting for commodities to be produced sold in the marketplace, and later converted to profits. o They try to speed up the cycle by borrowing money from financial institutions or by selling shares in their companies to quickly raise new capital. o Short-term goal of a capitalist not simply profits but maximization of profits o Seek to maximize profits not because of personal greed but because of the competitive nature of capitalist economies. o Long-term goal: maintenance of the capitalist system o Key producer of wealth is the worker o Make your money for work for you o The Hidden Source of Capitalist Profits o Labour Power the sum total of a workers physical and mental capacities that go into a particular work task is a commodity that this purchased o Surplus Value: Private appropriation of surplus (as in other class formation) but differs because the process is indirect. Surplus value source could be knowledge or services. o Centrality of labour for production The centrality of labour for the production of profit comes into high relief when workers go on strike o The cost of purchasing labour power is always far less than the new value that the worker produces. From the Marxist perspective, this is the ultimate go source of profits for the capitalist and of wealth for society as a whole. This source of wealth becomes totally obscured in a capitalist societies. o The Rise of Monopoly Capitalism o Change from free enterprise to monopolization (this control is referred to as Oligopoly) Free enterprise occurs when no single buyer or seller can affect the price of a commodity by withdrawing their purchasing power or their product from the marketplace Monopolization does not mean that only one company controls an industry. o Oligopoly is when a small number of companies control a sector, then the free market effectively ceases to exist. o The process of monopolization is part of a more generalized process referred to as the concentration and centralization of capital. Concentration refers to the fact that capital comes to be in fewer and fewer hands as a result of monopolization. Centralization means that capital is centred in a few core geographic areas both within countries and on a global scale. Within this loose structure, some regions and nation- states can be considered to be the core, while others are in the periphery. The core is made up of a small number of regions and nation-states that appropriate the majority of the worlds wealth. The periphery is made up of the least economically developed countries or regions. o The Crisis of Overproduction o Anarchy of production and crisis of overproduction This occurred because almost all production is directed to the profit maximization of each individual enterprise, and it is not coordinated (anarchy of production) Capitalist production leads to crisis of overproduction Too many commodities are produced than can be profitably sold and too much capital has been invested in industry, in the attempt to claim a share of the available profits The crisis of overproduction is one of the main factors that gives rise to the economic cycles that occur within capitalist systems. o The drive for ever-increasing profits creates a glut (abundance of something) of goods and glut of workers, we also see creation of glut of capital. o The anarchy of production in capitalist societies leads inevitably to the crisis of overproduction, which produces a glut of goods, workers, and capital itself.
o The Financialization of the Economy o The shift in all developed capitalist economies from production to finance, which has progressed since the 1970s, has been termed financialization of economy Financialization sees capitalists shift their interests from investing in the real economy that part which produces actual goods and services to what is termed the paper economy. Because these kinds of investments bring quicker returns, more and more investors shift to financial products Growth of paper economy (speculators thrive on instability) o Shift to a financialized economy matter because corporations involved in the real economy have traditionally sought economic stability, which allowed them to plan production for profit over extended periods of time. o Finialization, in contrast, thrives on instability. o The goal is to invest capital for the short term and extract maximum profit through slight changes in the stock market, commodity values, currency prices, or interest rates. o The greater the instability of the financial markets the greater the opportunity to extract profits. o Securitization involved financial institutions taking many forms of debt for example mortagages, student loans, and credit card debt and repackaging them as a security that could be purchased by financial entities willing to take the risk. o Development of private equity and hedge funds leading to buying and selling not as producers but only for profit o Financialization has become a major aspect of developed capitalist economies. One of the many consequences of this development is growing economic instability o Social production versus private ownership o Because our society focus on individuals, it is often forgotten that the production of wealth in capitalism is ultimately a social activity: it is produced by large groups of people working together in a highly complex division of labour. o Surplus is still privately appropriated o Thus, the product of social production is not placed at the disposal of all, but rather is appropriated by a small class of owners. o Self-expansion the primary concern In expanding, capital must search the globe for places to make ever-higher profits at an ever-faster pace. In the process, whether such self-expansion destroys human lives or the environment can never be the primary concern. o There has been a growing contradiction between the increasingly social nature of production and the increasingly private appropriation. Of the fruits of such production. Those who own and control the productive process is capitalism have a particular set of interests that may not match the needs of goals of the rest of us. o In pre-capitalist societies, the surplus was extracted through various forms of political , legal, and military coercion. In capitalism, the coercion takes on a mainly economic form. o The insatiable drive for profits on the part of the capitalist is a necessary condition of the capitalist system itself. Because of the competitive, the goal of every capitalist must be not simply profits, but the maximization of profits o Capitalism is a very flexible and adaptable system and can take many different forms.
Todays Capitalism o Imperialism/colonialism- Laissez-faire capitalism to welfare state to globalization- neoliberalism. o The period of the mid-nineteenth to the early twentieth century is often reffered to as the stage of laissez-faire capitalism, when free enterprise still dominated, there were many small or medium-sized productive units, and there was only moderate state intervention to control the worst excesses of capital. o Welfare state: Governments played an increasing role in economic affairs, while the public sector and social safety net expanded. o This form of capitalism is commonly reffered to as the welfare state because governments developed policies that enhanced the welfare of most citizens rather than just the dominant class. Welfare states diminished after 1970s Extremely large corporate units had developed, and the competition was intense as they sought to increase their rate of profit. o Neoliberalist policies strengthened free market, minimal role of governments, social values determined by market, individual a core unit of society. o The welfare state gradually diminished in all capitalist societies and was replaced by a set of policies collectively reffered to as neoliberalism. o Capitalism as a Global System Development of Transnational corporations Capitalism has, to some extent, always been a global system, looking beyond national borders for new sources of profit. In the last fifty years, transnational corporations have expanded in size and grown more powerful Power with those who control economic sphere, sphere ofideas and political sphere In all capitalist societies, the owners of the largest productive units hold enormous amounts of power relative to the rest of us, and with the growing concentration of capital , this power is falling into fewer and fewer hands. The power of those who own or control the means of production can be linked to power in the sphere of ideas also refered to as ideological sphere In capitalist societies, the power of those who own or control the means of production can also be linked to power in two other societal spheres: the sphere of ideas and the political sphere. o Chapter 5: Social Class 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM Some Terms o Social Class: Class refers to a persons relationship to the means of production. o False consciousness is a lack of awareness of ones real position in the class structure. o Class consciousness occurs when people are aware of their relationship to the means of production and recognize their true class identity. o Class conflict: The ongoing tension between the appropriating and producing class. o What is being taking away from the appropriating is called a surplus. o Its a conflict between be the producing class and the class that is being taking away. o Labour Union: Is a group of workers who join together to bargain with an employer or group of employers with regard to wages, benefits and working conditions. o Lumpenproletariat: Is an underclass that consists of the long- term unemployed, or those engaged in illegal activities, who are completely outside of production. They are different from students, housewives, and the retired, who are outside of production. For Marx, these were individuals on the margins of every capitalist economy who have been used by the ruling class to oppose the working class. o (Major Classes in Capitalist Societies: Capitalists,, Workers, Petite Bourgeoisie and Lumpenproletariat) o Socioeconomic Status (SES): Differences between people linked either to income or to some combination of income, occupation, and education. When we talk about upper, middle, and lower class, we are referring to SES. o Class often confused with socioeconomic status. The latter is a position in the hierarchy of inequality based on a combination of income, occupation, and education. Socioeconomic status is connected to, but distinct from, the traditional concept of class
Max Weber-Class, Status, Power o Weber developed a more complex system of analysis. o Weber proposed three independent dimensions on which people are ranked in a system. o Class: SES or individual life chances o Status: social honor/prestige, expressed in life-style. o Power: political influence i.e., the ability to get others to act against their wishes, the ability to overcome resistance. o Power/Political Party leads to political influence. It will make you do things even if you dont agree with it o It is not suffient just to look at class but also class and power
Class, Status, Power o Status o The level of social prestige (Weber). As compared to class, status is a descriptive category. o We have many statuses concurrently. o Status can be Ascribed e.g., sex, race. o Status can be Acquired e.g., education, occupation. o Status positions can be ranked in relation to each other by their privileges and obligations. o Ascribed are assigned to you, you cant change them o Acquired you obtain these statuses o Class o Socioeconomic status or individual life-chances (Weber) o Prior to capitalism, Class relations were highly visible. o Class categories were defined by law and supported by religious beliefs and traditions. o Everyone knew their place and the place of others through symbols such as official titles and dress styles. o Concept of class helps us understand both the dynamics of power and some of the tensions that lead to social change. o At the feudal times you can notice who was in which class by the way you dress o Three major classes in capitalist societies The capitalist Workers Petite bourgeoisie o Although we tend to notice status differences rather than class differences, class is a central tool for understanding society and our place in it
Why does working class that is big in numbers unable to attain power? o Ongoing stresses and strains between groups within class o Real differences within the working class o Forced competition between workers created by capitalism o Divide-and-rule tactics utilized by capital
Marxism vs. Weber o Marxist class analysis sees inequality as tied to a struggle between opposing interests, while Webers sees no struggles between layers, just differences
o John Porters (1965): o In line with class analysis concentrates on the power held by a relatively small, socially homogeneous group of individuals who sit on the boards of directors of major corporations. o Also like stratification theorists, argues that the objective criteria of class are income, occupation, property ownership and education. o While weber agreed with Marx that class was tied to ownership or control of property, he felt that social inequality was multidimensional and not sufficiently explained by property relationships alone. o Weber, there were three dimensions of inequality. o Class socioeconomic status or individual life chances o Status the level of social prestige o Party/Power- the degree of political influence
Structure of Classes o The class structure in Canada is made up of the two dominant classes, the owning class and the working class, plus two smaller classes, the petite bourgeoisie and the lumpenproletariat o Class categories are relational o A class exists only insofar as another corresponding class exists. o Classes are structurally in conflict o This conflict occurs because of the relationship of power wherever private appropriation of surplus exist. o The more surplus that goes into one class, the less that goes to the other, the more one class has its needs met, the less the other class has its needs met. o Classes are not monolithic o There are segments within particular classes ( sometimes referred to as class fractions or class strata), and tensions can develop between the carious sectors within a class. E.g white male workers oppose equity programs that would assist women or racialized workers, fearing loss of their own jobs. o Classes change over time o Class can expand or contract in size, or their internal composition can change o Class is linked to the allocation of power as well as the allocation of material resources within a society o Ownership or control of the means of production in any society gives one enormous control over ones own life and the lives of others, because productive activity is so central to human existence. o Classes must be seen in a global context o Class has both an objective (linked to MOP) and a subjective component (class consciousness) o Ones class membership is determined by real attributes that is, whether one survives through ownership (bourgeoisie), through work (working class), or through a combination of the two (petite bourgeouisie).
Class Consciousness refers to the understanding one has has of ones place in the class structure and of the shared interests one has with others in the same place o Class has both an objective and subjective component. The subjective component is class consciousness. o Indicators of degree of class consciousness: o Organizations formed to protect its own class interest. o Actual positions taken by these groups, as well as by individuals belonging to the capitalist class.
The Owning Class o Pursue a variety of occupations: manufacturing, the stock market, or media o Many inherit their way to the top o Most have had at least middle-class parents with business experience, who sent their children to excellent schools. o Gain power to affect the lives of millions by controlling media resources, contributing money to political campaigns, or deciding to open or close manufacturing plants. o According to Dye (1983), they believe in equality of opportunity rather than absolute equality. o Conflict theory would suggest, they are interested in maintaining a system that has been good to them. o Their economic wealth and power allows them to exert pressure in the political sphere o Corporate rule is often used to describe the power of the major corporations, it must always be remembered that there is a small number of powerful individuals who are actually in control.
The Working Class o Tradition Marxist view is that the working class is made up of all those who survive by earning a wage. o The Working Class (vs. middle-class) o Includes those who work in blue-collar industries. o Work in chemical, automobile, and other manufacturing plants o Sometimes receive excellent wages and benefits, but it is this class that suffers 10-15% unemployment during economic recessions and slumps. o According to David Halle (1984), what makes working-class distinct from middle class: o education o job and economic prospects o leisure o gender differences.
Class Consciousness o Class has both an objective and a subjective component o Indicator of the degree of class consciousness of a particular class is the organization it forms to protect its own class. o Owning class has a fairly high degree of class consciousness. o Is the organizations it forms to protect its own class interests. o Purpose: Strengthen the voice of business on issues of national importance; Promote common interests of Canadian big business; Achieving a consensus within the corporate sector on major policy issues, influencing various levels of government, and swaying public opinion; Formulate economic policies; Affect public opinion with the goal of advancing the interests of the TNCs.
Marxism o Classes in Capitalist Societies: Haves (bourgeoise), Have-nots (proletariat), Petite Bourgeoisie and Lumpenproletariat. o In Marks view, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production. o The key factor is not income or occupation but whether individuals control their own tools and their own work. o If false consciousness was replaced by class consciousness-Marx believed- an awareness of true class identity would develop-he believed a revolutionary movement to eliminate class differences is than likely to occur.
New Middle Class o What is often termed the middle class is not a class at all; rather, it is a group of people with improved life chances and lifestyles distinct from traditional blue-collar workers o Erik Olin Wright (1980): A distinct category new middle class o Consists of certain occupational categories, such as managers and supervisors, small employers, and semi- autonomous employees who had some control over their work. o Share characteristics of more than one class. o Clement and Myles (1994) o Consists of those who exercise control over the labour power of others but do not have real economic ownership of the means of production and, as a result, must still sell their labour power, skills, or knowledge for a wage o Whats wrong with defining New middle class as a class category? o Separating out of groups of workers on the basis of what are essentially status differences diverts attention from class relationships and structures of power. o Also draws attention to distinctions between groups of workers and away from their shared relationship to capital. o More analytically precise to describe the new middle class as a distinct fraction within a single class (example: university professors, formerly privileged workers).
Social Stratification o Strata are layers, and term social stratification leads us to conceive of inequalities in social positions, ostatuses, as ranked from top to bottom. o Social stratification refers to the structure of social inequality in each society-the manner in which scarce resources and social rewards are distributed among different social categories o An individuals position in a system of stratification affects life chances o Note: American sociologist commonly use the term when referring to social inequality o Opposing Side: Marxist approach sees class as being determined by a persons relation to production, that is, either through the selling of labour power or ownership of capital assist o Marxists ask whether a person makes their living through work or through ownerhship. o In contrast to stratification theories, this determination remains constant over time and place.
Theories of Stratification o There has been a split in sociology between stratification theorists, who put an emphasis in sociology between stratification theorists, who put an emphasis on inequality of ownership of productive system. o Structural-Functional Theory o Davis and Moore (1945) Each society has essential tasks (functional prerequisites) that must be performed if it is to survive. The tasks associated with shelter, food, and reproduction are some of the most obvious examples. We may need to offer high rewards as an incentive to make sure that people are willing to perform these tasks. o The size of the reward must be proportional to three factors: * The importance of the task * The pleasantness of the task * The scarcity of the talent and ability necessary to perform the task. o Supply-and-demand argument views inequality as a rational response to a social problem (consensus theory-societal agreement about the importance of social positions and the need to pay to have them filled) o Critique: Structural-Functional Theory o High demand (scarcity) can be artificially created by limiting access to good jobs. o Social-class background, sex, and race or ethnicity probably have more to do with who gets highly rewarded statuses than do those with scarce talents and ability. o Many highly rewarded statuses (e.g. rock stars, professional athletes) are hardly necessary to the maintenance of society. o Conflict Perspective o Marxist Theory: Inequality is an outcome of private property, where the goods of society are owned by some and not by others. Stratification is neither necessary nor justifiable, but Marx saw it as inevitable (because of division of labour). Inequality does not benefit society; it benefits only the rich. o Modern Conflict Theory: In modern economy, control and ownership of modes of production may be independent. Powerful can oppress those who work for them by claiming the profits from their labour. o Critique: Conflict Perspective o Critics, question the conclusion that inequality is necessarily undesirable and unfair. * First, people are unequal (some are more talented, hard working) * Second, coordination and authority are functional Opposes Marxist analysis. It attempts to frame universal perspective. o Two transformations from traditional Marxist (class-based) orientations: o a) Shift away from materialist analysis (real, material conditions of peoples lives) to analyses that focused on subjective, individual feelings and ideas. b) Shift away from class analysis to the study of status variables, oppression, and personal identity. Chapter 7 The Social Construction of Ideas and Knowledge 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM Ideology a body of assumptions, ideas, and values combine into a coherent world view. o We acquire this package of beliefs and values through the process of socialization. o These are connected and integrated ideas, beliefs and values o Some of the ideas are accepted because they fit within our already existing ideological framework, they are rejected if they are out of place. o Every ideology has as its underpinning an acceptance that their groups beliefs and behaviors are morally grounded and superior to others beliefs and behaviors. o Once in place, they seem so objective and obvious that it is hard to dislodge them. o Ideas do not develop in a vaccum; rather, they arise out of particular conditions at specific moments in history. The body of assumptions, ideas, and values that come together into a coherent world-view is refered to as an ideology o Why do we come to believe ideas: o Everyone believes them o They come from some authority figure we believe to be truthful, such as parent, teacher, religious leader, or some expert in the media. o They provide an easy explanation for the realities of our lives. o If, like the small fish, those at the bottom of the social order feel that the world is unjust, why do they continue to put up with it? o Marx and Engels provide insight into this question by explaining that those with economic power in any society also have power over its idea o The ideas of the ruling class are in every era the ruling ideas; i.e., the class which is the ruling material force of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force. o We start seeing this as inevitable or even desirable, thus supporting current social arrangements o Humans are not robots that passively accept received knowledge; as the contradictions within society become more and more evident, the demand for change increases and one or more counter-ideologies develops. o At least some of the small fish will eventually notice that, indeed, there is no justice in the world o Liberalism: We verus Me Revisted o In class-based societies, it is inevitable that certain ideas will come to predominate over others. o That is because the rulling class has a real interest in promoting and defending those ideas that best protect its interests and maintain the status quo. o Given its economic power, this class also has the capacity to do so o The control that the ruling class has over a societys belief system is often referred to as a ideological hegemony. o Those who have economic power in a society are able to dominate the ideological sphere as well. This dominance is referred to as ideological hegemony o While force or the threat of it can be used to maintain the social order, class relations are more often sustained in the sphere of culture, or our everyday life. o The ability of those with power to control the transmission of ideas means that the entire way we see the world what we feel is just natural or common sense is in fact socially constructed. o Liberalism must be seen as the dominant ideology in all capitalist societies. A world view that gives prominence to the me over the we society. o Is the dominant ideology within capitalism. The liberal tradition sees the model for all things as the marketplace. o Liberalism and the Market o Market: a number sellers free to compete and buyers free to choose between these competing units. o In the real world, few of us can actually take advantage of our freedoms because of structured inequality continues to exist in capitalist societies. Although all of us have equality of opportunity, without equality of condition many of our rights and freedoms are absolutely meaningless. E.g theoretically we can all own car; reality we can own a car only if we have the financial capacity to do so. o Rights and freedoms are not abstact; they exist within particular socioeconomic formations, and they can change over time. o Liberalism promotes the notions of freedom and individual rights, a social advance from earlier socioeconomic formations. Such rights and freedoms are selective, framed as they are within the already existing class relations or capitalism. The rights we have won can be taken away under certain conditions. o Liberalism and Ideas o Competing ideas are seen as the equivalent of goods competing in a marketplace, with individuals having the freedom to choose from the marketplace of ideas. o Just as liberals believe that a free market will produce the best goods, they also believe that a market of ideas will lead to the most rational and useful ideas. However, our freedom of choice with regard to ideas is largely illusory because not all ideas presented equally or fairly. o Whether it is the choice of shampoo, sociological theories, movies, or politicians, capitalism requires that we believe that we have true freedom of choice. But in all developed capitalist societies the choices we are offered are actually very narrow. E.g at any large grocery store one can find a countless array of breakfast cereals on the shelves. o One of the main themes of liberalism is equality, conceived of as equality of opportunity. However, without equality of condition, equality of opportunity is limited o Within the liberal framework, ideas are seen as goods competing in the marketplace. But ideas, like goods, are not equally represented in the marketplace. Thus there is the appearance of choice, when in reality there is little variation in the ideas most of us read or hear.
Ideology, Culture, and Socialization o Power of Ideology: In the process of becoming human, we internalize the existing structures of power as well. This power of ideology allows the dominant class to maintain its rule. o Main Agents of Socialization in Capitalist Societies: o Mass media and o education system o Is Criticism of these agencies misguided (role of mass media and education) o Much of the criticism is directed at these institutions o Educated System o expectation is that it will give true equality of opportunity by negating differences. However, when we fail to get jobs or we see inequality, we put the blame on our schools, which in capitalist society is a result of anarchy of production o Mass Media o Often blamed for promoting values detrimental to society, example-violence, they may be a part of the problem but not in themselves the problem.
The education system and mass media are two of the major agents of socialization that transmit the dominant ideology.
Mass Media o Social scientist have noted that, given the sheer amount of time we all spend in the contact with various forms of mass communication in our society, we are all affected by them in a major way. o The creation of new technologies allowed for the widespread dissemination of information, ideas, and values: new forms of communication, such as radio, television, and computers reached a mass, or a large number, of unconnected individuals o C. Wright Mills: The media not only give us information; they guide our very experience. Our standards of credulity, our standard of reality, tend to be set by these media rather than by our own fragmentary experience o Order Theories: See social instituitions such as mass media as a harmless means of mainting social order and control, in the interest of society as a whole. o Change Theories: View mass media as playing a key role in the maintenance of class and status inequalities o Early assumptions: the growth of the mass media would beneficial to ordinary people, as it would expand their traditionally narrow world-views by giving them increased access to knowledge and a wider variety of perspectives o Later Perspective: mass media is a primary means of transmitting the dominant ideology and that they play a key role in the legitimation of capitalist society o Current perspective. o The main function of the mass media is propaganda, or the promotion of the interests of those with economic and political power o The assumption that the mass media in capitalist societies are controlled by a small and integrated elite. o Ownership and Control of the Media o Porter concluded that the mass media were controlled by a small group of men who shared certain common characteristics. o Porter and Wallace confirmed that media ownership was indeed highly concentrated in Canada o Canada has one of the most concentrated media markets in the world. It is a global phenomenon that is linked to a process known as convergence. o Convergence refers to the merging of the technology and content of the telecommunications, entertainment, publishing, and broadcasting industries. o This enormous concentration of capital leads to obvious concerns about the true degree of choice that we actually have over media content as well as the freedom of individuals and groups to have their voice heard. o Advertisers also exert much influence on media content, since advertising is the medias primary source of funding. o While there may be variations in the opinions of specific journalists or TV news commentators, the overarching orientation of newspapers, television, radio, and mainstream magazines is in support of the status quo. o The main goal of the private media, like any other industry, is to maximize profits. Since their main source of profits is advertising revenue, the news and entertainment that accompany advertising serve as the means of getting people to read the ads or watch the commercials Advertising does not simply try to sell us the product; it also tries to sell us a way of life. Convinces us that material possession makes us happy. o The media promotes primarily self-improvement E.g makeovers They teach us that were not good enough o In recent years there has been tremendous concentration of ownership of the mass media in Canada and around the globe. Media content is largely controlled by those with economic power
Media and the Role of Advertising o What do you see around you in educational institutions, Sports, Non-profit sector? o Advertising by Corporations. Everywhere we look , we are being told that our entire culture is brought to us by major corporations. Reality that is lost is that much of the wealth in the hands of the corporate sector has been privately appropriated from those who produced it. Children are learning this corporate controlled culture at an earlier age. Even rebellion is commoditized in capitalist societies. Example: hip-hop movement. Companies target young people to instill loyalty at an early age Media today promotes self-improvement, underlying message being that our problems are rooted not in broader society but in ourselves.
The Myth of Objectivity o As humans, we all process information through our own pre- existing ideas or biases. o The media, controlled by human beings, are no more neutral or unbiased than any other any other source or information. o Because media biases so often match our own and because these biases are so widespread and constant, we rarely notice them. o Despite supposed diversity, the media have consistently favored management over labour, private enterprise over public ownership, males over females, officialdom over protesters, traditional politics over dissent, and so on. o E.g newspapers have business sections but not labour sections. o Both sexes continue to be portrayed by media in stereotypical ways o E.g racial minorities are stereotyped o While most of us strongly oppose censorship, it is hard to oppose what you cannot see. With so few companies controlling the entire media and telecommunications industries, our choices become diminished o Our ability to critically assess media content is limited by the fact that we often lack the background information to adequately understand the issues. o E.g our ability to fully understand the current debate about environmental pollution requires that we understand both the corporate agenda and the particular economic framework in which it is taking place o The overall thrust of the mass media is in support of current social arrangements. Despite a variety of orientations, there is almost universal support for the private-enterprise and the dominant ideology, liberalism
The Role of the Government o The government of Canada has always intervened more directly in the mass communications industry than has the United States government. o Such direct state involvement was seen as part of the nation- building process in this country. o CBC was created in 1936 to help unite the country and provide alternative to American radio o The CRTC has the power to issue, renew, or revoke, broadcasting licenses, as well as to set out conditions for Canadian broadcasting as a whole. o Its role, in the main, has been to protect and encourage the development of Canadian culture in both French and English. o In reality, the CRTC has frequently turned out to be little more than a body that legitimates current arrangements, rather than an entity that has any real power over the media or their owners. o It has not challenged growing convergence of media ownership in Canada. o The government has been retreating from its protectionist role, as it has increasingly endorsed greater private-sector control of the media while gradually eroding support for public broadcasting. o E.g. massive cuts on CBC, National Film Board and Telefilm Canada o The direct intervention of the state into areas of culture has always been widely accepted in Canada as a means of protecting Canadian media. However, this intervention is now declining; as a result, U.S. media domination will likely increase
The Education System o The growth of mass compulsory education in the late nineteenth century must be connected to the development of capitalism. o The rapid advances in technology led to two important consequences. o More educated and skilled workforce was required. o Increased productivity meant expanding profits could be produced by fewer workers. o A public education system developed to fit into these changing conditions o Were seen to keep children busy since they were not needed in factories. o New schools taught basic literacy and numeracy skills required by employers; and discipline, industriousness, docility, politeness, punctuality, and obedience to authority- that would make good workers; teach young people the values and norms of dominant culture. o By mid 19th century universal tax-supported elementary education was advocated, accessible to all children o Since the late nineteenth century, there has been a gradual increase in the years of formal attendance at school. While an elementary school education was considered sufficient, students are now being told that postsecondary education is the minimum requirement to get a reasonably well-paid job. o To some extent such a trend reflects the increasing complexity of technology, but it is also the result of the growing tendency toward credentialism. o As the number of applicants expand, paper credentials are increasingly used as a means of limiting access into certain job categories, even if the particular credentials are of questionable utility in job performance. o Credentialism is primarily a means of justifying structured inequality, by linking social inequality to the individuals ability to attain a particular level of education. o A growing problem is that of over qualification o More likely to occur if you are an immigrant to Canada o Educational attainment is not random, but rather linked to a number of variables. o E.g. studies have repeatedly shown that levels of educational aspiration and attainment (achieving a goal) are strongly correlated with the socioeconomic status of ones parents and, to a lesser extent, race and ethnicity.
Education in the Twenty-First Century o Both the order theories and the change theories agree that schools perform two major functions: they socialize children and they help sort individuals for the labour market. However, the various change theories argue that these functions help sustain existing class relations o Order Theories, Structural functionalism: o According to Talcott Parsons, school performs two essential functions for the maintencance of an orderly and stable society It socializes children, not only by teaching them a body of skills and knowledge, but also by transmitting the values and attitudes considered acceptable within society It sorts individuals through a grading system, preparing them for a differentiated labour market o For functionalists, the school system is seen as neutral with both the individual and the society benefiting in equal measure from the system of public education Society gets the various jobs filled by the most qualified personnel, while individuals get to achieve personal growth and development o Structural functionalism can be linked to liberal ideology, with public education seen as the tool that gives everyone a chance to compete in the capitalist marketplace and succeed both occupationally and personally. o Change Theories o The various change theories agree with the order theories that socialization and sorting are the two key functions of education; however, in contrast to the order theories they recognize that societies have an unequal allocation of power, wealth, and prestige. o The education system is a social institution that, in the main, helps sustain existing class relations. o According to Bowles and Gintis (1976) and others: Schools reproduce the social relations required for capitalist productions Employers require workers, and workers of a specific type. At more of a general level, the ruling class requires relative social stability and ideological acceptance of capitalist class relations Given the power of this class, it should not be surprising that it pressures governments to ensure that schools meet its needs. o According to Barlow and Robertson (1994): North American corporations have three goals: to secure the ideological allegiance of young people to a free-market world-view on issues of the environment, corporate rights and the role of government To gain market access to the hearts and minds of young consumers and lucrative contracts in the education industry. Transform schools into training centers producing a workforce suited to the needs of transnational corporations o As globalization advances, the corporate sector has had an increased desire to be directly linked to education institutions. Big business has also gained a foothold in the college and university sector. o Current debates over education and the mass media must be understood as democratic struggles, in that they address the question of who should control various social institutions in Canada. 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM In their explanations of human
The text argues sociology in its broadest sense can be described as The systematic study of human society and the behaviour of people in the society.
The expected patterns of behaviors society are referred as The norms
Unlike the physical sciences, in the social sciences There are usually a number of theorist competing Generally speaking, order theories Support current social arrangements Sociological theories that focus on the ways individual hum Macro sociologist Among foraging people, the division of
The term socialization refers to
harvin harris thought the origins of various food prohibitions were primarily linked to The ecology where people live In most foraging societies Sharing Most anthropologists agree that in early foraging societies, warfare was Relatively low The transition form foraging to farming was most likely set in motion by All of the above In ancient societies, women were largely excluded form warfare, primaritly because of their Reproductive capacity Marxists define groups with a distinct relation to the means of production as Social class Marx referred to the owning class in capitalism as The bougeious The workers filing to the early modern factories largely cam from the ranks of :
For the European monarchs, the primary value of the north American continent was to Secure their own glory and profits
Capitalism is characterized by the subordination of production to the imperatives of The market
Which of the following terms do Marxist use to describe the wealth acquired by capitalists via unpaid labour of workers Surplus value When the state plays a prominent role in economic affairs and the public sector expands, this is referred to as a Welfare state
Which of the following did weber recognize as a dimension of social inequality. All above
Which of the following did john porter perceive as an objective criterion of social class All above
When asked what social class they are in , most Canadians are in Middle class
Class consciousness is
Those at the top in terms of wealth and power are Both owning and ruling class
Which of the following categories of employees do not belong to the working class? All above
That the class consciousness of the working class is low is reflected in its members All above
The dominant ideology of capitalism is Liberalism
The control that the ruling class has over social beliefs is known as ideological Hegemony
Which of the following is one of the main themes of liberalism Equality
Which of these authors argued that the media are controlled by a dominant or elite class All above
Which of the following biases is less common in the mass media? Favoring public enterprise over and private ownership
In recent years, the Canadian government
In the view of Talcott parsons which of the following functions of the schools are essential to the maintenance of an orderly and stable society? All above [2/17/2014, 3:25:55 PM] Michael.Moncada13: The text argues that sociology in its broadest sense can be described as:
Systamic society
The text argues that there are two types of power:
Proximal and "missed the second part"
Which of the following is NOT one of the four dialectical principles in the text? :
change proceeds from qualitative to quantitative
According to the text, societies are:
simutaneoulsly ordering and changing
According to the text, the various change theories in the social science are rooted in the analysis of:
Karl Marx
Which term did sociology c wright mills use to describe the ability to go beyond personal issues and concoct them to broader social structures:
Sociological imagination
Which of the following ca be defined as a culture universal:
funerals
In marxist terms, a society with specific mode of production is reffered to as a:
Socioeconomic
The period when the domestication of plants and animals began is also known as:
Neolithic Revolution
The best known of the giveaway ceremony, practiced by northwest coast aboriginal peoples, is known as the: potlatch
Which of the following innovations is associated with agrarian societies: all of the above
Accoriding to the marxists, which relationships in any society are most important in understanding power:
From the early sixteenth century onward, European conlonism was driven by the search of:
all of the above
The decline of feudalism was associated with the increasing power of the:
monarchy and capitalists
One of the first philosophers to emphasize the inherent rights of individuals rights that were independent of any particular societies laws was:
John Locke
Who first developed the notion that capitalism was guided by an invisible hand:
Adam Smith
Marxists argues than in capitalism, surplus value is created in the sphere of:
Production
The paper economy has to do with producing, buying and selling of:
Financial assets
The importance of the socioeconomic status was particularly noted by:
Max Weber
The so called middle class expanded in canada immediately after world war 2 because:
All of the above
Corporations are often spoken as:
legal fictions
In marxist theory what do all working class people have in common:
they all work for wages
According to irk olin wight, which of the following fall in the category of the new middle class:
All of the above
We acquire our ideological package of beliefs and values primarily through the process of:
socialization
In capitalism, freedom in general is equated with freedom in choice in:
the marketplace
Liberalism is a world view that generally gives prominence in any society to:
"me" over "we"
Which of the following institutions had a virtual monopoly over the dessemation of knowledge in agrarian societies:
religious organizations
The medias primary source of funding is:
advertising
Which of these categories of people is likely to be underrepresented in the media:
All of the above
In the early days of industrialization, which of the following groups worked because of economic necessity:
men, women and children
To which of the following ideologies are structural functionalist views on education closely related:
liberalism Chapter 8 The Role of the State 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM
State: State: is an organized political structure that carries out tasks required by more complex societies as their population and geographic size increase, as warfare and trade expand, and as social inequalities become more extreme It is a major means of social control The term state is used interchangeably with the term government, the government is only one aspect of the state State structures arose with the growth of surplus and the consequent development of classes and exploitation
In Foraging societies: Political power tended to be loosely organized, with a pattern of shifting leadership Leaders used personal influence to encourage others to undertake activities, but there was no structural means of coercing anyone into following directions.
Agrarian societies As agrarian societies with large surpluses and social classes developed, more formalized state structure arose Role of family was reduced as state became more powerful Along with growth of the state apparatus, an ideology developed that supported and legitimized such a structure. o Most ppl came to see their state structure as inevitable and eternal Owning class controlled the state o E.g emperor could accumulate wealth directly via various forms of tribute or taxation
Capitalist Societies Owning class is separated from the state. The economic sphere is privatized it comes under full and direct control of the dominant class The social activities formerly carried out directly by the owning class that is, military, administrative, and legal functions become transferred to the state, which is in the public sphere The separation of the private and public spheres in capitalist societies is only partial o The capital class gets to privately own and have control over most economic actitvity This gives this class enormous power over the productive process because it has the capacity to organize and intensify production for its own immediate interests. The negative consequences of its activities pollution, poverty, unemployment, and so on are usually dealt with by government In capitalist societies, the economic and political spheres come to be separated. The appropriating class gains enormous control over the productive process, while the state is assigned the social, or public, activities formerly carried out directly by the owning class
Canadian State Three levels of government 1. Federal: example CBC radio, tax (federal & provincial), education (federal & provincial), health (federal & provincial). 2. Provincial (10 provincial and 3 territorial) a. e.g drivers license 3. Various municipal, or local, governments across the country a. Garabage, water All levels of government in Canada, regardless of political affiliation, have provided a large degree of financial support directly or indirectly to major corporations
Dominant State Analyses Pluralist Approach o Fits with Order Theorists The world is just and fits with already accepted notions of how societies work o In the pluralist analysis, society consists of a variety of groups and associations with highly diverse and often conflicting interests. o No single group totally dominates political structures. o A key function of the state, from this perspective, is mediation between the many different interest groups workers, students, people with disabilities, First Nations, big businesses, small business, women, to name but a few trying to get their needs met within a given society. o By balancing out the various interest groups, the state supposedly helps guarantee that order is maintained, while ensuring that the overall best interests of society as a whole are met. o Summary of key functions of state o Mediation between various interest groups o Maintain order o Overall best interest of society o Recognize the greater power of big business relative to other interest groups but do not see this as a problem because of its important role in the economy. o The state is a body that acts on behalf of society as a whole. o Because it does not emphasize the element of social control, the pluralist approach usually speaks of government rather than the state. o Pluralism sees the key function of the state as one of mediation, while class analysis sees the state carrying out the accumulation, coercion, and legitimation functions on behalf of the dominant class Class Approach o Fits with change theorists o Doesnt support the commonly held view of the social world. o See the Canadian state as essentially neutral, the class approach sees the state as an institution that acts primarily in the interests of the dominant class. o State carries three functions on behalf of dominant class o The state carries out three interconnected functions on behalf of the dominant class, although the relative importance of each may vary in different socioeconomic formation and even at different historical moments within a specific society 1. Accumulation Function: the state must try to create or maintain the conditions for profitable capital accumulation 2. Legitimization function: the state must try to maintain social harmony, mostly by legitimating the current class structure and the right of the ruling class to rule 3. Coercion function: the state, when necessary, must use force to repress subordinate individuals or classes on behalf of dominant class. o State is made up of a number of institutions 1. Repressive agencies: which include the army and police, the judiciary, and the penal system 2. Government: which includes the various adminstative bodies, suchas legistures, parliaments and council, civil service 3. Government-owned bodies: education system, the health-care system, the postal service, and such publicly owned services as the CBC o The Canadian state is linked to the capitalist owning class and, in the process, refutes the pluralist notion of a neutral state apparatus.
Democracy and Capitalism o Democracy means rule by the people o The argument that the various levels of the state act primarily in the interests of the appropriating class does not mean that is the only group whose interests are being met. o State act on behalf of the ruling class in general, but this does not mean that every individual activity of ever level of state at every moment necessarily benefits the dominant class o Individuals who are part of the state apparatuses are not under the total control of the ruling class. o Capitalist owning class has two goals: o Short term: maximize profits o Long term: maintain the system that allows it to privately appropriate surplus value. o If the states only helped the owning class maximize its profits, the long-term stability of the entire capitalist system might be put at risk o Thus every state in capitalist societies must, to some degree, balance competing forces. o One way of increasing stability has been the acceptance of democratic political forms o Capitalism furthered the democratic process o Capitalist Societies and Economic Sphere: In capitalist societies, democracy has a very specific meaning, limited to the political sphere rather than to the economic one. Since economic property is privately owned, it remains outside the framework of democratic principals Most of us accept, for example, that in capitalist societies only company owners should have the right to decide whether a particular company should be able to close down, increase production, fire its workers, or move to another locale. o Capitalist Societies and Public/Political Sphere Democracy pertains mainly to the electoral process whereby, at regular intervals, individuals get to select those who will represent them in some parliamentary- style body for a fixed period of time. Hence countries with massive poverty, extremes of rich and poor, and mass powerlessness are nonetheless called democratic simply because they hold elections from time to time. Democracy is never connected to socioeconomic conditions. Countries with massive poverty, extremes of rich and poor, and mass powerlessness are nonetheless called democratic simply because they hold elections from time to time. Fewer people in Canada are voting in elections 1 in 4 Canadians Unlike in pre-capitalist societies, few members of the ruling class in Canada actually hold government positions. o While capitalist societies, in general, have been more democratic than pre-capitalist societies, capitalist democracy is, at best, a limited form that must always be understood within the specific class relations of power. o Capitalist economies require active intervention from the state. o How does the ruling class rule? o By financially backing those candidates during elections that support their goals. o Lobbying groups (campaigns) Not only directly influence the decisions of governments, they also play an extremely important role in influencing public opinion o Paid lobbying groups Whose job it is to get the ear of the government on behalf of those who hire them. o Those who have more powerful positions in the economy are always taken into consideration by the state simply because of such power o A key goal of the Canadian sate is to advance the economy is, by definition, a capitalist one. o True democracy is always limited by the economic power of the ruling class. o Capital owns the productive units; capital owns the jobs. o Businesses can threaten to move to other cities, provinces, or countries if their needs are not met. o Representative democracy in capitalist societies by no means guarantees accountability from political leadership; nor does it guarantee that political parties, once elected, will adhere to their own party policies. o Indeed, it is becoming increasingly common for politicians to run on a specific platform and then either ignore or actually contradict their promises after they are elected. o Many Canadians have become cynical about politicians and the electoral process, and as already noted, many citizens particularly the more powerless do not even bother to vote. o Why does the owning class choose not to rule? o The upper class in commercial societies highly diverse and segmented. o Democratic forms, in which political parties compete within a narrow framework of electoral representation, allowing differing sectors of the dominant class to compete with each other with little risk of destabilizing the entire system. o Democracy allows working people to feel a commitment to the very system that structurally disempowers them. Thus the tensions both within and between classes are reduced within the framework of representative democracy o The owning class likes stability, and parliamentary or representative democracies seem to work best at providing such stability.
Functions of State Accumulation o It is often presumed that the state plays little or no role in capitalist economic matters o Governments in every society are actively involved in their economies. o The market economy of capitalism actually requires such involvement. o Legal structures are put in place that permit private accumulation of wealth o The state is the regulator of capitalism. o It sets the rules regarding economic activities, and in the long run those rules always favor capital. o Because capitalist economies are unplanned and therefore subject to instability and crises, most people even those in the ruling class count on the state to limit its worst excesses, particularly those that might lead to major economic downturns. o The Tax System. o In theory, the state both collects and distributes moneys for the benefits of all Canadians, various levels of the state in Canada have consistently favored corporations and the wealthiest Canadians. o Progressive Taxation: occurs when citizens are taxed on the basis of their ability to pay. The more or income one has, the more progressive taxation system, the more wealth or income one has, the more taxes one pays. o Regressive Taxation: there is no connection between the amount of wealth or income one has and the tax one pays o Canadas taxation system is only mildly progressive, moving towards regressive forms of taxation o While supposedly taxing people and corporations in proportion their incomes, there are so many allowable deductions and tax credits that the degree to which income tax can be described as truly progressive is limited. o Many Canadians are investing in countries with secrecy laws and may not be paying any taxes on the profits from such investments. o Low taxes for corporations o Corporations are allowed to defer a large chunk of their taxes without interest The reality is that when taxes are deferred, they are deferred forever. o Regressive Tax System o Sales tax, property tax are generally regressive o The federal and provincial levels of government have increasing cut back on their transfer payments to municipalities, while at the same time downloading more functions onto them. o An increasingly popular way governments to raise funds is via what can collectively be referred to as hidden taxes E.g public transportation fares, entrance fees, to public museums and galleries, tuition fees, licenses fees, and toll roads. Since this forms of taxation appears as an optional fee for a service, it might be argued that one need not pay for the service if one so chooses. Regressive theyre unrelated to the users ability to pay. Hidden taxes are actually double tax: having already paid taxes to support various government services, individuals are asked to pay again when they use a particular services. o Lower-income earnerers are hardest hit by such schemes, and many end up excluded from some of these services. o Gambling: regressive way for governments to raise funds o Lottery: it is voluntary, but directs people to personal rather than collective solution to structural problems. o No taxes on inheritance or wealth transfer. o In recent years, there has been a dramatic shift by all levels of government in Canada to more regressive forms of taxation. o Recipients of Benefits o The real warefare recipients in Canada are major corporations E.g 1982- 2006 : 18.4 billion government assistant given to corporations, 39% repayable, less than 20% paid back. o In all capitalist societies, the state provides major financial support to its corporations o Corporate welfare is given because theoretically these corporations create jobs but many corporations receive substantial sums even when they are losing money or reducing jobs. If the true aim of governments were about job creation, they would be pouring money into the public sector, where labour-intensive fields such as health care, education, or social services o The main role of governments in relation to the economy is to provide a favourable fiscal and monetary climate for capital to secure and increase its profits This includes the government providing grants, loans, subsides, tax breaks, and so on.. Governments provide state ownership and state construction of railroads, harbours, canals, powergenerating plans, airports, and highways when the costs or risks for capital are too high to undertake themselves. Less obvious are the ways that governments create capitalist labour markets via control of land policy and immigration policy, and the way government absorb the social cost of capitalist production, via such activities as environmental clean-up, welfare services, and health care. o Budget allocated to these expensives has been dropping in Canada.
o Military Industrial Complex (Dwight D. Eisenhower)HOW o The interests of the top military to obtain the latest technology and equipment and the interests of the corporate sector to maximize profits were merged. o Policies formulated for both budget allocation for military spending and political decisions with regard to military activities. o State is the direct purchaser of military-related goods and services from private corporations o The state was not a neutral body: it consistently favored capital o Production for military use is big business, with global military spending estimated to have been 1.6 trillion in 2010. o It is also highly monopolized sector of business, with very few controlling the entire industry. One of the largest of these, U.S.- based United Technologies, owns Pratt & Whitney, the second largest recipient of government funding between 1982-2009 o Military hardware is manufactured only after contracts have been secured. o There are no unsold products and no wastage occurs o At the urging of military leaders, governments are often convinced to buy the latest technology, whether or not it is needed. o Such technology, of course, rapidly becomes obsolete and must constantly be replaced. o Because such industries being immediate commercial benefits, governments often become promoters of trade in military goods with other countries o The Canadian government supports the military-industrial complex more substantially than many people realize o Canadian Government o The Canadian government is tied to the global military- industrial complex in a number of ways. 1. It sets government policy about participating in global conflicts, such as the war in Afghanistan, which increase our country;s need for more military machinery, 2. it purchases products produced by the major corporations for military use 3. the government gives loans and grants to producers of military hardware and technology 4. money from the Canadian Pension Plan is now used for military purposes o Concerns o While the benefits of such policies to the owners of companies producing goods for military use are obvious, the costs to the rest of us are less evident Moral concern that a substantial portion of our manufacturing base produces weapons of destruction that are increasingly being used in military conflicts around the world Governments, having spent large amounts on military expenditures, must continually look for uses to justify such expenses. Such production is actually more capital-intensive than labour intensive, which means that relatively few jobs are created for each dollar invested. Because it is either largely produced for export or stockpiled by the Canadian government, military hardware does not generate much of a spin-off effect to other Canadian industries. Thus excessive military spending does not benefit the average Canadian o Coercion: o In theory the police exist to benefit every Canadian, the reality is that their primary role has always been to serve and protect those with wealth and power. o All advanced capitalist societies accept at least in theory the notion of the rule of law A formally determined set of rules or principals that applies to all within its jurisdiction. o In theory, then, the coercive component of the state is neutral and unconnected to class relationships. Whether rich or poor, unemployed or employed all are supposedly equal under the law The state ultimately decides what is legal and what is a crime; determines, via the judiciary, who is innocent and who is guilty; and hands out the punishment for those found guilty Agents of the state write the laws, it should not be surprising that most laws in society will protect the interests of those in power In all class societies, the majority of laws are linked to rights of property. In theory, the forms of property in law are not necessarily distinguished; that is, economic property and property for personal use are generally treated in the same way. In practice, however, those who own and control economic property are treated distinctively. Although in theory everyone is treated equally before the law, it is primarily those with money and influence who can get the best lawyers and present the strongest case o All capitalist states have a coercion function. No ruling class could retain its power without the ability to resort to the coercive component of the state when necessary. o Although all Canadians are, in theory, equal before the law, corporations are not held responsible for criminal activities in the same way as individuals are. Moreover, those with money and influence are advantaged within the criminal justice system o There has been a recent increase in the criminalization of dissent in Canada o Fascism o Fascism is essentially capitalism in its most repressive, undemocratic, and militaristic form. o Although the personal lives of ordinary citizens are strictly controlled and there is an obsession with crime and punishment, large corporations are able to operate in relative freedom and gain increasing control over the economy. Put simply, fascist societities are capitalist economies within a police state. o As an ideology, fascism emphasizes a strong leader and a strong state, while opposing human rights , democracy, pacifism, & collectivism o Repression of dissent increases o It is often embedded with a notion of racial or ethnic superiority and is linked to some form of intense nationalism; it promotes fear particularly of the other in the general population o Capitalists has forged alliances with fascist and other right- wing movements Italy 1920 with Germany o Charles Higham uncovered evidence that it was not simply German capital that supported Hitler, but capital from major American corporations as well like GM, GE, Fordthrough WWII o Capitalism in its most repressive, undemocratic, and militaristic form is referred to as fascism. Any capitalist society can shift to a fascist form under certain conditions.
Chapter 9: Neoliberalism and Globalization3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM Although the state is a class-based social institution, all levels of government in Canada have provided many rights and benefits to ordinary Canadians. The Erosion of Commons o There are still a great many areas of life remained in the public domains o Commons: these areas have traditionally been considered out of bounds for private ownership or trade because they have been accepted as collective property, existing for everyone to share as they have for millennia. o e.g todays commons include: public spaces, shared language and culture, informal community support systems, air we breathe, water we drink, the oceans o As capitalist advanced some components of the commons transferred to private ownership. o Even though capitalism promotes the concept of private property, many elements of society remained in the public domain until recently. The public domain is often referred to as the commons.
The Growth of the Welfare State o Welfare state: a form of capitalism in which governments played an increasing role in economic affairs, the public sector and social safety net expanded, and there was general economic prosperity for large numbers of working people. o Second half of the twentieth century, commons was expanding and that government were taking the interests of their citizens more seriously. o It was a time of relative economic stability and improved living conditions for many in the developed capitalist world. o For these reasons the period between approximately 1945 and 1973 is sometimes referred to as the golden age of capitalism even though it was far from golden for everybody. o Commons expanded o The transnational corporation appeared on the scene and grew in size and dominance o the most powerful of the TNCs were based in the untied states, although Germany and Japan became key players as well. o Economic globalization led to cultural globalization o During this period, what is commonly referred to as the welfare state expanded rapidly, with the Canadian government taking a greater role as a provider and protector of citizen well-being and security. o Provide such benefits in a welfare state, the surplus value produced by workers is transferred to the state in the form of taxes and then given back to workers, not in the form of money, but through provision of social necessities such as healthcare, education, unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, and so on. o The state provides these services to us collectively rather than us having to purchase them in the private marketplace o The advantages for citizens are twofold. 1. The state can generally provide services at a lower cost because of both its large size and its lack of profit motive. 2. A universal system maximizes fairness. o The welfare state grew after World War II, as the capitalist owning class and the organized sector of the working class achieved an accord that was mediated by the state o Why the capitalist owning class would suddenly have agreed to having a larger share of government funds transferred back to the workers, rather than continuing to resist any expansion of the welfare state as they did in the early twentieth century. o There were a number of serious problems that capitalists faced following WWII. o one serious concern was the expansion and consolidation of the socialist world. The capitalist owning class had to prove that its system was better of the two, and expanding the welfare state was one means of legitimating capitalist rule. o Workers in the capitalist world were putting pressure on governments to help them Many had just fought in defense of their country and now though their country owed them something in return o Citizens had high expectations of their governments o Employers, needed these individuals relatively de- politicized and eager to work to fill the jobs in a rapidly expanding postwar economy. o State intervention was necessary to protect capital form its own excesses o To control inevitable crisis of overproduction o To reduce the instability created by capitalist business cycles. o The Accord o Capital agreed The capitalist owning class and organized sector of the working class reached what has been termed an accord Accord was an agreement that the state would act as a mediator in the struggle between capital and labour. Corporate leaders agreed to recognize greater rights for workers and citizens and to accept the labour movements demands for higher wage, collective bargaining rights, and an increase in social benefits. o The labour movement agreed: Agreed to accept the control of employers over production and investment, to confine class struggle primarily to collective bargaining in the workplace, and to isolate or expel radicals from their midst. They also agreed to work toward social reforms within capitalist political and economic structures instead of struggling for any type of more radical alteration of the capitalist system. o Results o Organized labor saw this accord as a great victory. o Union membership in Canada rose after WWII o Fringe benefits including pensions, paid holidays, shorter workweeks, sick pay, and disability benefits become more common for workers o The low unemployment rates through 1950s and 1960s also gave workers more power because of their ability to negotiate improved wages and working conditions with their employers. o At the same time that the state took a greater role in regulating workers, it also increasingly regulated capital. o The notion of state regulation, known as Keynesianism, after British economist John Maynard Keynes, led to greater state intervention in the economy. o He and other economist argued that increased state intervention in capitalist economies was necessary to protect them from their own excesses, to control for the inevitable crisis of overproduction, and to reduce the instability created by capitalist business cycles. Neoliberalism and the Decline of the Welfare State o Unfortunately, greater government intervention in the economy could not permanently eliminate the contradictions of capitalist economies. o The so-called golden age came to a rapid end as capitalism entered a permanent state of economic crisis. o The accord between corporate employers and organized labour collapsed o Most capitalist governments shifted away from Keynesian policies to a new set of economic and political policies that were more favorable to the needs of major corporations. o The combination of increasing rates of unemployment, stagnating wages, and growing global competition weakened the ability of workers to respond the power of capital. o This new set of polices is referred to as neoliberalism. o Neoliberalism is the rejection of the Keynesian welfare state and its replacement with free-market doctrines and practices. o Neoliberalism saw governments role as minimal, the market as the central determinant of social values, and the individual as the core unit of society. o For the average Canadian, this has meant a rapid decline in social benefits. o As the government supports have declined, particularly for the economically disadvantaged, there has been a widening gap between the rich and poor o The decline of social reform began in the 1970s as capitalism entered a permanent state of economic crisis, and the accord between capital and labour began to collapse o Structural adjustment policies: these policies were implemented by the World Bank and the International Fund o Their purpose in theory to help poorer nations advance their economies and to create a single global market has in reality been to increase the private accumulation of capital on a global scale. o General elements of neoliberalism that are specific to Canada o Our economy and military have increasingly become tied to those of the united states and its interests, while our sovereignty in all spheres has declined. o The relationship between the provinces and the federal state has changed. o More independence has been given to the provinces, allowing them to advance their own neoliberal agendas, while a few key federal powers specifically those that enhance corporate interests have been strengthened o By the 1980s, most capitalist governments around the world began to shift to polices more sympathetic to the needs of the corporate sector. The package of changes is commonly referred to as neoliberalism o Elements of Neoliberalism o Free trade: is really about the free movement of the capital. Any legislation that gives protection to specific countries or individuals is weakened or eliminated. o Privatization: involves selling off various aspects of the commons to the corporate sector as it seeks new sources for investment o Deregulation: rules and regulations that were created to protect citizens or limit the rights of corporations are either eroded or cancelled o Decline in government benefits: government funding to many social programs is cut drastically. o Shift from government support to charities: help for the poor and sick as well as support for education and the arts are increasingly via voluntary, tax-deductible gifts rather the via government supports o Tax reforms: changes to taxation are instituted that primarily benefit the rich and large corporations. Gov. increasingly turn to regressive form of taxation while cutting income tax, the more progressive form of taxation o Attack on labour: legislation protecting workers and the workplace for example, union rights, minimum wages, employment standards, and worker health and safety is weakened or removed entirely. o Decline in democracy and civil rights: sweeping new legislation is created that gives vastly expanded powers to the repressive state apparatus, while legislation that protects the individual form arbitrary measures on the part of the state is weakened. o Decrease in the size and scope of the state: the size of the sector declines (other than police and prison system o Role of global institutions o Military: the untied states became the dominant force in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949 as the international agency to coordinate military operations of the North American and European powers. o Political: the United Nations was created as an umbrella organization to help coordinate the activities of nation-states. o Economic: World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1944) created to help stabilize and integrate world economies, to develop programs that would allow for greater capital investment in the less-developed countries, and to create an international monetary system that would improve global capital flow. o The United States has become the leading force economically, politically, and militarily in an increasingly integrated global capitalist economy. There is now some question of how long this dominance will continue. o o World Trade Organization: The WTO was established in 1995 as an international body that would effectively set the rules for global trade and investment. o Over 150 countries are members o Is the highest judicial and legislative body, with the powers of an international state. o Its agenda is very clear to open the entire world to the TNCs so that they can maximize profits, without constraints from laws or procedures of nation-states that might put limits on corporate goals. o The real decision-making power lies primarily with the United States, the European Union, and Japan o Not only is WTO closely linked to a number of big business coalitions, but also in many cases the WTO rules have actually been written directly by global corporations themselves. o In order to allow a single world economy of competing corporations to function properly, a number of global agencies and institutions were created in the last half of the twentieth century. o There is an increasingly tension between the global dominance of the United States, with its propensity to act unilaterally in its own interests, and the need for countries to work together to advance the development of an integrated global economy. o United States as a Global Police Officer o Four key imperatives (rules) of U.S. foreign policy 1. Opening the world to transnational corporations (TNC), particularly U.S. based ones; 2. Justifying and increasingly the size of government military spending necessary to sustain the profitability of defense contractors; 3. Preventing the rise of any society that might serve as a model for economic independence by wanting to opt out of the global capitalist economy; and 4. Preventing the rise of any other government that might challenge U.S. economic, political, or military global dominance. o The U.S. military has increasingly played the role of global police officer in order to ensure the creation of global capitalist economy dominated by its own corporate sector. o From the mid-1970s on, Canadians were bombarded with a number of myths meant to convince them to accept fewer social benefits from all levels of government. o The nature and role of nation-states has been changing with the advance of a globally integrated capitalist economy, but social scientists are still debating where these changes are headed Neoliberalism and Globalization o Negative Consequences of Neoliberalism o Growth of security state o Increased militarism o Global economic instability o Negative Consequences of Globalization: o Expanded push-pull conditions As capitalism expands globally it creates push-pull conditions that lead naturally to the migration of populations. Sometimes this movement is within a country, as people who can no longer survive by agricultural labour are pushed into cities, where they hope to find work in expanding industries o Migration is forced upon people against their will Slave trade Today, millions of people are refugees or internally displaced persons who have had to leave their homes as a result of civil wars or natural disasters o Climate change Is alson having negative effects on food production in a number of regions, forcing people to migrate elsewhere. o Human trafficking Many of the worlds poor become victims of human trafficking and effectively become slaves against their will. o Humanitarian crisis One component of falied states is the massive movement of people, which creates major humanitarian crises. o Rising unemployement rates While employers may benefit from the large influx of immigrants and temporary workers willing to take any job for relatively low pay, working people may have mixed feelings about the next wave of the newcomers to their country o Rising crime rates o Decline in traditional values o The fear of some people that their ancient traditions and religious beliefs are disappearing often gives rise to radical religious or nationalist movements. o Growth of tensions that put groups of people against one another. o Although there has been an increasing integration of people around the world, there has concurrently been an increase in tensions between groups of people, both within countries and between countries. Chapter 10: Inequality of Wealth and Income3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM The work of Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) demonstrates that a variety of health and social problems including mental illness, life expectancy and infant mortality, obesity, childrens educational performance, homicides, and levels of trust can all be linked to the degrees of inequality.
Social Inequality o The term used to talk about social inequality is Social Class o Order Theorist: Social inequality is inevitable two approaches: 1. Biological determinist argument 2. Functionalist approach o Change Theorist: more important question is how inequalities become structured in particular ways at certain times in history o Link inequalities of wealth and income to the economic structure and class relationships. o They accept that there will always be differences of ability among people o Emphasize the linkage of various forms of modern social inequality to the capitalist economic system, as well as to the structures and beliefs that arise within that system o Look at the ways in which the recent expansion of globalization and neoliberalism has increased the divide between the haves and have-nots, both in Canada and around the world. o Because we live in a society that puts so much emphasis on the individual we usually connect social inequalities to individual characteristics rather than to structural arrangements
Global Inequality o Biological determinist o Underdevelopment of some nations is a proof that certain groups are biologically inferior o Liberal Argument o Global inequality is a result of some inherent disadvantage that keeps certain countries from fairly competing. e.g overpopulation, corruption, low levels of techonolgy o if given help in these areas, they will develop and become wealthy o Change theorist: o Problems noted by liberals are the result, not the cause, of underdevelopment. e.g. capitalism grew because of European expansion.
Liberalism and Inequality o the essence of liberalism is fairness, in the particular sense of equal ability to compete. o Life itself is seen as a marketplace in which all individuals get to compete for places in the status hierarchy. o There are always winners and losers in a race o Thus within liberal ideology, structured inequality is acceptable as long as the race for positions in society appears to be reasonably fair one. o Liberalism, the dominant ideology of capitalism, stresses fairness and equality of opportunity but actually masks structural inequality o Change theorists o Argue that the race of life under the conditions of capitalism can never truly be fair. o Focus on equality of opportunity o For these theorists, true equality of opportunity is not possible in a capitalist societies because a small number of individuals those with great wealth and power effectively control the competition between individuals, just as they control the competition economic units. o As a result, the race of life is set up in such a way as to prevent most people from winning o For change theorists, liberalism actually masks structural inequality because it gives the impression that everyone gets a reasonably fair chance to run the race. o With this assumption, any failure to achieve wealth, prestige, or power appears be the fault of the individual. o Thus liberalism like capitalism itself is full of contradictions On one hand, it draws us toward such admirable goals as equality, democracy, and individual human rights and freedoms: On the other hand, liberalism helps mask the structural basis that sets limits on these very aspirations.
Symbolic Markers of Social Inequality o Status Symbols: the external markers of ones status become particularly important. o They refer not only to ones housing and manner of dress, but also to speech, mannerisms, hobbies, food preferences, favourite alcoholic beverages, and so on. o Such markers are socially created and can change over time and place o According to Veblen, markers: o Argued that wealth comes to be reflected in something far more complex than simply social position, something far more complex than simply social position, something we generally label style or taste o Demonstrating to others ones place in the status hierarchy required, according to Veblen, both leisure and the consumption of goods. o Alain de Botton (2004) o Examined status anxiety over several thousand years o Botton was particularly interested in the high degree of such anxiety in todays society. o Botton feels that humans need affirmation from others, and in todays society wealth and material objects are the things that are valued. o Recall that the underlying basis for structured inequality is more than style. o Unequal allocation of our societys resources is the result of the private appropriation of surplus value o Dominant world view of capitalism directs attention to individual differences rather than structural basis of inequality o Humans have always symbolically represented differences between groups or individuals. In capitalist societies, mass advertising convinces us to buy products that serve as symbols of high status. Inequality: The Growing Gap o Two ways of measuring social inequality: o Measure differences in income, that is, the money that is acquired through wages, salaries, or various forms of government assistance. o Study differences in wealth, which comprises all assets including real estate holdings and money in bank accounts, stocks, bonds, and so on-minus debts. o Social inequality in Canada o 1997-2007: Top ten CEOs in Canada saw salary increase by 444% o 1976-2009: The earning gap between the lowest 20% and top 20% of earners grew from $92,300 to $177,500. o By end of 2009: 3.8% of Canadian households controlled $1.78 trillion of financial wealth or 67% of the total. o Everybody except the richest 10% of families have seen their work time in paid workforce increase. o Younger workers are consistently on lower earning track than older, more experienced workers (men divide occurred at age 40 years; for women at 30 years.
Explaining Social Inequality A society where advancement is based on individual ability or achievement is commonly referred to as meritocracy. Functionalist theories argue that unequal allocation of societal rewards is both universal and necessary in all societies. Change theorists, on the other hand, argue that structured inequality unfairly advantages those at the top, while the majority do not benefit from such arrangements. From the class perspective a true meritocracy cannot exist in capitalist societies Order Theories o Order theories generally see capitalist societies as meritocracies. o One of the predominant order theories is that of functionalism. o Functionalism, a theory framework that has been discussed in several chapters in this book, tries to explain how certain components of a society serve particular functions o It starts with the assumption that there are no sharp cleavages, such as classes, within a society, but rather there are simply differences of ranking or privilege. o With regard to inequality, functionalists argue that since social stratification is so prevalent in various types of society, it must serve an essential social function Daves- moore looked at the divison of labour to explain inequality o They argued that the unequal allocation of societal regards, both material and social, is both universal and functionally necessary in all societies, since there has to be some motication to get individuals in a society to fill the most important and difficult occupations o the unequal rewards of the occupational structure ensure that all jobs that functionally necessary for society are filled o e.g medical doctor should be paid more than a hospital orderly because it is more specialized and important Critique: jobs termed as womans work such as childcare worker, nurse, and social worker have consistently been undervalued and underpaid, even though many require a high level of training and all are, without a doubt, functionally important. Class theories o In contrast to the functionalist argument, class analysis argues that a true meritocracy is not possible within current social arrangements. o This approach stresses the privileges held by those at the top of the social hierarchy, who are able to obtain the best education for their children in addition to making the important social connections that help them get the right jobs. o These individuals also have easier acces to money- through inheritance, family trusts, or loans that help them get a head start. o From this point of view, ones structural position is as much a determinant of success as, if not more than, any inherent capabilities one might have. o In current capitalist societies, everyone does not have equal opportunity to achieve wealth and power. Certain status groups are consistently disadvantaged e.g. poor, immigrants, Aboriginal people, women, disabled, people of color.
Social Mobility in Canada Social mobility is the movement of people from one social position to another. Two forms of mobility o Intragenerational mobility: the status change that occurs within an individuals lifetime o Intergenerational mobility: changes between the occupational status of parent and child Factors that affect mobility o People with some wealth and privilege are able to pass on their advantages to their offspring o Ascribed statuses such as gender, race, ethnicity, and national origin also affect the degree of occupational mobility. o Occupational mobility: the very top and the very bottom of the status hierarchy remain relatively closed, and most occupational mobility is mainly small movements in the middle. Movement from one social position to another is referred to as social mobility. While some upward mobility is possible in Canada, most mobility is occupational, relatively modest, and occurs within the mass middle
Education and Meritocracy Liberalism: o Our education system will help to overcome ascribed status barriers and be the key to social mobility. o Certainly the data do show that a university education is correlated with higher wealth and income on average, regardless of ones ascribed status. Critique: o Blacks earned lower wages than other racialized groups, even with post secondary education. o Canadian education system favors already privileged and screens disadvantaged (Forcese, 1986). o Formal education is a cause of persisting and increasing stratification. Order and change theories agree that a key function of the education system is sorting, as it channels young people into the different jobs required by society. Order theories o Generally see the process as a relatively straightforward one in which everyone competes within an educational structure that provides equality of opportunity. o Public education is primary agent of social equalization. o Inequality of outcome is linked to individual differences. Change theories o The school system as generally reproducing inequalities that already exist o Inequality of outcome is primarily the result of inequality of condition (e.g. wealth, power). o Many students particularly radicalized individuals and htose from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are streamed into lower-level programs. o Inequalities maintained through streaming lower socioeconomic backgrounds into lower level programs; exclusionary curricula, texts and interaction. o Exclusionary curricula, texts, and teacher-student interactions, as well as the overall culture of the school system, alienate many young people. o Marginalization can create feelings of self-doubt and shame, which can interfere with both learning and motivation One study from the United States, for example, found that students from lower-income families entering kindergarten already had significantly lower cognitive skills than their more advantaged counterparts Schools can do only so much to eliminate existing inequality of condition It would be unfair and inaccurate to attribute total failure to public education with regard to providing the key to social mobility. Governments have massively reduced funding to education, while corporations have been gaining a more direct foothold in the education system. o Dramatic changes to education seem to be leading increasingly to a two-tiered system one for privileged and one for everyone else. Although education is assumed to be the primary agent of social equalization, in reality it more or less sustains the already-existing inequalities of socioeconomic status, race, and gender. In todays economic climate, it is likely that such inequalities will increase.
Poverty in Canada Absolute poverty: only those who are not getting their most basic daily need met that is, who are not able to acquire a minimum of nutrition, basic shelter, and adequate clothing would be defined as poor. Relative poverty: is seen as a form of social exclusion. Those whose incomes are far less than the average in their locale are deemed to be poor, even if they are above the barest subsistence level. Much greater number of Canadians live in poverty Statistics Canadas three measures: o Low-income cut-offs (LICOs): below which people are said to live in straitened circumstances. It is a compromise between the absolute and relative poverty, determines a threshold below which families spend a disproportionate share of their income on food, clothing, and shelter. o Low-income measure: Draws a line at half the median income in Canada. Not used by social services or academics , this mainly statistical definition allows comparisons with other countries that often use this measure to express their rates of low income. o Absolute market basket approach: A shopping basket of basic life necessities has been developed, and those with incomes prohibiting them from acquiring necessities identified belong to low income group. There is no single definition of poverty in Canada, although Statistics Canada creates low-income cut-offs (LICOs); individuals and families below these cut-offs are said to be in straitened circumstances. Social assistance is provided mainly by the provinces, and cut-off lines are fairly arbitrary. Structural realities that cause poverty: o existence of unemployment o lack of affordable childcare o increase in precarious employment o inadequate minimum wages o cuts to unemployment insurance o wage discrimination o declining rates of unionization o decline of well paid public sector jobs o blaming the victim ideology (William Ryan, 1971) o poor bashing o the poor blame themselves for their condition. The ideology referred to as blaming the victim directs our attention to the poor and their particular environments as the cause of poverty. In reality poverty is the inevitable result of the economic arrangements within capitalist societies. Poverty in Canada o In Canada, there is no official definition of poverty o Statistics Canadas Low income cut-offs (LICO) figures are often used to gauge poverty o The Rick and the Rest of Us: The Changing Face of Canadas Growing Gap. Presents the following list of findings (Yalnizyan 2007): o The income gap is at a 30-year high o There is greater polarization; the rich are getting richer o The bottom half are shut out of economic gains o People are working longer to maintain their earnings. Who are the poor? o Visible minorities o Children and youth o Aboriginals o People with disabilities Feminization of Poverty: Women in all categories are at greater risk for poverty than men, but it is particularly serious in lone-parent families headed by women. Child Poverty in Canada o Although in 1989 the House of Commons (Canadian gov.) passed a resolution to end child poverty by 2000, more than 18.4% were still living in poverty that year, up slightly from 1990. o According to Statistic Canada (2006) o In 1989, 11.9% (792,000) of children lived in poverty, now 9.5% (637,000). o 1 in 4 children in First nations communities in Canada lives in poverty, o 49% of aboriginal children under 6, live in poverty. o 40% of low-income children in Canada live in families where at least one parent works full-time year round. Poverty is not equally distributed across all groups in Canada. Racialized groups (most notably recent immigrants), Indigenous people, and people with disabilities have much higher rates of poverty than the national average. Poverty rates are also higher than average among female- headed lone- parent families with dependent children. Why the Growing Gap Affects All of Us o Poverty Costs us a lot of money o The costs of poverty come in two forms: o Lost output: is connected to the fact that the poor represent, in economic terms, unutilized or underutilized resourses. Not only are many of them not producing goods and services, but also with low incomes they are unable to purchase a variety of goods and services. o Diverted output: means that poverty adds cost to the economy that would not be required if poverty did not exist. These costs include additional demands on the health-care system; substantial costs for government to administer a wide variety of public welfare and assistance programs; large amounts of voluntary labour to assist the poor that could be put to more productive use; increased expenditures to portect individuals and property, as well as additional demands on the entire criminal justice system; and additional costs to the education system in its attempts to deal with children living in poverty. o The growing gap between the rich and poor also leads to a decline of social solidarity, an essential component of civil society. Criminal Justice System and The Poor o CJS serves many positive functions for those with wealth and power within the system 1. Our attention is directed away from failures of our social system and our inequitable distribution of wealth to the poor, who we fear may kidnap our children, break into ones houses, and so on. 2. It convinces the middle strata that the poor are deserving of their condition and that they are not just like us 3. It demobilizes the poor as a potential political force 4. It brings down unemployment rates, as those in prison are not counted as part of the unemployed. o Exploiting cheap labour leads to privatization of prisons (prison- industrial complex) Measures to Address Poverty (Cleveland and Krashinsky, 2003) o Enabling parents to earn money that contributes to the familys economic well-being. In turn, those families are more financially secure and able to provide for their childrens educational needs. o Providing women with permanent attachment to employment that may protect them in the event of divorce or widowhood. o Providing children with nutritional needs as well as other educational needs. o Providing children with strong role models of working parents o Achieving greater productivity in the Canadian workforce with the entry and retention of skilled female labour force members. It is possible for governments to reduce the degree of social inequality in Canada. Inequality also exists on a global scale. Like inequality within nation- states, global inequality must be understood within particular class relations
Chapter 11: Race and Ethnicity 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM Key terms: Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism means to view and judge the world with ones own ethnic group as a reference point. o Social groups and cultures end to evaluate themselves and their way of favorably in relation to others. Ethnic Chauvinism: Hostility directed toward people on the basis of their membership in a particular ethnic group, e.g., Greek, Irish. Anti-Semitism: Hostility directed specifically at those who are of Jewish origin. Islamophobia: Hostility directed at Muslims and their religion, Islam. Prejudice: Is an attitude of dislike or hostility toward individuals on the basis of their membership in particular groups. Racialization: Racialization refers to the process by which a particular group of people are singled out for unequal treatment due to real imaginary physical traits or characteristics. Racism: Racism is an ideology of superiority of one racial or ethnic group over another group. If hostility is directed toward people with particular characteristics, e.g., skin color, eye shape. o Ideological Racism: Racism is an ideology of superiority of one racial or ethnic group over another group. o Institutional Racism: Institutional racism is manifested in the norms, regulations, and customs of an institution based on the ideology of racial superiority. o Discrimination: Refers to the denial of equal treatment or opportunities to individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular social groups. Prejudice is an attitude of dislike or hostility toward individuals on the basis of their membership in particular groups. o Discrimination refers to the denial of equal treatment or opportunities to these same social groups o Prejudice is the holding of biased beliefs towards individuals on the basis of their membership in particular groups. Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment or opportunities to these same social groups. Discrimination generally has more serious consequences for the victim than does prejudice.
What is Racism? Race can be defined as a category of people who share certain common physical traits deemed to socially significant. Racialized groups highlights the social process by which certain groups of people are singled out for unequal treatment on the basis of real or imagined physical traits. Race, then, should be distinguished from ethnicity. Ethnic groups are distinguished by socially selected cultural traits, rather than physical ones. o E.g. religion, language, ideology, ancestry, or historical symbols Ethnic groups are distinguished by socially selected cultural traits, rather than physical ones. Difference between ethnicity and race: is that individuals of the same race may be considered of a separate ethnicity based on a national or linguistic identity. o Example: members of the racial category white may have different ethnicities such as Polish, Hungarian, or Greek. From a strictly genetic standpoint, there is no such thing as race. The concept of race, therefore, reflects a social rather than a physiological reality Racism, while connected to other forms of social intolerance such as ethnic chauvinism, anti-Semitism, and Islamophobia must be seen as distinct from them.
The roots of Racism Racism as we know it began to develop after 1492, as the Europeans powers began their global expansion and competition. Racism grew and flourished within the economic conditions of colonialism and slavery. White Mans Burden o The beginnings of racism can be traced to the expansion of European economies- first under a mercantilist and later an industrial capitalist system. o This early globalization by the imperial capitalist powers, dominated by Britain, was primarily into countries where people had skin colours different from those of Europeans. o Imperialism could then be morally justified by arguing that those affected were somehow inferior and that the Europeans were actually there to help them o In the name of civilizing the heathen, racialized groups around the globe were robbed of their resources and their cultures and forced to work in the mines, fields, and forests to create wealth for rich Europeans. o Populations were decimated by a combination of mass murder, disease, and maltreatment In the mid 18 th century, an additional notion began to appear: racial minorities, primarily Blacks, were no longer seen as simply culturally or socially inferior to Europeans; they gradually came to also be considered biologically inferior o The British and Europeans certainly believed that darker-skinned peoples were uncivilized and distinctly inferior to themselves. Prior to the eighteenth century, it was rare for European-Americans to refer to themselves as White. As the concept grew of Blacks as biological inferiors, the concept of Whiteness, with its natural superiority, grew as well. In the classic divide-and-rule fashion, the slave-owning class encouraged White workers to identify with their White masters, rather then their Black fellow workers. o By giving certain privileges and the perception of a shared Whiteness to poor British and European labourers, they could minimize the class identification of these people with Black slaves, and thus lower the risk of a successful rebellion. Later 19 th century just at the time that the formal institution of slavery was coming to an end, the belief in the natural inferiority of Blacks was now reinforced by the pseudo-science of the biological determinists. At the same time that slavery was disappearing, biological determinist arguments about racial inferiority became increasingly popular. Racism reached its full development by the end of the nineteenth century. Scientific Categorization of people into Races was a result of two developments: 1. Expansion of capitalism 2. Growth of science Race is a social construction that refers to a category of characteristics possessed by individuals and groups. o Race has been delineated based on physical characteristics. Groups have often been discriminated against, based on their supposedly inferior characteristics. o Today, society classifies people into different races primarily based on skin color.
Types of Racism Overt Racism: Name calling Covert Racism: Covert racism may also be unconscious and unintentional. Individuals may not see themselves as racist but may act in ways that contradict their personal beliefs. Systematic/Institutional Racism: It becomes part of institutional power. Racism can become ingrained in the everyday practices and structures of an organization.
A History of Racism in Canada Indigenous Peoples o The first British and French colonist made contact with Indigenour people primarily to exploit their labour power in the fur trade. o Despite the evidence of the destructive effects of alcohol on these societies, company traders commonly bartered alcohol for furs. o Aboriginal peoples traditionally lived by hunting and fishing, and were constantly on the move in search of food and raw materials. o The influence of colonialism changed the structure of First Nations families to that of a patriarchal, nuclear form. o Disease also ravaged the early First Nations peoples. Illnesses such as measles, smallpox, and flus were previously unknown to Aboriginal peoples and thousands died as a result. o After the War of 1812, the colonizers of Canada planned to assimilate First Nations people o In 1857, a law was passed called Act to Encourage the Gradual Civilization of Indian Tribes. This Act defined an Indian as one who had surrendered land. o he 1876 Indian Act defined who was an Indian (Indian women and their children lost their status if she married a non-Indian). The Indian Act was sweeping legislation that controlled every aspect of the lives of Indigenous people. o Under the terms of the original act, status Indians were prohibited from owning land, from voting, and from purchasing or consuming alcohol and they were forcibly segregated on reserves. o In addition, the Indian Act provided the legal framework for land treaties so that land could be appropriated from the Aboriginal peoples. o Although the reserves were generally in areas long occupied by various bands, they were much smaller than previous First Nations territory, were often poorly suited form farming or other economic activity, and could not be disposed of without permission from the federal government. o Traditional First Nations governments were eventually replaced by band councils that little real power or influence. o 1884, Amendment to the act, prohibited Indians from engaging in certain cultural activities, such as the potlatch and sun dance. o The goal of the legislation was to encourage assimilation through contact with White civilization-through such institutions as missionary-run residential schools-while concurrently dissolving First Nations culture and political structures. o Since colonialism, there has always been the idea that Aboriginal families need to be assimilated through contact with White Civilization through missionary run residential schools. o 160,000 children were forcibly removed from their families and communities. They received inferior education, physical, sexual and emotional abuse in these residential schools. o Between 1960s-1980s, approximately 30,000 Aboriginal children were adopted or fostered out to White Canadian families. This period was known as the sixties scoop. o Through residential schooling, families were separated and this resulted in a loss of language and culture.. The schools having forbidden all things Indian. o In thousands of cases, children died and never returned home. o There have been over 20 changes to the Indian Act. In 1985 (Bill C- 31), ended the discrimination against women, allowed status reinstatement and allowed bands to define membership rules. o The last federally operated residential school closed in 1990. o Median income of Aboriginal people in 2006, 30% lower than rest of the Canadians ($27,097). o In 2009, average employment rate for Aboriginal people-57%, compared with 61.8% for non-Aboriginal people. o Larger proportion of First Nations people live in over-crowded homes than do non-aboriginal people (11 versus 3 percent). o Aboriginal people are two times more likely than non-Aboriginal people to experience violent victimization, such as assault, sexual assault or robbery (Statistics Canada, 2011d). o High rates of poverty, unemployment, and poor housing, ill health, lower life expectancy and higher rates of infant mortality and youth suicide. o Canada has a long history of state-supported racism, particularly against First Nations people First Nations Struggle Continues Issues o Lack of structural power o Institutional racism o Devaluation of culture o Limited opportunities for economic development o Legacy of residential schooling and widespread racial o Stereotypes o Difficulty settling of land claims The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples recommended that First Nations should be allowed to establish their own criminal justice system. Kelowna Accord: o Starting in 2004, many indigenous organizations and provincial, territorial and federal governments reached Kelowna accord, agreeing to provide $5.1 billion in funding over 10 years for education, health, housing, and economic opportunities. o 2006, Conservative Party won elections and cancelled the Kelowna accord was cancelled. Black in Canada o 17th Century: The first Black slaves were brought to Canada by the French. o 1776 and 1785: Black population of Canada increased as runaway slaves from U.S found their way north on the Underground Railroad. o 1860: the Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 60,000 Blacks in Canada. o Restricted in their ownership of property as well as their ability to educate their children. o Both Ontario and Nova Scotia legislated racially separate schools. Segregate schools continued in Nova Scotia until 1960s. o Racism was both pervasive and public and could be seen in schools, government, the media, judiciary, workplace, and elsewhere in society. o 2006 census: Blacks constituted third-largest visible minority group in Canada, with majority centered o Blacks experience lower employment rates and employment income and higher unemployment rates regardless of educational level. o More likely than other visible minorities to feel discriminated against or treated unfairly because of their ethnicity, culture, race, skin colour, language, accent, or religion. Chinese Canadians o 1858: First Chinese gold-miners arrive in British Columbia from San Francisco. o As many as 14, 000 Chinese men were brought to this country in the late nineteenth to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. o Work was dangerous, the living conditions apalling, and the wages pathetic o Men were not allowed to bring their families, nor allowed to establish relations with White women. o 1872: The British Columbia Qualifications of Voters Act denies the Chinese and First Nations peoples the right to vote o 1885: Chinese immigration Act was passed (places head tax on all Chinese immigrants). o 1886: A head tax of $50 was imposed on each person of Chinese origin entering Canada. o 1904: Head tax on Chinese immigrants was raised to $500. That was equivalent to a full-time wage for One Year. o 1923: Chinese Immigration Act ( Chinese Exclusion Act) passed, which virtually ended Chinese immigration. They could not serve in public offices, could not vote and were barred from higher paying professions. o 1962: Chinese could apply as independent immigrants o 2006: Formal apology was issued by the government to the Chinese for the injustice of the Head Tax. Japanese Canadians o 1877-1928 : First Japanese settlers in Canada arrived in B.C. o Encountered economic exploitation and job restriction and were not allowed to vote. o Until the late 1940s: Were denied the right to vote. o In 1928: Canada and Japan revised the gentlemen's agreement-restrict Japanese immigration to Canada to 150. o In early 1942: More than 22,000 Japanese, forced out of their homes, interned in camps and their properties sold a fraction of its value. o On September 22, 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney provided $21,000 for each of the approximately 18,000 survivors that were directly affected. South Asian Canadians. o 1904-1907: 5000 Sikh male immigrants emigrated to B.C. o Lumber mills and logging camps. o East Indians had to have at least $200 to enter B.C. o 1908 Continuous Passage Act: East Indians would have to come to Canada via direct passage from India. o In 1909, the B.C. government removed the rights of Indians to vote. o Hindu Invasion o East Indian Canadians faced discrimination. o Until the 1920s, wives of East Indian men not allowed to enter Canada. o In 1947, East Indians given the right to vote. o In 1952 a new Immigration Act removed all restrictions for South Asians. This brief overview of Canadian history suggests that racism involves more than simply the personal biases of individuals. Rather we began to see is a pattern of institutional racism. o Whole social institutions such as education, the judiciary, the media, and so on are embedded with racist ideologies and help sustain them Biological Determinist Approach: o Through this argument racist individuals are able to justify their ideologies based on what they feel is scientific evidence of inferiority. o For example: Individuals possessing certain physical characteristics can be regarded as members of a biologically inferior group. Social characteristics are then ascribed to the biological characteristics. o Used to justify unequal treatment of women, the poor, immigrants and racial minorities.
Liberalism: Focusing on Culture. Liberalism sees the cause of racial inequality as rooted in values, attitudes, and cultural differences. In contrast, class analysis focuses on the material basis for such ideas, that is, the way they are rooted in our societys economic and political structures. Liberalism is one of the many order theories that try to explain why racial inequality exists The central variables of social analysis from the perspective of liberalism are values, attitudes, and cultural differences. The liberal perspective does not ignore structural inequities; rather argues that structural inequities are a result of cultural problems. Cultural Approach: Refers to the idea that certain racial groups are perceived to have a deficit or inferior culture. Individuals holding these racist views may justify their beliefs based on stereotypes about the cultural attributes about a group. In the period that followed World War II, most North American sociologist saw social intolerance as a temporary phenomenon that would disappear as various groups assimilated over time into the broader culture Assimilationism: starts with the assumption that industrial societies which tend to promote individual freedom and initiative- will naturally discourage discrimination. Since modern societies promote equality, persistence of racism must be a result of certain groups clinging to traditional values, attitudes, and beliefs. The primary argument used by the government to restrict the number of immigrants from China, India, and Japan was their inability to assimilate The Culture of Poverty Approach (Oscar Lewis, 1966) o Living in poverty creates a culture filled with a number of characteristics o low level of social organization o hostility towards representatives of the broader society o Feelings of despair, dependence, and inferiority o This culture of poverty, keeps certain groups from attaining economic success. In Canada, such arguments have been used to explain the condition of Indigenous people. o One author, for example, believed that a century of life on the reserves, with its forced idleness and isolation, helped create a culture of poverty that left Native people ill-prepared to adapt to urban living. Critique o One of the main problems with such arguments is that they confuse cause with effect: the values and cultural orientations are seen to be the source of problems, rather than result of it. Example: high rates of poverty and unemployment among indigenous people have led to poor work ethic. o The assimilationist and culture-of-poverty theorists end up blaming the victims for their own oppression o Theories that focus on the victims of social problems draw attention away from the structural bases of such problems. o Liberal theories see racism as a cultural problem o The solution to these problems, then, is seen as being some alteration of the victims attitudes or behavior, rather than any necessary change in the social structure.
The Class Perspective: The Structural Basis of Racism Unlike the liberal perspective, which focuses on the cultural roots of social intolerance, the Marxist or class perspective looks at the material basis for such behavior and beliefs. Focuses first and foremost on structures of power From a Marxist perspective, racism continues because the dominant class in capitalism benefits from its existence. Extra Profits from Discrimination o From the Marxist perspective, the capitalist owning class benefits from racial inequality in a number of ways o Underpayment of racialized groups major source of profits for those who employ them. o Underpayment of one sector of the labour market serves to keep all wages down. o Members of these groups constitute important part of reserve army of unemployed. o Whites earn more than racialized minorities. Galabuzi, 2006: Canada has a system of economic apartheid, a term used to define the institutionalized system of racism in South Africa from the 1960s to the early 1990s The Ideology of Racism o Racism provides more than short-term economic benefits for capital. o Racism and other forms of ethnic hostility serves to separate workers by divide-and-rule pattern, thus less likely to unite in a struggle to oppose those in power. o The more that various racial and ethnic groups are pitted against each other, the less likely it is that they will be able to unite in a common struggle to oppose those with power. o To say that capital benefits in general from racism is not to deny that individual capitalists or companies may work toward eroding racism. o Not all workers will oppose racism. E.g., In bad economic times, group hostility increases because of competition for scarce opportunities. There are many reasons hiring more qualified workers, hiring workers that reflect the diversity of their customers, or simply personal values why individual employers may work against discrimination in the workplace o Competition for resources in the face of government cutbacks and declining wages can set the stage for increased social intolerance. Example: In 2010, Macleans: Canadian Universities were becoming Too Asian While there have certainly been some advances in the struggle against racism, there is substantial evidence to indicate that racism remains pervasive in Canada social institutions. The anti-racist policies of the government are very weak The struggle for self-government and for the settlement of long-standing land claims remains central for First Nations people. There is some evidence that Canadians have become more tolerant of racial and ethnic minorities. On the other hand, the capitalist structure has limited economic and social advances for racialized groups
Exam Review. 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM
1. In agrarian societies the dominant class controlled the state: o Directly
2. The term state and the term government are not exactly the same because o Only a and c
3. From the pluralist point of view, what degree of autonomy of action does the state have o high
4. Which of the following theoretical frameworks is the most compatible with the pluralistic o Order theory
5. From the class analysis point of view, the Canadian State is: o Partially autonomous (self-governing)
6. Which of the following state institutions belongs to the category of repressive agencies (repressive: inhibiting or restraining the freedom of a person or group of people) o Judiciary
7. The class theory of the state ultimately: o questions the democratic character of Canadian society
8. The framework of representative democracy helps o All of the above
9. Status indians in Canada were first able to vote in federal elections in o 1960.
10. Which of the following did the Europeans inflict on the native people of Canada o All of above
11. In terms of social and political turmoil, capitalists are likely to opt for o Anti democratic leadership
12. Which of the following could be considered a hidden tax: o all of the above
13. Which of the following is not a normal way for governments in Canada to collect moneys o All of the above
14. Which corporation was the major recipient of government financial assistance between 1982 and 2002: o Pratt and Whitney
15. Which of the following is affected by ones socio-economic status o All of the above
16. Without dissent, a democratic society is likely to o become a police state
17. Fascism has historically been associated with o All of the above
18. Overall, it can be said that Canadas system of taxation has been o mildly progressive
19. The golden age of capitalism coincided with a rapid expansion of the o The welfare state
20. The main goal of the accord reached between the capitalists and organized workers after world war 2 was that: o the state would mediate the struggle between labour and capital
21. The economist whose work had a major influence on capitalist economies immediately after world war 11 was o Jon Maynard Keynes
22. The welfare state was most developed in: o Scandinavia
23. The accord between capital and labour first began o 1970s
24. Which of the following is not a key policy component of neoliberalism: o downsizing the repressive state of
25. public private partnerships o B. allow corporations
26. One of the biggest myths promoted to advance the neoliberal agenda was that: o C. Canadian government for spending to much on social benefits
27. What we now refer to as the process of globalization is highly termed. o .
28. Which of the following is involved in imposing structural adjustment programs around the world o all of the above
29. Change theorists argue that the race of life in capitalist societies o is never truly fair
30. Which of the following is a status symbol: o all of the above
31. Which of following terms was coined by Thorsten Veblen to denote the lifestyle of the wealthy o only b and c
32. Between 1976 and 2004, the gap between rich and poor in Canada: o increased in both economic recession and economic growth
33. Recent research reveals that a particular group has seen a decline in their income. Which group? o Immigrants
34. Order theories focus primarily on inequality in o earned income
35. Davis and Moores theory of social stratification argued that o Social inequality was functional to societies
36. The status changed between the occupational status of parent and child is known as o intergenerational mobility
37. Statuses such as gender race ethnicity and national origin are referred to as o
38. According to the change theorists, inequality of outcome is primarily the result of: o inequality of condition
39. When people earn far less than the average in the general population o Relative poverty
40. Individuals are most likely to escape poverty by having o two income earners in the family
41. Blaming the victim as an ideology o Directs our attention away from structural causes
42. William Ryan says that the ideology of blaming the victim ultimately makes us see the poor as: o the different ones
43. Change theories of global inequality tend to see the problem as caused by o The global capitalist system
44. Statistics Canada measurers poverty by using o all of the above
45. Which of the following terms is used to refer to the process by which a particular group of people are singled out for unequal treatment due to real or imaginary physical traits o Racialization
46. A favourable evaluation of ones own group and culture in relation to others is refereed to as o Ethnocentrism
47. The term anti-Semitism is used in reference to the o D
48. Hostility towards Muslims is commonly referred to as: o Islamophobia
49. Denial of equal treatment or opportunities to members of social groups o discrimination
50. . o Indigenous people
51. The Indian Act of 1976 prohibited status Indians from: o All of the above.
52. Which of the following did the Europeans inflict on the native people of Canada: o all of the above
53. At the end of the nineteenth century, the head tax was imposed by the federal government on o Chinese immigrants
54. The primary argument used by the government to restrict the number of immigrants from China, India and Japan was o The inability to assimilate
55. The continuous passage act of 1908 made immigration virtually impossible for: o India
56. Systemic racism is all referred to as o Institutional racism
57. In bad economic times, racism and ethnocentrism are likely to o increase
58. Starting in 2004 the agreement between the government and aboriginal representatives that was cancelled in 2006 o Kelowna accord
59. Oscar Lewis maintained that living in poverty creates o a culture of poverty
60. Which of the following has been used to justify gender inequality o Gender difference
61. Parsons argue that roles women and men play in traditional families were a result of biology, what were those roles? o instrumental for men and expressive for women
62. Talcott parsons typically inherited families . Raising children at home o a small minority of families in Canada
63. Many writers today speak of waves of feminism o Three
64. Second wave feminism must be understood in the context of what happened at what time which was that o only and b
65. According to liberal feminists the main source of gender inequality o process of socialization
66. George Murdocks study of over 200 societies revealed that o all of the above
67. Socialist feminism focuses primarily on the intersection of o Class and gender
68. a generalized hatred of women o Msynogy
69. Fredrich Engels thought that the monogamous patriarchal family had its own origin: o growth of private property
70. Which of following can be connected to the historical decline in womans status o all of the above
71. The economic system of capitalism o advance gender inequality
72. Women were well suited for industrial work under the early capitalism because they were o only a and b
73. Which of the following provinces have instituted an accessible and affordable child care system o Qubec
74. Who first coined the termed o Adrienne Rich
75. Which of the following was NOT one of the suggestions in the text for improving the lives of both women and men o introducing a wide range of tax cuts Chapter 12: Gender Issues 3/30/2014 6:02:00 PM