Television Dependence, Diagnosis, and Prevention:

With Commentary on Video Games, Pornography, and Media Education

Roert !uey
"ssociate Pro#essor, Department o# $ournalism % Media &tudies Rutgers 'niversity, (e) *runs)ic+,
(e) $ersey ,-.,/
0n Tuning In To Young Viewers: Social Science Perspectives on Television, edited
y Tannis M1Williams, &age, 2..31
"stract
The diagnostic criteria #or sustance dependence used y psychologists and psychiatrists are applied
to +no)n #eatures o# haitual television vie)ing ehavior1 The case is made that #or some persons,
television vie)ing haits may constitute psychological dependence1 Methods aimed at controlling
media haits are o##ered as is advice #or those responsile #or children1 Consideration is also given to
contemporary challenges posed y media violence, pornography, and computer and videogame haits1
" section on media education is included1
Portions o# this article )ere originally presented at the .-th annual meeting o# "merican Psychological
"ssociation, *oston, "ugust 2..,1 "t that time, diagnostic criteria as covered in D1&1M10004R 52.-67
)ere applied1
"c+no)ledgements: 0 )ish to than+ 8artmut Mo+ros, Ph1D1 and $ames 8utchinson, M1D1, #or their
help#ul suggestions on elements o# this chapter1
Television Dependence, Diagnosis, and Prevention: With
Commentary on Video Games, Pornography, and Media Education
0n this chapter, 0 #irst e9amine )hat is +no)n aout psychological dependence
on television, applying the psychiatric criteria used in diagnosing sustance
dependencies to vie)ing haits1 The chapter then turns to concerns aout ho)
people can gain greater control over their vie)ing, )ith speci#ic attention to the
concerns o# those responsile #or children1
*ecause media violence is so o#ten the #ocus o# society:s concerns aout the
non4discriminant and unsupervised use o# television y children, 0 also o##er
oservations on this topic1 The chapter ne9t considers the positive potentials
posed y video and computer games ut also )hy use o# these ne) media can e
hait #orming1 ;inally, the long4standing controversy over the e##ects o#
pornography is addressed, as is the <uestion o# )hether there is such a thing as
pornography addiction1 (e) concerns aout interactive erotica are raised1 0n
light o# the #oregoing, at the conclusion o# the chapter 0 rie#ly consider the value
o# #ormal media education1
Television Dependence
Many people today elieve that television vie)ing can e addictive1 "lthough
only = percent and 2=1> percent o# adults in t)o separate surveys elieved that
they )ere addicted, 3> to 6, percent elieved that others )ere addicted
5Mc0l)raith, 2..,? Mc0l)raith, &mith, !uey, % "le9ander, 2..2? &mith, 2.-371
"lthough it is tempting to use the term @addiction@ )hen re#erring to
individuals )ho report up)ards o# 3, hours o# vie)ing each )ee+, the term
connotes di##erent things to di##erent people1 0t seems li+ely that less con#usion
)ill result i# )e are more care#ul in the )ords )e choose1
0ndeed, the prime diagnostic manual used y psychotherapists throughout (orth
"merica, the "merican Psychiatric "ssociation:s 52..A7 Diagnostic and &tatistical
Manual o# Mental Disorders, ;ourth Edition, 5D1&1M140V7, does not use the term
@addiction,@ nor did its previous edition pulished in 2.-61 0nstead, the
committees that )rote D1&1M1 pre#erred the term @sustance dependence@ to
conceptualiBe )hat others might call addiction1 &till, there remain researchers
and clinicians )ho use the term @addiction,@ especially )ith regard to
pornography1 "s a result, in the pages ahead 0 )ill use that term #rom time to
time1
8o) the Vie)ing 8ait is ;ormed
*e#ore launching into a more general discussion o# television dependence, 0
)ant to recount some o# the relevant #indings 0 have reported in earlier research
using the E9perience &ampling Method 5E&M71 &ince the mid42.6,s, my
colleagues and 0 have used this method to study ho) people use and e9perience
television as )ell as other media1
The E&M involves having research suCects report )hat they are doing, and
ho) they are #eeling, each time they are signalled )ith a radio controlled eeper1
Each respondent typically is signalled si9 to eight times each day, #rom morning
till night, #or a )ee+1 The timing o# the signals is predetermined y the research
team to occur at random intervals, and participants do not +no) )hen to e9pect a
signal1 The research has enaled us to study television vie)ing along )ith other
daily activities as they naturally occur1
0n addition to the eepers, participants also carry a small oo+let o# sel#4report
#orms1 "#ter each signal, the individual stops to #ill out a short report #orm telling
us ho) he or she #elt on a numer o# standard psychological measures o# mood
and mental activity1 The E&M has already proved use#ul in the diagnosis and
understanding o# psychopathologies such as the eating disorders ulimia and
anore9ia 5$ohnson % Darson, 2.-=? Darson % $ohnson, 2.->7, drug and alcohol
ause 5Darson, Csi+sBentmihalyi, % ;reeman, 2.-A7, schiBophrenia 5deVries,
Delespaul, DiC+man, Theunissen, 2.-37, and multiple personality disorder
5Do)enstein, 8amilton, "lagana, Reid, % de Vries, 2.-671
With the E&M )e have #ound that television vie)ing typically involves less
concentration and alertness4Eand is e9perienced more passivelyE4than almost
all other daily activities, e9cept )hen people report @doing nothing@
5Csi+sBentmihalyi % !uey, 2.-2? !uey, 2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi,
2..,a71 These very asic #indings have held up #or people #rom ages 2, to -= and
#rom people studied in the 'nited &tates, Canada, West Germany, and 0taly1
The main positive e9perience people report )hen vie)ing is rela9ation, ut the
rela9ed and passive odily and mental states associated )ith vie)ing may also
ma+e it di##icult #or many people to turn the set o##1 ;urthermore, the passive
vie)ing state doesn:t stop once people turn o## the set44it can @spill over@ into ho)
they #eel a#ter)ard1 Most vie)ers continue to #eel rela9ed regardless o# ho) long
they vie) ut some report less satis#action and greater di##iculty concentrating the
longer they vie) 5!uey, 2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a71
The spillover e##ect suggests that vie)ing can inculcate passivity in some
vie)ers, at least in the short term, and it appears that many vie)ers #ind it more
di##icult to turn o## the set the longer they vie)1 "ctivities that might have
seemed simple to do at 3:,, pm egin to appear more #ormidale as the vie)er
ecomes accustomed to spending time passively1 2
The mood modulating and psychological coping #eatures o# television use are
evidenced in E&M studies y the #act that people )ho report #eeling signi#icantly
)orse early in the a#ternoon are more li+ely to report later the same day that they
)atched a lot o# television, )hereas people )ho report #eeling etter in the
a#ternoon are more li+ely later that day to report a light night o# vie)ing 5!uey,
2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,71 That people use television to escape
negative and unpleasant moods has een sho)n y others as )ell 5&teiner, 2.3/?
&challo) % Mc0l)raith, 2.-34-671 0n #act, adults )ho called themselves @TV
addicts@ )ere also signi#icantly more li+ely than @nonaddicted@ vie)ers to report
using television to cope )ith negative moods such as loneliness, sadness, an9iety,
and anger 5Mc0l)raith, 2..,71
Television has een #ound to distract vie)ers #rom the negative thin+ing and
rumination that can contriute to unpleasant mood states 5*ryant % Fillmann,
2.-A? Mc0l)raith % &challo), 2.-/? &inger, 2.-,? &inger % &inger, 2.-/71 "nd
vie)ing appears to e particularly e##ective in reducing normal stress and mild
tension 5Mil+man % &under)irth, 2.-671 The distraction #unction o# TV has even
een #ound to reduce patients: reports o# pain during dental procedures 5&eyre+,
Corah, % Pace, 2.-A71
&el#4laelled @addicts@ say they are particularly li+ely to use television )hen
they have nothing to do and to #ill open time 5Mc0l)raith, 2..,71 *y comparison
)ith light vie)ers )ho )atch less than t)o hours a day, heavy vie)ers 5more
than #our hours7 generally report #eeling )orse )hen alone and )hen in
unstructured situations such as )aiting in line or )hen @et)een@ activities
5!uey, 2.-371
These #indings suggest a possile dependence on the medium #or #illing the
voids that accompany solitude or open time1 &ensation4see+ing and avoidance o#
unpleasant thoughts, memories, and emotions have also een theoriBed to e at
play1 Eysenc+ 52.6-7, #or e9ample, theoriBed that e9traverts )ould ecome
dependent on television ecause o# a lo) tolerance #or oredom and a need to
increase arousal1
Gne interpretation is that vie)ing is simply symptomatic, that is, people )ho
#eel an9ious )hen alone or in unstructured situations )ill gravitate to television in
order to #eel less an9ious and alone and more psychologically structured1 Put
another )ay, people use television to distract themselves #rom their negative
ruminations and mood states y letting the medium help structure their attention1
0n one )ay, the e##ect may not e very di##erent #rom the immediate, positive
change in mood oserved in an in#ant )hen his or her attention is suddenly
structured y the sound and sight o# a sha+ing rattle1
0n oth the 'nited &tates 5&mith, 2.-37 and Canada 5Mc0l)raith, 2..,7
researchers have studied sel#4laelled @TV addicts1@ 0n oth studies they scored
signi#icantly higher than vie)ers )ho descried themselves as @nonaddicted@ on
measures o# mind)andering, distractiility, oredom, and un#ocused
daydreaming 5#rom the Poor "ttentional Control scale o# the &hort 0maginal
Processes 0nventory, a relatively simple paper and pencil psychological
measurement instrument71 This suggests the possiility o# a vicious circle
)herein the e9perience o# negative moods and thoughts )hen alone and )hen
unstructured may interact )ith the ease )ith )hich people can <uic+ly escape
these #eelings y vie)ing 5!uey, 2.-371 "s a result o# many hours spent
vie)ing television over many years, some people may ecome unpractised in
spending time alone, entertaining themselves, or even in directing their o)n
attention 58arrison % Williams, 2.-3? !uey, 2.-3? !uey, 2..,a? &inger %
&inger, 2.-/71
Many hours spent )atching television each day over many years may also
decrease tolerance o# the sel#1 Conceivaly, lonely people )ho are generally
more inclined to use television in the #irst place may, in turn, ecome even more
uncom#ortale )hen alone and le#t )ithout the <uasi4social e9perience the
medium o##ers1 "s 8arrison and Williams 52.-37 put it, constant use o# television
@seems unli+ely to encourage the aility to tolerate aloneness )ith one:s thoughts
and ideas@ 5p1 2=>71 8eavy vie)ers do tend to have more time on their hands,
typically spending more time alone than light vie)ers1 "mong the demographic
groups )ith more heavy vie)ers in their ran+s are the old, the unemployed, and
persons recently divorced or separated 58uston, et al1, 2..=? !uey, 2.-,? !uey
% Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a? &mith, 2.-3? &teiner, 2.3/? Williams, 2.-371
0n short, a television vie)ing hait may e sel#4perpetuating1 Vie)ing may lead
to more vie)ing and may elicit )hat has een called @attentional inertia,@ i1e1,
@the longer people loo+ at television, the greater is the proaility that they )ill
continue to loo+@ 5"nderson, "l)itt, Dorch % Devin, 2.6., p1 //.71 Discom#ort
in noncommitted, or solitary time, can lead to vie)ing, ut a#ter years o# such
ehavior and a thousand hours or more o# vie)ing each year, it seems <uite
possile that an ingrained television hait could cause some people to #eel
uncom#ortale )hen le#t )ith @nothing to do,@ or alone, and not vie)ing 5!uey,
2.-371
(ot only does television vie)ing rela9 people, anecdotal reports indicate that it
rela9es them <uic+ly1 Within moments o# sitting or lying do)n and pushing a TV
set:s po)er utton, many vie)ers report #eeling more rela9ed than they did
e#ore1 "nd ecause the rein#orcement o# rela9ation occurs <uic+ly, people
readily learn to associate vie)ing )ith rela9ation1 The association is then
repeatedly rein#orced 5operant conditioning7 ecause although the <uality o# other
emotional and mental states may deteriorate some)hat, vie)ers remain rela9ed
throughout vie)ing 5!uey, 2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a71 The hait
is readily #ormed, ut can e very di##icult to rea+ 5Daley, 2.66? Winic+, 2.--71
Det:s consider drug use #or a possile analogy1 @The attriute o# a drug that most
contriutes to its ause liaility is not its aility to produce tolerance or physical
dependence ut rather its aility to rein#orce the drug4ta+ing ehaviors@ 5&)onger
% Constantine, 2.63, p1 =/>71 This is )hy oth the speed o# a drug:s e##ect and
ho) <uic+ly it leaves the ody can e critical #actors as to )hether or not
dependence occurs1 0t:s important to note that rein#orcement needn:t e
e9perienced consciously #or it to e e##ective1
0t may prove instructive to consider the induction o# rela9ation )ith t)o
common tran<uiliBers 5enBodiaBepines7, Valium 5diaBepam7 and Tran9ene
5cloraBepate71 The time it ta+es #or Valium to ta+e e##ect and actually reduce
an9iety is shorter than #or Tran9ene1 0t is in part ecause o# the #ast relie# #rom
tension provided y Valium that some people are at greater ris+ o# developing a
sustance dependence )ith it than )ith Tran9ene1 &ome physicians prescrie
Tran9ene precisely #or this reason1 0n other )ords, i# a person is re)arded )ith a
signi#icant change in mood shortly a#ter ta+ing a sustance, it is more li+ely that
the person )ill use the sustance #re<uently than i# it )ere slo)er acting1
*y the same to+en, some tran<uiliBers and anti4depressants )hose @hal#4lives@
are very short4Ethe drug leaves the ody rapidly relative to other drugsE4can
also e more hait #orming precisely ecause the patient is more li+ely to e
a)are that the drug:s e##ects are )earing o##1 When the return to #eeling adly is
rapid, the tendency to turn to the drug #or relie# once again can e greater than i#
its e##ects )ere to )ear o## more gradually1
Returning to television:s e##ects, the rela9ation e##ect appears to e most
noticeale )hen the vie)er is vie)ing, not a#ter)ardE4)e #ound little evidence
that people #eel etter or more rela9ed a#ter vie)ing 5!uey, 2.-A? !uey %
Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a71 Thus, the change in mood that one e9periences #rom
the time o# vie)ing to )hen one suddenly stops vie)ing may e arupt, perhaps
more comparale to the e##ect o# drugs that )ear o## <uic+ly than slo)ly1 These
principles may e involved in the development o# some television dependencies1
Vie)ing also egets more vie)ing ecause one must generally +eep )atching in
order to +eep #eeling rela9ed 5!uey, 2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a71 "
+ind o# psychological and physical intertia may develop1 "lthough paying the
ills might not have seemed di##icult immediately a#ter dinner, a#ter t)o or three
hours spent )ith TV, vie)ers ecome accustomed to having their e9perience
e##ortlessly and passively structured1 Getting up and ta+ing on a more
demanding tas+ may egin to seem more #ormidale1=
Relative to the other possile means availale to ring aout distraction and
rela9ation, television is among the <uic+est, and certainly among the cheapest1
"nd unli+e conversation or games, one does not need anyone else to )atch TV1
0ndeed, in many )estern, developed nations television is readily and instantly
availale =A hours a day1 (o)adays, )ith )ell over /, cale channels availale to
most (orth "merican households, one can almost al)ays #ind something o#
interest to vie)1 &el#4control over one:s vie)ing may have ecome more o# a
challenge #or many than it )as in the not so distant past 5!uey, 2..,a71
"pplying D1&1M140V &ustance Dependence Criteria
'sing the "merican Psychiatric "ssociation:s 52..A7 diagnostic and statistical
manual 5D1&1M140V7 as a guide #or ma+ing a diagnosis o# television dependence is
instructive1 0ndeed, Dr1 "llen $1 ;rances, )ho oversa) the most recent revision o#
the manual concluded that @'nder the roader de#inition, many +inds o#
compulsive ehavior could e considered addictive, including osessive se9 or
compulsive television vie)ing 5italics added7@ 5Goleman, 2..,, p1 C-71
D1&1M140V lists seven possile criteria #or ma+ing a diagnosis o# sustance
dependence 5pp1 26342-271 Three must apply in order to ma+e a diagnosis o#
@dependence1@ Diagnosis also involves a time dimension: D1&1M140V states that
@dependence is de#ined as a cluster o# three or more o# the symptoms listed
elo) occurring at any time in the same 2=4month period@ 5p1 26371
0n considering these criteria and the relevant literature on television vie)ing,
#ive o# the seven diagnostic criteria )ould appear to e applicale to television
vie)ing and its concomitant ehaviors and e##ects1 The t)o D1&1M140V criteria
that 0 elieve do not readily apply to television vie)ing haits, or are less
applicale, are reported #irst1
Dess "pplicale Criteria
21 H2 in D1&1M1: @Tolerance, as de#ined y either o# the #ollo)ing: 5a7 a need #or
mar+edly increased amounts o# the sustance to achieve into9ication or desired
e##ect@ or @57 mar+edly diminished e##ect )ith continued use o# the same amount
o# the sustance@ 5p1 2-271
Even here, ho)ever, it is note)orthy that )e have #ound that vie)ers otain the
ene#it o# rela9ation )hen they are vie)ing1 0t is #or this reason, among others,
that )e have hypothesiBed that vie)ing o#ten continues #or as long as it does1
8eavier vie)ers also enCoy their vie)ing less on average than do light vie)ers
5!uey, 2.-A? !uey % Csi+sBentmentmihalyi, 2..,a71
=1 H6 in D1&1M1: @The sustance use is continued despite +no)ledge o# having a
persistent or recurrent physical or psychological prolem that is li+ely to have
een caused or e9acerated y the sustance@ 5p1 2-271
"s )ill e noted elo), there may e a small percentage o# people #or )hom
this criterion could e applied, ut the use o# the )ord @+no)ledge@ demands
a)areness, and a)areness o# having a signi#icant physical or psychological
prolem due to TV use is proaly rare1 &till, it is almost certainly the case that
some individuals recogniBe that their television vie)ing hait inter#eres )ith their
social relations, level o# physical e9ercise, or )or+ haits1 0n these instances,
television, could e seen as e9acerating physical or psychological prolems1
There is evidence that children and adolescents )ho vie) a great deal o#
television tend to e more oese than those )ho vie) less, 5DietB % Gortma+er,
2.->? Taras, &allis, Patterson, (ader, % (elson, 2.-.71/ There is also ne)
research suggesting that a child:s metaolism slo)s do)n )hen )atching
television1 ;urthermore, consumption o# @Cun+ #ood@ among adult sel#4laeled
TV addicts is higher than #or @non4addicts@ 5Mc0l)raith, 2..,71 &ome people
also report #eeling more passive a#ter vie)ing than e#ore they egan, and this
passivity may decrease the li+elihood that vie)ers )ill ecome involved in more
active and potentially re)arding activities 5!uey, 2.-A? !uey %
Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a? !uey, 2..,a71
"pplicale Criteria
(o) let us turn to the more relevant diagnostic criteria1 "s )ith those aove, 0
have used the e9act language o# D1&1M140V1 Each criterion is #ollo)ed y
oservations regarding ho) +no)n television ehaviors are related1
21 H/ in D1 &1M1: @The sustance is o#ten ta+en in larger amounts or over a
longer
period than )as intended@ 5p1 2-271
0t is common #or vie)ers o# all ages to report sitting do)n to )atch Cust one
program ut to end up )atching much more than planned1 Thus, this diagnostic
criterion may #it many vie)ers1
0n a Gallup Poll, A=I o# the 2,=A2 '1&1 adults )ho )ere surveyed reported that
they @spent too much time )atching television@ 5Gallup % (e)port, 2..,71
Mander 52.6-7 reported that some o# the typical vie)ers he intervie)ed said
things such as, @0# a television is on, 0 Cust can:t +eep my eyes o## it@ and @0 don:t
)ant to )atch as much as 0 do ut 0 can:t help it1 0t ma+es me )atch it@ 5p1 2>-71
Re+no)ned psychologists Milton Rosenerg 52.6-7 and Percy Tannenaum
52.-,7 have each reported on the strong attraction and hold o# television in their
o)n lives 5#or a discussion see !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a, p1 /-? also
Winic+, 2.--71
0ndeed, the vie)ing hait is so entrenched in many people that the choice to
vie) is made almost automatically 5!uey, 2..,a? Williams % 8and#ord, 2.-371
Gnce dinner is done4Eor the dishes )ashed4Emany individuals sit do)n to
)atch television regardless o# )hat programs are on1
=1 HA in D1&1M1: @There is a persistent desire or unsuccess#ul e##orts to cut do)n
or control sustance use@ 5p1 2-271
"s noted aove, it is common #or people to report that they elieve they spend
too much time vie)ing1 This elie# itsel# appears to e on the rise1 The
percentage o# adults in the 'nited &tates )ho #elt that they )atched too much
television in the late 2.6,s )as /2 percent, 22 points lo)er than the 2.., #igure
o# A= percent 5Gallup % (e)port, 2..,71
0t is also relatively common #or people to report that they #eel po)erless to stop
vie)ing on their o)n )ithout aandoning the set altogether, or inter#ering )ith it
electronically 5Daley, 2.6671 &ome people have told me that they have given up
their cale suscriptions precisely so that they have less choice and )ill therey
2,
)atch less1 "nd as stated in D1&1M140V, technically one need only have a
@persistent desire1 1 1 to cut do)n or control sustance use@ #or the criterion to
apply1 Presumaly, some o# the Gallup Poll respondents )ould <uali#y1
/1 H> in D1&1M1: @" great deal o# time is spent in activities necessary to otain the
sustance1 1 1, use the sustance 5e1g1, chain smo+ing7, or recover #rom its e##ects@
5p1 2-271
Clearly, )ith the vast maCority o# "mericans spending t)o to #our hours daily
)ith television, or over hal# o# all their leisure time, a great deal o# time is spent
using television1
A1 H3 in D1&1M1: @0mportant social, occupational, or recreational activities are
given up or reduced ecause o# sustance use@ 5p1 2-271 @The individual may
)ithdra) #rom #amily activities and hoies in order to use the sustance in
private@ 5p1 26-71
There is a good deal o# research that sho)s that television can ring #amily
memers together, ut also that it can reduce #amilial contact 5*ron#enrenner,
2.6/? !uey, 2..,,c? Maccoy, 2.>2? (0M8, 2.-=? also 8uston % Wright:s
chapter in this volume71 (ot a #e) adults #eel neglected y their partners )ho use
television heavily 5e1g1, so called @#ootall )ido)s@71 People have reported to me
that they #eel that they must regularly compete )ith television personalities #or
the attention o# #amily memers 5!uey, 2..A71
Many people also use television 5not to mention other media7 purposely to
avoid contact )ith their #amily1 Particularly disturing is the suggestion that
some children may e emotionally, and perhaps even physically, neglected
ecause their caregivers are too engaged in television programs to attend to their
needs 5Desmond, &inger, % &inger, 2.-.? &hanahan % Morgan, 2.--71
With regard to recreation, some vie)ers )ill necessarily engage less in other
activities i# they are spending three, #our, or more hours each day )atching
television1 ;or e9ample, Williams and 8and#ord 52.-37 #ound that adolescents
and adults participated much less in community activities and sports )hen TV
)as availale than )hen it )as not 5see Williams: chapter in this volume71
"s #or occupational activities, there undoutedly are people )ho ring )or+
home #rom the o##ice ut do not do as much 5or perhaps a lo)er <uality Co7 than
they might ecause o# a television hait that is not under control1
11
>1 H= in D1&1M1: @)ithdra)al, as mani#ested y either o# the #ollo)ing: 5a7 the
characteristic )ithdra)al syndrome #or the sustance@ or @57 the same 5or a
closely related7 sustance is ta+en to relieve or avoid )ithdra)al symptoms@ 5p1
2-271 Withdra)al includes @a maladaptive ehavioral change@ and it is noted that
@)ithdra)al symptoms vary greatly@ 5p1 26-71
This criterion is a it more di##icult to apply to television vie)ing ehaviors
ecause )e are largely limited to anecdoctal reports and a small numer o# social
science studies o# )ithdra)al4li+e symptoms1A &till, such reports are not hard to
#ind1
&teiner 52.3/7, #or e9ample, presents individuals: reports o# a variety o#
ehaviors o# psychological interest that occurred #ollo)ing the loss o# a television
set due to a technological mal#unction1 8ere are three e9amples: @The #amily
)al+ed around li+e a chic+en )ithout a head1@ @0t )as terrile1 We did nothingE
my husand and 0 tal+ed1@ @&creamed constantly1 Children othered me and my
nerves )ere on edge1 Tried to interest them in games, ut impossile1 TV is part
o# them@ 5p1 ..71 0n her in#ormal intervie)s, Winn has presented many similar
anecdotes 52.66, pp1 =24==71
Today, such reports are less #re<uent, in part ecause many homes have more
than one set1 To e completely )ithout a television set today is unusual, )hich is
perhaps still another sign o# ho) entrenched television vie)ing has ecome1
(onetheless, Winic+ 52.--7 o##ers a valuale revie) o# studies o# #amilies
)hose television sets )ere in repair1 8e )rites:
The #irst / or A days #or most persons )ere the )orst, even
in many homes )here vie)ing )as minimal and )here there )ere
other ongoing activities1 0n over hal# o# all the households,
during these #irst #e) days o# loss, the regular routines
)ere disrupted, #amily memers had di##iculties in dealing
)ith the ne)ly availale time, an9iety and aggressions )ere
e9pressed, and estalished e9pectations #or the ehavior o#
12
other household memers )ere not met1 People living alone
tended to e ored and irritated1 Gver #our4#i#ths o# the
respondents reported moderate to severe dislocations during this
period1 1 1 1 The #i#th to eighth day represented, in many cases,
some #orm o# readCustment to the ne) situation1 *y the second
)ee+, a move to)ard adaptation to the situation )as common1
5p1 ==24===7
Daley 52.6-7 o##ers a similar account o# his #amily:s di##iculties stopping vie)ing,
as )ell as ho) easily the hait re#ormed itsel# a#ter si9 months o# astinence 5pp1
2A642A-71
" numer o# ne)spapers, in the 'nited &tates and aroad, have o##ered money
as an incentive to get individuals or #amilies to stop vie)ing television #or some
limited period o# time, o#ten a )ee+ or a month 5revie)ed in Condry, 2.-.?
!uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a? Winic+, 2.--71 0ncreased tension among
#amily memers has een descried and many #amilies could not complete the
period o# astinence agreed upon 5Ryan, 2.6A71 0n a German study it )as
reported that there )as increased veral and physical #ighting a#ter vie)ing
stopped1
0# a #amily has een spending the lion:s share o# its #ree time together over a
period o# years )atching television4Eas is the case #or many #amilies today4Eit
may ta+e some days or )ee+s, or longer, #or the #amily to recon#igure itsel#
around a ne) set o# activities1 Particularly ecause )atching television is so easy
to do, #amily memers may have ecome less imaginative aout other )ays to
spend their time together1
0n sum, although there is not a great deal o# hard empirical evidence, it does
seem li+ely that some individualsE4and perhaps entire #amiliesE4go through
something a+in to )ithdra)al i# television suddenly disappears1 ;urthermore, in
congruence )ith section @@ o# this criterion, other enCoyale leisure and media
activities are typically used to supplant TV vie)ing #or those trying to give it up1
0t is also interesting to note that television is sometimes used y individuals
see+ing to )ithdra) #rom drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and alcohol as a less
2/
harm#ul means o# escape and distraction 5personal communication, DyBns+yi,
Gct1 =,, 2..A? !uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a, p1 2-A4>71
"s can e seen, )hen D&M0V:s diagnostic criteria are applied to television
vie)ing haits a diagnosis o# sustance dependence can e made #or many
people1 The +ey missing #eature, it )ould seem, is that )e are not accustomed to
thin+ing o# television as a sustance: it is neither a li<uid 5alcohol7, nor a solid 5a
pill71 &till, the vie)ing o# television does, in some )ay, involve ta+ing something
into the ody, even i# that something is only light and sound, and even i# no
residue o# the sustance can e later #ound in the ody1 Though it may not e a
sustance, millions o# people nonetheless elieve that they, or people they +no),
need to gain etter control o# their use o# the medium1 0t is to that end that )e
ne9t turn our attention1
14
Controlling the Television 8ait
"lthough methods to diagnose television dependence have not een
estalished, there are )ays that individuals or #amilies can achieve etter control
o# their vie)ing haits1 " #e) suggestions #ollo), ut 0 must note that these are
commonsense measures and although some have een tried y individuals, none,
to my +no)ledge, has een put to controlled, empirical test1 Gne e9ception is the
introduction o# a ehavioral approach employing a @to+en economy@ )herein
children earn to+ens y engaging in non4TV activities that parents )ish to
encourage1 The to+ens can then e used to @uy@ television time1 0n one early
test, only very limited success in curing heavy television use among children
)as achieved 5$ason, 2.-671
*ut such an approach raises a ne) prolem1 Does ma+ing television the
re)ard4Eor removal o# TV, the punishmentE4simply increase the general sense
among children and adults that television is among the most pre#erred o#
activitiesJ
"s )ith other haits and dependencies that people )ish to change, it may e
most help#ul initially #or people simply to recogniBe ho) much they are vie)ing,
and ho) #re<uently or in#re<uently television provides the re)ards and ene#its
they )ant to otain1 Gne )ay to do this is to +eep a diary #or a )ee+ o# all
programs vie)ed1 ;or many, adding up the hours at the end o# the )ee+ can e
<uite soering1 &ome people may also e assisted y rating the <uality o# their
e9perience )ith TV, or ho) much they enCoyed or learned #rom various
programs1 "gain, at the end o# a )ee+, such a diary may prove illuminating1
Ta+ing stoc+ o# ho) much TV )e )atch may e especially stri+ing )hen )e
consider that (orth "mericans have an average o# >1> hours o# #ree time each day
5Roinson, 2.-.7 and typically vie) TV #or more than three hours each day1 0n
short, #or most people, more than hal# o# all #ree time is spent )atching
televisions1
Gr )e could do a little arithmetic1 0# a person lives to 6> and typically sleeps
aout eight hours a night, he or she )ill have lived >, )a+ing years1 0# vie)ing
television consumes #our hours each day, or =>I o# each 23 hour )a+ing day,
one can then conclude that 2=1> o# the person:s >, )a+ing years )ill e spent
)atching television1 This may e ho) some people )ish to spend their time, ut
#e) people have assessed their vie)ing hait in these terms1
15
*ut it is rarely enough merely to raise a)areness o# ho) much )e are
vie)ing1 0t is also important to e9ercise )ill po)er and to #ind other activities to
supplant the time )ith television1
With regard to )ill, it may not really e <uite as di##icult as it sometimes seems
simply to turn o## the set1 Vie)ers o#ten +no) that a particular program or movie4
o#4the4)ee+ is not very good )ithin the #irst #e) minutes, ut instead o# s)itching
o## the set, they vie) #or the #ull t)o hoursE4perhaps )ith some minor interest in
)hether it )as the yogurt store manager or the aeroics instructor )ho committed
the murder4Eand then #eel cheated and contemptuous o# themselves #or having
@)asted@ their time1
We may e ale to e##ectively reduce our vie)ing y ecoming more cogniBant
early on that sometimes )e are not really missing so much a#ter all1 ;ive or ten
minutes a#ter turning o## an only some)hat gripping mystery story, )e rarely care
any longer )hat )as going to happen1>
"s #or supplanting television vie)ing )ith other activities, generating a list o#
enCoyale andKor constructive activities that can e done in or around the home
may prove help#ul1 The list might e posted on the re#rigerator, or even on the TV
set1 'sing such a list o# enCoyale leisure activities has proved e##ective #or
patients su##ering #rom mild depressive episodes 5De)insohn, 2.6A71
0nstead o# re#le9ively going to the television as soon as dinner is done, those
interested in reducing their vie)ing can go to the list to help remind themselves o#
other activities44calling a #riend, )riting a letter, reading, playing cards or a oard4
game, paying the ills, )or+ing on a computer, polishing shoes44that might e
done instead o# )atching TV1 The idea is to rea+ the repetitive, haitual, and sel#4
perpetuating nature o# the hait1
G# course, it must e noted that television producers are masters at #inding
clever )ays to get people to vie) longer than they had originally intended1 (e)
stories are @teased@ in the preceding hours )ith titillating suggestions that spi+e
vie)er interest and increase the possiility that )e )ill vie) eyond the single
program that )e may have planned to )atch1
'sing a television guide can also e help#ul in cutting do)n on TV vie)ing1 We
can choose )hich programs to )atch ahead o# time and then )atch only those
programs preselected, slotting other activities et)een the sho)s )e don:t )ant to
miss1 " VCR can also e e##ective in time4shi#ting1 5"ctually, many vie)ers
never return to some o# the material they:ve taped, )hich is itsel# an indication
that vie)ing those programs )as not so critical a#ter all17 The VCR also permits
23
vie)ers to speed4search through un)anted material1 Gne vie)er )ho li+es s+etch
comedy reports that y taping his #avorite comedy program, @&aturday (ight
Dive@, and y then eliminating the opening monologue, the musical guests, all o#
the ads, and the s+etches that he can tell aren:t gelling #rom their inception, he can
reduce )hat )as once a ninety minute e9perience to one that ta+es as little as =,
minutes1
Gr #or a small charge 5L-42=7, anyone can set up their o)n mini4#ilm #estival at
home, renting #ilms y a #avorite director, therey ma+ing the e9perience a more
personally active one y stopping and studying particular scenes1 &uch a use o#
the VCR might actually increase one:s total time )ith TV, )hile ma+ing a much
more discriminating and re)arding vie)ing e9perience possile1
"ltering vie)ing haits can e particularly di##icult in #amilies ecause, as )ith
so many other #eatures o# #amily li#e, television vie)ing is o#ten systemic in
nature1 "s )ith couples )ho smo+e and )ish to <uit, reduction o# television
vie)ing is li+ely to go more smoothly i# #amily memers )or+ together and
decide Cointly to get their hait under control1
Gne #re<uent choice o# those )ishing to reduce their vie)ing is to go @cold
tur+ey1@ 0ndeed, the #act that many people choose this approach is another )ay in
)hich television dependency is similar to sustance dependencies1 Muite a #e)
people have told me that i# they o)n a television, vie)ing soon egins to
dominate #amily li#e and that the only )ay they can get things under control is to
remove the set altogether, or to cancel their cale suscription1
Daley:s 52.6-, p1 2A642A-7 e9periences in trying to curtail his #amily:s vie)ing
may prove interesting #or some readers1 There is also a oo+ on the suCect,
*rea+ing the TV 8ait y $oan Wil+ins 52.-=71 "nd there are no) also special
electronic s)itches that can e attached to a television set permitting only those
memers o# the household )ho have a code numer or comination to @unloc+@
the set1 &ome people consider this to e an e9treme approach1 Gthers #ind it an
easy )ay #or parents to control their children:s vie)ing1
(o)adays, many ne) television sets include design #eatures that ma+e it
possile to loc+ out particular channels1 Recently, memers o# the '1&1
Congress and &enate have advocated the development o# a @V chip@, a microchip
uilt4in to ne) television sets, that )ould permit caregivers to loc+ the reception
o# any program )ith a high violence rating1 G# course, such a development is
contingent on the television industry rating such programs and encoding them
)ith the appropriate readale violence code1
17
Parental Responsiility, Children, and Violence
0n ma+ing decisions and Cudgments aout )hat is in the est interests o# a child,
and especially aout children and media, it is critical to rememer that every child
is simultaneously uni<ue and changing 44o#ten rapidly1 ;urthermore, every
medium is di##erent, and TV sho)s, videogames, movies, and oo+s o##er an
enormous range in content, #orm, and style1 &till, there are some similarities
across most children at di##erent ages and across media and di##erent programs,
games, and stories1 &o )hile idiosyncratic Cudgments )ith regard to each child
are critical, there are also some general oservations that can e made1
Today, )e proaly have more children at ris+ #or developing a dependency on
television than ever e#ore1 0 have oserved, as have others 5$ames 8utchinson,
M1D1, personal communication, "pril, 2..A7, that a sustantial numer o# parents
do not elieve that they can, or should, control their children:s vie)ing1 &ome
elieve that there is no potential harm in anything that a child might )atch1 They
elieve that children can negotiate the television te9t on their o)n1
Many parents have reported to me that it is eyond their aility to limit their
children:s vie)ing1 (one o# us )ants to e a dictator, ut in my opinion parents
should not ac+ o## ma+ing decisions )ith regard to )hat their children may vie)
on television1 0# parents are not in reasonale control o# their households, and
their children and their activities, )e might conclude that the socialiBation process
is, at est, undergoing change1 "t )orst, one might e9pect all manner o# social
prolems to ensue 5!uey, 2..A71
Parental monitoring o# children:s vie)ing is important ecause 0 elieve that
there are certain +inds o# programs and material that are unsuitale #or some
children, young children in particular1 0 am especially concerned aout @reality
programming@ and ne)s programs that o#ten engender unnecessary and
sustantial #ear1 0ndeed, 0 am as concerned aout the #ear4induction e##ects o#
violence as 0 am aout the potential modeling e##ects 5!uey, 2.-671
Children sometimes need to e supervised in their use o# television,
videogames, computers, and other media, Cust as they sometimes need supervision
)hen carving a pump+in, )al+ing do)n stairs, or riding a icycle on the street1
The idea that a great many di##erent children:s activities need to e monitored
#rom time to time ut someho) only media activities can e completely
unsupervised is ludicrous to me, yet some )ould seem to hold to such a position
18
"s )ith any activity, too much o# the same thing may not al)ays e est,
especially #or a developing child1 0# other activities and e9periences are not
occurring )ith the #re<uency that a caregiver or parent deems to e appropriate
ecause o# a television or videogame hait, then, in my opinion it is the right and
responsiility o# the caregiver to limit such activities1 Children ought to get
outside no) and then, they ought to sleep a reasonale numer o# hours, and
)hen they:re old enough they ought to read and do their home)or+1
$ust as )e )ouldn:t permit children to eat all the candy they collect on
8allo)een, or permit a child to read at night )ith poor light until his or her eyes
are strained, so too must caregivers ma+e similar Cudgments aout the use o#
television and videogames1
19
&imultaneously, )e must also encourage children to develop their o)n
internal sel#4monitoring ailities so that they can increasingly ma+e these
determinations #or themselves1
Much o# )hat 0 have Cust )ritten )ill stri+e many readers as ovious1 0 have
made these points #or t)o reasons1 The #irst is that some media analysts, most
o#ten those allied )ith the @cultural studies@ approach to media studiesE4an
approach that has made many important contriutions to our understanding o#
ho) audiences e9perience and understand the mediaE4elieve that parents
ought never to censor or prohiit a child #rom parta+ing in any medium or story
that they might )ish to e9perience1 ;or some, it is a presumptuous and arrogant
act #or a parent to intrude on or censor the media e9perience o# a child1
;or theoretical, political, and pedagogical reasons, some theorists have
concluded that the media are a di##erent +ind o# stimulus or phenomenon #rom
things such as #ire, @dangerous strangers@, candy, and unguarded cli##s and stairs1
Television sho)s, oo+s, and videogames are all cultural products and can e
actively @negotiated@ y audience memers1 (otaly, much o# the research on
such negotiations, or @readings,@ o# media te9ts has een done )ith adolescents
and adults, not children1
Developmental psychologists have een criticiBed y some cultural studies
advocates #or eing too proscriptive in their vie)s aout appropriate media
content #or children 5&eiter, in press71 There are leading cultural studies scholars
)ho seem to suggest that the only media e##ect )ith )hich )e need to concern
ourselves is )hat these theorists see as the negative e##ect o# developmental
psychologists and other @authorities@ ponti#icating to the culture4at4large through
the media and causing @moral panics@ aout the potential harms o# media
5*uc+ingham % &e#ton4Green, in press? &eiter, in press71
My second reason #or emphasiBing the need #or caregivers to supervise
children:s media use is that many parents report that they )ere not restricted in
their o)n vie)ing )hen they )ere young and yet they o#ten )atched a lot o#
violence on television1 0nso#ar as they elieve they )ere not psychologically
harmed in any )ay, they no) elieve that they can sa#ely permit their children to
)atch )hatever they li+e1
When con#ronted y the idea that contemporary adults )ere not at all harmed
y the violence they vie)ed as children, and that thus there is no need to monitor
a contemporary child:s vie)ing, 0 )ould suggest consideration e given to the
#ive ideas that #ollo)1
20
;irst, perhaps such parents have een a##ected ut not a)are o# the e##ect5s7
E perhaps many o# us have ecome desensitiBed to violence in the media in
)ays that )e do not even recogniBe1
&econd, many o# today:s movies that later #ind their )ay on to television are #ar
more graphically violent than most anything e9perienced in #ilm or television 2>
or =, years ago1 People:s odies and heads are sometimes lo)n apart, in slo)
motion, and in convincing and disturing detail 5!uey, 2.-671 Women in some
movies are pursued y mass4murderers )ith the camera ta+ing the point4o#4vie)
o# the stal+er, helping to enhance the sense that the vie)er is doing the stal+ing1
Third, increasingly o# late, television ne)s programs sho) much more than
they once did o# the graphic results o# violence upon humans1 Noung children are
particularly li+ely to e #rightened y this +ind o# material and older children and
adolescents #ear that it may happen to them 5see $oanne Cantor:s chapter71 The
recent media #eeding #renBies over the aduction and +illing o# Polly !lass in
Cali#ornia and over &usan &mith:s murder o# her t)o young sons in &outh
Carolina have upset tens o# thousands o# children, most unnecessarily in my vie)1
0n #act, <uite a #e) adults tell me that they are increasingly eing distured and
#rightened y the ne)s they see on television1
;ourth, although many television programs and videogames are oth #un and
educational, there also are many other things that )e )ant our children to do1
&ometimes television vie)ing and videogame play gets in the )ay1 Dess
structured activities also may o##er children more opportunities to develop their
imagination and creativity than the o#ten structured nature o# media activities1
;i#th, today no one )ho cares #or children and )ho monitors their TV vie)ing
can e assured that the child )on:t suddenly e con#ronted )ith a message that is
#rightening andKor inappropriate1 0ndeed, polls have sho)n that more parents no)
than in the past #eel compelled to suddenly turn the set o## )hen some #rightening
or prolematic event is eing presented1 (o)adays, many parents ma+e sure that
the remote control is neary )henever they vie) )ith their children1
My older son )as 3 )hen he #irst )atched The WiBard o# GB on TV, a #avorite
movie o# mine that my )i#e and 0 concluded )as no) appropriate #or his vie)ing,
even though it contains #rightening scenes o# #lying mon+eys and )itches
melting1 During one commercial rea+, at around 6:/, pm, C*& promoted a story
to e sho)n a #e) days hence on its popular program @3, Minutes@1 The ad
included oth a voiceover and )ords on screen promoting a story entitled @!ids
!illing !idsJ@ The promotion )as dominated y ne)s #ootage o# a child eing
=2
rushed into a hospital emergency room on a stretcher, )rapped in gauBe and
leeding1 My son )as #rightened y )hat he had seen and heard1 8e )anted to
+no) )hether or not +ids really +illed +ids1 We tal+ed aout it #or a )hile, even
though it meant missing Dorothy:s initial meeting )ith the Co)ardly Dion1
0 am not recommending that children e constantly supervised, only that #or
many children today, television:s current o##erings demand more vigilance on the
part o# parents than )as the case /, or A, years ago1 "nd 0 elieve that )e need
to ecome more savvy aout violence in the media and the di##erent #orms it ta+es
as 0 elieve that some #orms o# violence are much more prolematic #or children
than others, an issue to )hich 0 turn ne9t1
Media Violence Versus ;airytale Violence
&ome parents report to me that they are )orried that their child has developed
an osession )ith a particular videotape and )orry that there:s something a)ry1
"lthough 0 +no) o# no research on the suCect, it:s my strong hunch that this is a
#airly normal phenomenon4Eat least in statistical terms o)ing to the numer o#
parents )ho in<uire aout itE4ut also ecause children have long had #avorite
storyoo+s or #airytales that they )ant read to them over and over again1
0n the recent past, #e) parents )orried much i# their toddler carried a )orn copy
o# &leeping *eauty every)here she or he )ent1 *ut the sight o# a young child
carrying aout the V8& version o# "laddin seems to some li+e another thing
altogether1 0:m not sure that it is1
The late *runo *ettelheim 52.637 had it right, 0 thin+, in claiming in his oo+,
The 'ses o# Enchantment, that #airy tales are o#ten used y children to deal )ith
common an9ieties and concerns1 *y having the same story read over and over,
the child gains a +ind o# psychological mastery over material that may have een
initially upsetting1
$ust as )e adults )ill try to gain a similar mastery over di##icult material y
rereading the same gut)renching paragraph in a novel )here the protagonist is
suddenly attac+ed, or +illed, or #inds out that she is really the child o# someone
else, so too )ill some children ta+e com#ort in hearing the same story over and
over again1
To e sure, i# the child )ants to )atch )restling every night, this is a di##erent
matter and there are di##erent <uestions at play ecause in this case the violence is
graphic, realistic, and in the here and no)1 The great thing aout #airy tales, and
22
many other children:s stories, is that the story almost invarialy occurs @long,
long ago and #ar, #ar a)ay1@
'nli+e TV ne)s and a great deal o# other televised content )hich gives every
appearance o# eing immediate, real, and urgent, the early e9position in children:s
#airytales typically distances the child #rom the potentially threatening events o#
the story in oth time and place1 This is the genius o# such stories and *ettelheim
hypothesiBed that they had evolved this )ay and had een handed do)n through
the ages precisely ecause o# these characteristics1 The other reason that they
have survived is that they are thought to deal e##ectively )ith )hat *ettelheim
and many other child psychologists elieve to e the common prolems and #ears
o# children concerning aandonment, siling rivalry, sel#4control, and identity:
@am 0 really their child, )as 0 adopted,@ and so on1
When the #airytale is eing read to the child, the child is also physically close to
the parent or caregiver, o#ten sitting on a lap1 The caregiver is ale to sensitively
monitor the child:s reactions and tell )hether the story is too much1 0# the child:s
ody suddenly sti##ens, the reader +no)s it1 "nd o# course, y eing physically
close to a parent, or other #amiliar caregiver, the young child is, almost y
de#inition, in a secure, sa#e, and #amiliar setting )hen the #airy tale is eing read1
0n mar+ed contrast, all too many #rightening stories on television are e9perienced
y the child )hen alone or )hen only )ith other children, hence there is little or
no adult monitoring o# oth content and reaction1
"s noted, much contemporary television material is seemingly @live,@ as )ith
ne)s and @reality@ programs that purport to e real, although they are o#ten re4
enactments and al)ays care#ully, and o#ten intentionally, edited #or optimal
impact and #ear induction1 T)o pro#essional )restlers committing mayhem on
one another gives every appearance to the child o# eing real, graphic,
#rightening, and occurring in the here and no)1 0t is a #ar di##erent story #rom
@8ansel and Gretel,@ a #airytale o#ten cited #or its particularly violent elements,
aleit ones that are set #ar enough a)ay, and long enough ago, and in a #anci#ul
enough manner that most children can readily handle the story1
0 might add that 0 have also een as+ed )hether it is )ise #or children to )atch
themselves over and over again on a videotape1 Gne parent as+ed )hether it )as
G! #or his young daughter to )atch hersel# have a ath each night on videotape1
This +ind o# <uestion is very di##icult to ans)er1 0 )ould e some)hat concerned
aout over#eeding the child:s healthy narcissism and )ould proaly limit the
vie)ing o# such a tape i# it )ere my o)n child, especially i# the child rarely too+
a real ath, ut as )ith so many Cudgments that a parent must ma+e, 0 leave this
23
one #or the individual parent to assess )ith regard to their est sense o# their
child:s vulnerailities and strengths1
24
Vie)ing )ith Children
E9perts on children and media generally advise parents to #re<uently )atch TV
)ith their children to help them understand )hat they are vie)ing and #or
children to learn #rom their parent:s reactions1 0# a parent sees someone, real or
#ictional, on television doing something they #ind unacceptale there is nothing
)rong, in my opinion, )ith e9pressing disapproval1 Gr, perhaps etter, one might
as+ )hat the child thin+s or #eels aout )hat the person did1 $ust as parents let
their children +no) on occasion that the child:s ehavior needs improvement, or
that some adult or child in real li#e is doing something )rong, so too may they
)ant to point these things out on television1
$ust as importantly, )e should also point to ehaviors that )e elieve are
e9emplary and deserving o# replication1 "ll too o#ten, )e tell children )hat )e
don:t )ant them to do rather than )hat )e )ant them to do1 Positive
rein#orcement is generally more e##ective than punishment1
This is not to say that )e should overurden children )ith constant instructive
tal+ during television vie)ing1 That )ould e a mista+e, too1 0 am only arguing
that parents can use television as a learning tool in the home1
Parents also need to e )ary o# severely criticiBing certain programs that their
children enCoy1 Clearly, as noted aove, i# you elieve a program is not
appropriate #or your child you have the right to turn it o## or ma+e a comment1 0#,
ho)ever, your child loves, say, Mr1 Rogers: (eighorhood or *arney, and even i#
you #ind these programs childish and occasionally silly, 0 recommend that you not
sho) disrespect #or your child:s developing tastes and predilections y laughing at
or deriding his or her #avorite program1 RecogniBe that these programs are
designed #or very young children, not #or youO That:s )hy they seem childish1
Every child:s program cannot e &esame &treet, a program that o#ten appeals to
oth adults and children1 0:ll have more to say aout more #ormal media
education at the conclusion o# this chapter, ut let us #irst turn our attention to
video and computer games1
Videogames and Computer Games
Today, media psychologists are as+ed as o#ten aout computer and videogames
as aout children:s television haits1 "nd )ith videogames the term addiction
comes up even more o#ten1 0t is not di##icult to apply many o# the same
e9planations o##ered earlier regarding ho) television dependence may develop to
e9plain in part the ne)er phenomenon o# people:s a##inity #or these games1 "s
25
)ith television, the games o##er the player a +ind o# escape, and as )ith
television, players learn <uic+ly that they momentarily #eel etter )hen playing
computer games, hence a +ind o# psychological rein#orcement develops1
*ut computer and videogames also have particular characteristics that ma+e
children and adults especially li+ely to report that they are @addicted@ to them1
There is the general challenge posed y the game and the )ish to overcome it and
succeed, and there is the critical characteristic that the games are designed to
minutely increase in challenge and di##iculty along )ith the increasing aility o#
the player1
0n eing programmed to constantly challenge players at their current aility,
video and computer games o##er a nearly per#ect level o# di##iculty #or the player
)ho enCoys such challenges1 Many o# us are never <uite as e9hilarated as )hen
)e have harnessed our ailities and set them against a di##icult ut surmountale
challenge 5Csi+Bsentmihalyi ,2..,71 Video and computer games can o##er
children and adults such a challenge1
0ndeed, as )e have )ritten else)here, computer and videogames o##er all the
essential #eatures that )e +no) are li+ely to result in a @#lo)@ e9perience o#
intense, enCoyale, high concentration and involvement: closely matched s+ills
and challenges in the activity and rapid #eedac+ regarding one:s per#ormance
5!uey % Csi+sBentmihalyi, 2..,a71 The games give the player nearly
instantaneous #eedac+ as to )hether the last activity 5shot, Cump, run, or
)hatever7 )as success#ul1 0n computer play, as )ith sports, musical per#ormance,
and many hoies, the #eedac+ is <uic+ and clear, and inso#ar as it is o#ten
occurring at the height o# one:s o)n personal level o# per#ormance, it:s no )onder
the games are e9tremely engaging and, perhaps, @addictive1@
0t should e noted that there have een a #e) cases reported in the ne)s in
recent years in (orth "merica and in *ritain indicating that a very small numer
o# children have e9hiited symptoms o# epilepsy in response to the #lashing colors
and other stimuli in the games1 Videogame manu#acturers have not denied that
this can occur and some have )arned adults to e on the loo+out #or such
prolems1
Through )atching my o)n son and his #riends play video and computer games
0 have oserved that children e9hiit di##erent levels o# eye and mental #atigue in
response to di##erent games1 My son can play some games #or A> minutes straight
)ith no evidence o# such symptoms1 *ut in other very intense games 0 have
oserved that a#ter only 2, or 2> minutes his eyes egin to lin+ rapidly and
26
mental #atigue seems to set in1 0ndeed, 0 have my o)n variale visual 5and
auditory7 tolerance #or di##erent games1
Parents have reported to me that long hours o# uninterrupted videogame play
have occasionally le#t a child #eeling nauseated or listless1 *e#ore 0 learned more
aout such e##ects, 0 once let my son play too long and a#ter aout ., minutes he
)as complaining o# slight nausea and #atigue1 Even i# you love videogames and
encourage children to play them, it might sometimes e the case, as )ith other
activities, that too much o# a good thing is not so good1
8o) can you limit children:s videogame or computer playJ Gne ovious and
e##ective techni<ue is to tell a child, and his or her #riends, that they may only
play #or some speci#ic period1 This might e =, to A, minutes depending on the
game, )ho the +ids are, the time o# day, the )eather outside, ho) much mental
and physical energy they have le#t, and, yes, perhaps even )hether you can stand
to hear the &uper Mario *rothers music one more time e#ore losing your sanity1
To en#orce the limit, 0 have #ound it very e##ective to use a +itchen timer and to
set it to the time 0 have deemed appropriate1 0 do not generally advise putting the
tic+ing timer right on top o# the TV or computer, lest )e ma+e too much o# it1 0
leave mine in the +itchen near )here my son and his uddies play their games and
)hen it rings, they +no) to stop1 "nd they doO
Were 0 to suddenly come in and tell them that =, minutes )ere up, they )ould
try to negotiate )ith me #or more time1 The timer seems to e9ternaliBe
responsiilityE40 happen to thin+ in an acceptale )ay in this instanceE4and the
children elieve in its authority1 Can 0 get the ehavior 0 see+ )ith my o)n
voiceJ 0 can1 *ut it is y my authority that the timer is set in the #irst place and it
generally )or+s etter1
Dependence on Pornography
We have not yet paid attention to a type o# media content that has also o#ten
een claimed to e @addictive,@ one that has al)ays een controversial and )ill
surely remain so in the years ahead1 0ndeed, )ith the advent o# interactive
pornography availale via CD4RGM, the deate over the value or harm o#
pornography is sure to heat up once again1 0n the concluding pages o# this
chapter, 0 )ill revie) some o# the alleged e##ects o# traditional pornography
availale via magaBines and video, their alleged potential #or hait #ormation, and
)ill then turn my attention to ne) concerns that 0 elieve are raised y the
delivery o# interactive erotica1
27
Research and reporting on pornography:s e##ects has long een politiciBed and
thus it can e especially di##icult to )eigh the validity and veracity o# some
contriutions to this literature1 "nd as )ith other media e##ects deates, it is very
di##icult to disentangle cause #rom e##ect1 &till, a numer o# researchers and
clinicians report oth negative e##ects and evidence #or dependence, or in their
)ords, addiction , )ith regard to the use o# pornography1 0ndeed, as )ill e seen,
some o# these negative e##ects are thought to e inevitaly intert)ined )ith
@pornography addiction1@
There is the #re<uent claim, #or e9ample, that large private pornography
collections are o#ten #ound y authorities in the residences o# persons arrested #or
se9ual crimes 5Cline, 2..A? Reed, 2..A7, especially pedophiles 5Danning %
*urgess, 2.-.71 There is also evidence indicating that some rapists and child
molesters use se9ually e9plicit materials oth e#ore and during some se9ual
assaults 5Marshall, 2.--71 "t a minimum )e must say that a relationship et)een
the #re<uent use o# pornography and prolematic se9ual disorders e9ists #or some
individuals1 Whether the pornography is merely symptomatic o# the disorder, or
plays a causal role, is much more di##icult to estalish1
&till, #or some, there is little dout that oth negative e##ects and pornography
addiction do indeed occur1 Reed 52..A7, a practising psychiatrist, is e9plicit in
his presentation o# speci#ic criteria that he elieves )ould constitute an addiction
to pornography 5pp1 =>24=>=71 8e notes that the D1&1M1 itsel# recogniBes that
many paraphilias 5compulsive se9ual deviances7 #re<uently involve the use and
collection o# pornography1 Reed lists 2/ paraphilias and ho) they are related to
the use o# pornography1
Cline 52..A7, a clinical psychologist )ho has treated hundreds o# people )ith
se9ual disorders, descries a #our4step process in the involvement o# his patients
)ith pornography1 ;irst descried is an @addiction e##ect@ )herein the person
comes ac+ repeatedly #or more material ecause it provides @a very po)er#ul
se9ual stimulant or aphrodisiac e##ect #ollo)ed y se9ual release most o#ten
through masturation@ 5p1 =//71
Cline goes on to descrie an @escalation e##ect@ in )hich there is an @increasing
need #or more o# the stimulant to get the same e##ect@ otained initially 5p1 =//71
Third, he oserves @desensitiBation@ in )hich things that might have once seemed
shoc+ing ecome less so and are therey legitimiBed1 ;ourth, Cline claims that
there is an @increasing tendency to act out se9ually the ehaviors vie)ed in the
pornography@ 5p1 =/A71
28
" numer o# psychological and physiological mechanisms have een posited
#or ho) pornography addiction might develop1 "mong the most common is that
se9ual grati#ication is a po)er#ul rein#orcer 5Dyons, "nderson, % Darson, 2..A71
This is the @addiction e##ect@ descried aove y Cline )herein learning is made
all the more po)er#ul y virtue o# the se9ual release that attends pornography:s
use1 8ere, Cline dra)s on McGaugh:s 52.-/7 memory research that suggests that
e9periences that co4occur )ith high emotional arousal may e etter rememered1
Reed 52..A7 suggests the possiility that some such learning might e occurring
on the iological as )ell as the psychological level )hen he points out that @the
neurotransmitters that are activated y pornography use may trigger similar
neural path)ays as cocaine or heroin@ 5p1 =3>71
0 earlier applied an operant conditioning approach to the role rela9ation plays
in the development o# the television vie)ing hait1 0t certainly ma+es sense that
the pleasure accompanying orgasm may increase the potential #or a hait to
develop #or some users o# pornography, especially those )ho have #e) or no
other outlets #or se9ual grati#ication1 The early literature on se9ual ehavior
points to strong associations developing et)een the particular )ays in )hich
#irst or early se9ual grati#ications )ere otained and the oCect or means o# that
grati#ication 5Ellis, 2.,3, 2./371 0# one:s primary means o# se9ual grati#ication at
an early and impressionale age is via a particular techni<ue or a particular oCect
o# desire, then there may e a +ind o# #i9ation on that techni<ue andKor oCect1
Cline argues #urther that i# se9ual prolems can e alleviated in se94counseling
clinics )ith the use o# se9ual #ilms, oo+s, and videos as tools in therapy, then
one must suspect that e9posure to pornography can also have an e##ect1 ;or
Cline, and #or many other oservers, pornography provides po)er#ul occasions in
)hich modeling and imitative learning can occur1
Fillmann and *ryant 52.--7 have made an important e9perimental
contriution to the addiction hypothesis in sho)ing that prolonged e9posure to
pornography can decrease some people:s level o# satis#action )ith their partners
and )ith the <uality o# their se9 lives1 Fillmann 52..A7 has gone on to propose
that in many instances, @initial se9ual dissatis#action drives e9posure to
pornography@ and a vicious circle then ensues1 With consumption o#
pornography, the dissatis#action gro)s stronger and dra)s the person into #urther
consumption1 ;or Fillmann, consumption o# pornography invites comparisons
)hich help drive dissatis#action: @consumers compare )hat they have, y )ay o#
se9ual intimacy, )ith )hat pornography tells them they might and should have@
5p1 =2,71
29
0 have similarly proposed that the #re<uent e9posure o# highly romanticiBed and
se9ually arousing material on television, and else)here in our mainstream
contemporary media, may #uel similar dissatis#actions and a propensity to)ard
invidious comparison in a much roader spectrum o# the population than )as
previously the case 5!uey, 2..A? see also *ryant % Roc+)ell, 2..A71
Gther e##ects o# pornography, aside #rom dependence44or addiction44and
modeling have een studied and merit comment1 Weaver 52..A7 has revie)ed
evidence indicating that e9posure to pornography increases @se9ual callousness@
to)ard )omen1 This callousness includes increased aggressivity to)ard )omen
as )ell as a desensitiBation to the inCury that violence or se9ual assault causes1
Fillmann and *ryant have een interested in the degree to )hich @#amily
values@ may e on a collision course )ith pornography, and they again o##er
e9perimental evidence1 These studies 5see Fillmann, 2..A #or a revie)7 typically
e9pose an e9perimental group o# adults to pornographic videos over a numer o#
)ee+s 5o#ten 371 Then, a )ee+ a#ter the e9posure, the groups: ans)ers to survey
<uestions are compared )ith those o# a control group that )as not e9posed13
The researchers: studies sho) that e9perimentally produced prolonged e9posure
to pornography results in a greater acceptance o# oth male and #emale
promiscuity, and that as promiscuity is presumed to e more natural, adults also
egin to assume that #aith#ulness among se9ual intimates is less common than is
assumed y those in the control group1 The participants suCects also report eing
more accepting o# none9clusive se9ual intimacy #or themselves1
0n one study, )hen as+ed @Do you #eel that the institution o# marriage is
essential to the )ell4#unctioning o# societyJ@, 3,I o# the control group agreed,
ut this )as true #or /-1-I o# the group e9posed to pornography1 Fillmann and
*ryant 52.--a7 have also reported that e9posure to pornography reduced the
desire o# their research participants, male and #emale, student and nonstudent, to
)ant to have children1 Fillmann 52..A7 suggests that this #inding may:
&upport the contention that prolonged consumption o#
pornography ma+es having children and raising a #amily appear
an unnecessary inconvenience4Epresumaly ecause
pornography continually proCects easy access to superlative
se9ual
grati#ication, these grati#ications eing attainale )ithout
/,
emotional investment, )ithout social con#inements,
)ithout
31
economic oligations, and )ithout sacri#ices o# time and
e##ort1 5p1 =,-7
0n this regard, the immediate grati#ication that commercial television so
#re<uently o##ers and promotes may in its o)n right e in con#lict )ith the values
o# constancy and commitment so necessary to the healthy #unctioning o# #amily
li#e 5!uey, 2..A71
0t is important to point out that the VCR has led to an e9plosion in pornographic
videos and that such materials are today #ar more accessile to people, including
children and adolescents, than they have ever een e#ore1 "nd, i# a pornography
hait4Eor addiction4Ecan indeed develop, it )ould seem more li+ely to develop
i# pornographic materials can e easily otained and i# the use o# such materials is
socially sanctioned1
0t is not di##icult to imagine ho) young people can come into contact )ith such
materials1 Even i# a 2= year old oy cannot rent a pornographic video on his o)n,
it may )ell e that his #riend:s older rother )ho is 23, ut loo+s 2-, can1 "nd, o#
course, an increasing numer o# parents o)n such materials and +eep them in
their homes1 Pornography is also no) availale via television cale systems1
"lthough 0 y no means #ro)n on all uses o# pornography, 0 do elieve that it is
not to e recommended #or certain audiences1 "gain, 0 elieve it is un)ise #or a
2= year old oy to e9perience hard core pornography, especially as it is li+ely to
e one o# the child:s very #irst e9posures to se9ual intimacy and ecause as
already noted, early intense se9ual e9periences may constitute particularly
po)er#ul early occasions #or learning and impression #ormation1
Fillmann and *ryant:s )or+ suggests that such materials might also prove
detrimental in the #ormation o# a oy:s impressions o# #emale se9uality inso#ar as
most such pornography depicts )omen as se9ual oCects )hose primary goal is to
serve the se9ual desires o# men1 "n occasional vie)ing o# such materials y a
puescent or prepuescent oy might not have any deleterious or strong e##ects1
*ut )hen )e recogniBe that some oys may vie) such material every #e) daysE
or even more o#ten, and i# )e add that the oy typically see+s and otains se9ual
release upon vie)ing, 0 elieve )e raise the possiility that not only may a strong
hait develop, ut it may e one that )e )ould not )ant to encourage, especially
)hen )e consider that this same oy is li+ely to egin having his #irst real se9ual
e9periences )ith a girl or young )oman in the not so distant #uture1
32
These concerns are multiplied )hen )e consider the current advent o#
interactive, CD4RGM driven erotica1 Typical o# this ne) technological
innovation are products such as @Virtual Valerie1@ They present movie <uality
images o# young )omen )ho ta+e their clothes o## at the command o# the vie)er1
Women on the screen can also e programmed at the touch o# a utton to say
arousing things to the vie)er, as )ell as to per#orm a variety o# se9ually
suggestive acts e#ore the vie)er:s eyes1 The CD4RGM technology and so#t)are
#or interactive erotica are developing rapidly and this is already elieved to e one
o# the leading applications o# CD4RGM, interactive media1
Det:s return again to our 2= year old oy1 0magine that he has otained copies o#
a couple o# interactive video products such as Virtual Valerie1 0magine that he
interacts )ith them )hile masturating a numer o# times a )ee+, typically
spending 2, to /, minutes in each encounter, o## and on #or three years e#ore, at
age 2>, he goes on his #irst date )ith a real young )oman his same age1 Might
his e9pectations o# ho) she )ill act and ho) he should act i# they ecome
intimate have een altered y the many hours spent )ith his interactive
pornography dis+sJ
"s yet )e do not +no) the ans)er1 Conceivaly there may e salutary ene#its1
Perhaps this #orm o# pornography )ill help some people #antasiBe and otain
se9ual release in such a )ay that there is a reduction in the commission o# se9ual
crimes 5see DinB and Malamuth, 2../, #or a revie) o# research on the positive
cathartic e##ect o# traditional pornography71 &till, comining common sense )ith
)hat )e +no) aout the learning o# se9ual ehavior, 0 must say that 0 am
concerned aout young people, as )ell as some adults, overusing, and perhaps
ecoming dependent on, such a #orm o# entertainment1
Gn Media Regulation and Media Education
The gro)th in media in this century has een nothing short o# phenomenal1 The
electronic media4E#rom radio and television to video games and computersE4
have revolutioniBed the )ays in )hich )e are entertained and receive in#ormation
and ho) )e perceive the )orld around us1 The development o# these media
technologies and media content can e partly credited to the economic and
political #reedoms that )e enCoy1 0t is hard to imagine so much material eing
developed or ne) technologies eing invented and proli#erating so <uic+ly )ere it
not #or #ree mar+ets and the pro#it motive1
"t the same time, unridled development in the media industries, as )ith many
industries, can also ring prolems1 $ust as unregulated manu#acturing industries
33
can pollute the land, air, and )ater that sustain li#e, so too can irresponsile,
pro#it4driven media production pollute the pulic mind and e9perience o# a
culture1 The commercialiBation o# ne)s may #oster competition and the <uic+
dissemination o# rea+ing stories, ut it may also lead to sensationalism and lac+
o# care in the preparation o# in#ormation #or pulic consumption1
The commercialiBation o# entertainment has rought aout ever more media
materials, many o# them charming, educational, and inspiring1 *ut much material
o# <uestionale value is also availale1 0ncreasingly, it seems, many citiBens have
come to the conclusion that the media are ma+ing availale ideas and practices
that are at odds )ith the very values that they )ould )ish the society to uphold1
To my mind, more o#ten than not, such media e9cesses are oth initiated and
encouraged y the commercial underpinning o# media production and the
delivery systems )e have adopted as a society1 This is not easily changed1
34
The ;ederal Communications Commission 5;CC7 in the 'nited &tates could
surely threaten license revocation )ith greater #re<uency than it currently does
5almost never7 and actually revo+e licenses #rom time to time )hen stations and
net)or+s are clearly not #ul#illing their pulic service re<uirements1 0 also thin+ it
is appropriate #or the pulic, through its local, state, and #ederal governments, to
put pressure on the media industries to operate in the pulic interest1 Consumer
oycotts are a sensile means o# advocacy and pulic protest1 "#ter all, the
#ounding o# the 'nited &tates )as mar+ed y a consumer oycott o# tea1
More government #unding #or pulic roadcasting is also called #or1 *ritain and
Canada invest > to 2, times as much money per capita into their pulic
roadcasting systems than does the 'nited &tates1
Pulic roadcasting is especially important #or the less economically
advantaged in our society, particularly children1 Most poor households do not
have cale, and thus, virtually the only remaining television programming
availale #or such children in the 'nited &tates that is not governed y the )hims
o# the mar+etplace is P*&1
0deally, media producers )ould sel#4govern as it is very prolematic to engage
in o##icial censorship1 *ut ecause 0 do not e9pect 8olly)ood to re#orm itsel#
along the lines that 0 might li+e, and ecause 0 do not e9pect governments to
intervene sustantially, nor am 0 entirely com#ortale )ith them doing so, 0 have
long since come to the conclusion that one o# the est possile responses to the
media environment in )hich )e no) live is media education1
"dults need to help children ecome more savvy aout the media, more media
literate i# you )ill, and 0 elieve )e need to develop #ormal media education in
the schools1 Tens o# millions o# children spend up)ards o# #our hours daily in
contact )ith the electronic media, and they )ill li+ely continue to do so as adults1
Much o# our political and commercial discourse occurs in the media1 That most
o# our schools provide no #ormal training in ho) these media are produced, and in
ho) they communicate and persuade, is shortsighted at est1
Det me e clear that 0 do not advocate an end to traditional training in literature
and the print media1 ;ar #rom it1 Rather, 0 advocate educational inclusion o# the
other media that occupy our attention and thoughts in the modern )orld 5!uey,
2..271 The idea that )e should not teach aout #ilm o# television ecause they are
someho) not in the same league )ith great literature is to my mind an anti<uated
and demonstraly #alse notion1 ;ilm and television such as Welles: CitiBen !ane
and Capra:s 0t:s a Wonder#ul Di#e or *urns: The Civil War are as
35
evocative, as art#ully told, and as <uintessentially @"merican@ as any o# the print
literature that is o#ten deemed appropriate #or English 5or 8istory7 classes1
The prime reason that students don:t study these sorts o# #ilm and television
stories is ecause our educational system hasn:t yet adCusted to modern modes o#
storytelling, ecause teachers have not een trained to teach aout #ilm and
television, and ecause our society assumes that popular entertainment is not
)orthy o# study1 Critics )ho say that )e should not use popular, commercial
materials in the contemporary classroom may not +no) that many o# oth T)ain:s
and Dic+ens: original )or+s )ere #irst read in the popular magaBines and
ne)spapers o# their day1
;ormal media education is rapidly developing in many countries around the
)orld1 "ustralia recently mandated media education #or virtually 2,,I o# its
students #rom !indergarten to grade 2=1 &ince 2.-6, Gntario, )ith roughly one4
third o# Canada:s population, has mandated media literacy instruction in English
classes #or all students #rom grades 642=1 0n 2..> in England, it is e9pected that
some =,,,,,4/,,,,, students )ill ta+e one o# their advanced level e9aminations
#or university admission in media studies1 &cotland and &outh "#rica can also
oast sustantially more #ormal development o# media education than can the
'nited &tates, leaving the very country that produces more o# the )orld:s media
product than any other as the least developed media educator in the English4
spea+ing )orld1 8o) this has come aout is another suCect 5!uey, in press, 71
&u##ice it to say that much )or+ needs to e done1
(otes
21 This is not to say that vie)ers don:t also vie) television in a more active #rame
o# mind, #rom time to time, ut our research sho)s that vie)ers generally report
#eeling passive )hen vie)ing1 ;or most vie)ers, active vie)ing moments are
in#re<uent y comparison 5Csi+sBentmihalyi % !uey, 2.-2? !uey, in press, a71
There are some researchers )ho conclude that vie)ers, especially young
children, are not passive )hen they vie) and that children do not adopt the
@Bomie4li+e@ e9pression o#ten descried y parents and depicted in comics1
8o)ever, much o# this research is done in laoratories )here people may )ell
engage in a more active #orm o# vie)ing than in the com#ort and #amiliarity o#
their o)n homes1 The e9perimental vie)er o#ten anticipates that they )ill e
tested a#ter vie)ing, and they o#ten are1 The same prolem o# distorting results
can occur )hen people are as+ed y researchers to care#ully descrie )hat a
/3
particular program means to them, or )hy they )atch it1 "s pointed out y "ng
52.->7 and others, it is possile that in oth e9perimental and #ield research, the
phenomenon under study4Eaudience activity or a retrospective assessment o#
one:s thin+ing processes during vie)ing4Eis con#ounded y the very methods
used1 *ecause all o# our E&M studies have not singled television out #rom other
daily activities and ecause )e as+ only #or very simple a##ective and cognitive
assessments, )e are con#ident that the same in#luences do not pertain1
=1 0ndeed, research going ac+ nearly three decades in the 'nited &tates,
England, and $apan has demonstrated that TV vie)ing passivity o#ten is
associated )ith mild #eelings o# guilt and sel#4contempt 5*o)er, 2.6/? ;uru,
2.62? 8immel)eit % &)i#t, 2.63? &teiner, 2.3/7E4especially among more
a##luent and educated vie)ers1
37
/1 "ccording to Roinson et al1 52../7, ho)ever, in some cases this relationship
may e e9tremely )ea+ at est, and causal in#erences may not e )arranted1
A1 0t:s interesting to note that there are very #e) reports o# patients: television
vie)ing haits in the clinical literature, yet some psychotherapists have told me
that di##iculty limiting vie)ing 5or more #re<uently, limiting their partner:s or
children:s vie)ing7 is sometimes raised y patients in therapy1 More #re<uently,
patients in psychotherapy compare their o)n e9periences, #eelings, and ideas to
those o# particular characters in television programs they )atch1 This is
particularly li+ely to occur at moments o# intense emotion in therapy 5$ames
8utchinson, M1D1, personal communication, ;eruary 2..A71 &uch a
phenomenon may e rather enign, ut it may also indicate e9ternaliBation, i1e1,
avoiding and de#ending against #ully e9periencing and ta+ing o)nership o#
uncom#ortale thoughts, #eelings, and ehaviors1
>1 8o)ever, Tannenaum 52.-,7 sho)ed that suspense plots can indeed e
gripping1 'nder e9perimental conditions he #ound that some vie)ers )ill go to
considerale lengths to see ho) a suspense#ul story turns out1
31 People in oth groups are randomly assigned to these t)o treatment
conditions1 Most o# this research has een done )ith college students, ut the
researchers have also occasionally e9panded their research to community
samples1
38
Re#erences
"merican Psychiatric "ssociation 52..A71 Diagnostic and statistical
manual o# mental disorders, Ath edition1 Washington, D1 C1: "merican
Psychiatric "ssociation1
"nderson, D1 R1, "l)itt, D1 ;1, Dorch E1 P1, % Devin, &1 T1 52.6.71
Watching children )atch television1 0n G1 8ale % M1 De)is
5Eds17, "ttention and the development o# cognitive s+ills 5pp1
//24/3271 (e) Nor+: Plenum1
"ng, 01 52.->71 Watching @Dallas@: &oap opera and the melodramatic
imagination1 Dondon: Methuen1
*ettelheim, *1 52.6371 The uses o# enchantment: The meaning and importance
o# #airy tales 1 (e) Nor+: !nop#1
*o)er, R1 T1 52.6/71 Television and the pulic 1 (e) Nor+: 8olt,
Rinehart, % Winston1
*ron#enrenner, '1 52.6/71 Television and the #amily1 0n "1 Clayre 5Ed17, The
impact o# roadcasting 1 Dondon: Compton Russell1
*ryant, $1, % Fillmann, D1 52.-A71 'sing television to alleviate oredom and
stress: &elective e9posure as a #unction o# induced e9citational states1 $ournal
o# *roadcasting and Electronic Meida, =- , 24=,1
*uc+ingham, D1, % &e#ton4Green, $1 5in press71 Multimedia
education: " curriculum #or the #utureJ 0n R1 !uey % *1 Ruen
5Eds171 Diteracy in the in#ormation age1 0n#ormation and ehavior,
Vol1 31 (e) *runs)ic+, ($: Transaction1
*ryant, $1, % Roc+)ell, &1 C1 52..A71 E##ects o# massive e9posure
to se9ually oriented prime4time television programming on
adolescent moral Cudgment1 0n D1 Fillmann, $1 *ryant, % "1 C1
8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the
/.
#amily: &ocial scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical
perspectives 5pp1 2-/42.>71 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum
"ssociates1
Cline, V1 *1 52..A71 Pornography e##ects: Empirical and clinical evidence1 0n
D1 Fillmann, $1 *ryant, % "1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the
#amily: &ocial scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1 ==.4
=A671 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Condry, $1 52.-.71 The psychology o# television1 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence
Erlaum "ssociates, 0nc1
Csi+sBentmihalyi, M1 52..,71 ;lo): The psychology o# optimal e9perience1
(e) Nor+: 8arper % Ro)1
Csi+sBentmihalyi, M1, % !uey, R1 W1 52.-271 Television and
the rest o# li#e: " systematic comparison o# suCective
e9perience1 Pulic Gpinion Muarterly , A> , /264/=-1 Daley, E1
"1 52.6-71 ;ather #eelings1 (e) Nor+: William Morro)1
Desmond, R1 $1, &inger, $1 C1, % &inger, D1 G1 52.--71 ;amily mediation and
children:s cognition, aggression, and comprehension o# television: "
longitudinal study1 $ournal o# "pplied Developmental Psychology, ., /=.4
/A61
deVries, M1, Delespaul, P1, DiC+man, C1, Theunissen, $1 52.-371 Temporal and
situational aspects o# severe mental disorders1 0n D:EsperienBa <uotidiana1
Milan: "ngeli1
DietB, W1, Gortma+er, &1 D1 52.->71 Do )e #atten our children at the television
set: Gesity and television vie)ing in children and adolescents1 Pediatric, 6>,
-,64-2=1
Ellis, 81 52.,3K2./371 &tudies in the psychology o# se9, Vol1 001
(e) Nor+: Random 8ouse1
Eysene+, 81 52.6-71 &e9, violence, and the media1 Dondon:
Maurice4Temple4&mith1
40
;uru, T1 52.6271 The #unction o# television #or children and adolescents1
To+yo: &ophia 'niversity Press1
Gallup, G1, % (e)port, ;1 52..,, Gctoer 2,71 "mericans loveE4and hateE4
their TVs1 &an ;rancisco Chronicle , p1 */1
Goleman, D1 52..,, Gctoer, 2371 8o) vie)ers gro) addictd to television1
(e) Nor+ Times, p1 C21
8arrison, D1 ;1, % Williams, T1 M1 52.-371 Television and cognitive development1
0n T1 M1 Williams 5Ed17, The impact o# television 5pp1 -642A=71 (e) Nor+:
"cademic Press1
8immel)eit,81,%&)i#t,*152.6371 Continuitiesand discontinuities in media
usage and taste: " longitudinal
tudy1 $ournal o# &ocial 0ssues, /=, 2//42>31
8uston, "1 C1, Donnerstein, E1, ;airchild, 81, ;eshach, (1 D1, !atB, P1 "1,
Murray, $1 P1, Ruinstein, E1 "1, Wilco9, *1 D1, % Fuc+erman, D1 52..=71 *ig
)orld, small screen: The role o# television in "merican society1 Dincoln, (E:
'niversity o# (eras+a Press1
$ason, D1 "1 52.-671 Reducing children:s e9cessive television vie)ing and
asssessing secondary changes1 $ournal o# Clinical and Child Psychology, 23,
=A>4=>,1
$ohnson, C1, % Darson, R1 52.-=7 *ulimia: "n anaysis o# moods and
ehavior1 Psychosomatic Medicine, AA , /A24/>21
!uey, R1 W1 52.-,71 Television and aging: Past, present, and
#uture1 Gerontologist, =, , 234/>1
!uey, R1 W1 52.-A71 Deisure, television, and suCective

e9perience1
'npulished doctoral dissertation1 'niversity o# Chicago: Chicago, 0D1
!uey, R1 W1 52.-371 Television use in everyday li#e:
Coping )ith unstructured time1 $ournal o# Communication,
/3, /, 2,-42=/1
A2
!uey, R1 52.-671 Testimony e#ore the &ucommittee on "ntitrust,
Monopolies and *usiness Rights o# the Committee on the $udiciary, 'nited
&tates &enate, on a Television Violence "ntitrust E9emption, $une =>1 5&erial
(o1 $42,,,=67P Washington, D1C1: '1&1 Government Printing G##ice1
!uey, R1 52..,a, "ugust >71 " ody at rest tends to stay on the couch1 (e)
Nor+ Times, &ection =, p1 =6
!uey, R1 52..,71 Television and #amily harmony among children,
adolescents, and adults: Results #rom the e9perience sampling method1 0n $1
*ryant 5Ed17, Television and the "merican #amily 5pp1 6/4--71 8illsdale, (1$1:
Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
!uey, R1 52..,c71 Television and the <uality o# #amily li#e1 Communication
Muarterly, /-, /2=4/=A1
!uey, R1 52..2, March 371 The case #or media education1 Education Wee+,
2,, p1 =61
!uey, R1 52..A71 Media implications #or the <uality o# #amily li#e1 0n D1
Fillmann, $1 *ryant, % "1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the
#amily: &ocial scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1
2-/42.>71 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
!uey, R1 5in press, a71 Gn not #inding media e##ects: Conceptual prolems in
the notion o# an @active@ audience 5)ith a reply to Elihu !atB71 0n D1
Grosserg, $1 8ay, % E1 Wartella, 5Eds171 To)ard a comprehensive theory o#
the audience 1 Westvie) Press1 *oulder, Colorado1
!uey, R1 5in press, 71 Why media education has een slo) to
develop in the 'nited &tates1 0n R1 !uey % *1 Ruen 5Eds17,
Media literacy in the in#ormation age 1 (e) *runs)ic+, ($:
Transaction1
!uey, R1, % Csi+sBentmihalyi, M1 52..,a71 Television and the <uality o# li#e:
8o) vie)ing shapes everyday e9perience1 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum
"ssociates1
!uey, R1, % Csi+sBentmihalyi, M1 52..,71 Television as
escape: &uCective e9perience e#ore an evening o# heavy
A=
vie)ing1 Communication Reports, /, .=42,,1
Danning, !1, % *urgess, "1 52.-.71 Child pornography and se9 rings1 0n D1
Fillmann % $1 *ryant 5Eds17, Pornography: Research advances and policy
considerations 5pp1 =/>4=>>71 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Darson, R1, Csi+sBentmihalyi, M1, % ;reeman, M1 52.-A71 "lcohol and
mariCuana use in adolescents: daily lives: " random sample o# e9periences1
0nternational $ournal o# "ddictions, 2., /364/-21
Darson, R1, % $ohnson, C1 52.-271 "nore9ia nervosa in the conte9t o# daily
e9perience1 $ournal o# Nouth and "dolescence, 2,, /A24/>21
De)insohn, P1 M1 52.6A71 *ehavioral approach to depression1 0n R1
$1 ;riedman % M1 M1 !atB 5Eds17, The psychology o# depression:
Contemporary theory and research 5pp1 2>642->71 (e) Nor+: Wiley1
DinB, D1, %Malamuth, (1 52../71 Pornography 1 (e)ury Par+, C": &age1
Do)enstein, R1 $1, 8amilton, $1, "lagna, &1, Reid, (1, % deVries, M1 52.-671
E9periential sampling in the study o# multiple personality disorder1 "merican
$ournal o# Psychiatry, 2AA, 2.4=A1
Dyons, $1 &1, "nderson, R1 D1, % Darson, D1 *1 52..A71 " systematic revie) o#
the e##ects o# aggressive and nonaggressive pornography1 0n D1 Fillmann, $1
*ryant, % "1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the #amily: &ocial
scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1 =624/2,71 8illsdale,
($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Maccoy, E1, 52.>271 Television: 0ts impact on school children1 Pulic
Gpinion Muarterly, 2>, A=24AAA1
Mander, $1 52.6-71 ;our arguments #or the elimination o# television 1 (e)
Nor+: Morro) Muill1
Marshall, W1 D1 52.--71 The use o# e9plicit se9ual stimuli y rapists, child
molesters, and nono##ender males1 $ournal o# se9 research, => , =364=--1
McGaugh, $1 D1 52.-/71 Preserving the presence o# the past1 "merican
Psychologist, /-, 2321
43
Mc0l)raith, R1 D1 52..,71 Theories o# television addiction1 Tal+ to the
"merican Psychological "ssociation, *oston, M", "ugust1
Mc0l)raith, R1, $acovitB, R1 &1, !uey, R1, % "le9ander, "1
52..271 Television addiction: Theories and data ehind the
ui<uitous metaphor1 "merican *ehavioral &cientist, /> ,
2,A42=21
Mc0l)raith, R1 D1, % &challo), $1 R1 52.-/71 "dult #antasy li#e and
patterns o# media use1 $ournal o# Communication, // , 6-4.21
Mil+man, 81, % &under)irth, &1 52.-671 Craving #or ecstasy: The
consciousness and chemistry o# escape1 Toronto: De9ington *oo+s1
(ational 0nstitute o# Mental 8ealth1 52.-=71 Television and ehavior: Ten
years o# scienti#ic progress and implications #or the eighties 5Vol1 271
Roc+ville, MD: '1&1 Department o# 8ealth and 8uman &ervices1
Reed, M1 D1 52..A71 Pornography addiction and compulsive se9ual ehavior1
0n D1 Fillmann, $1 *ryant, % "1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the
#amily: &ocial scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1 =A.4
=3.71 8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Roinson, $1 52.-., "pril71 Time #or )or+1 "merican Demographics , p1 3-1
Roinson, T1 (1, 8ammer, D1 D1 , !illen, $1 D1, !raemer, 81 C1,
Wilson, D1 M1, 8ay)ard, C1, % Taylor, C1 *1 52../71 Does television
vie)ing increase oesity and reduce physical activityJ Cross4 sectional and
longitudinal analyses among adolescent girls1 Pediatrics, .2, =6/4=-,1
Rosenerg, M1 52.6-71 Television and its vie)ers1 Radio roadcast o#
conversations at Chicago, 'niversity o# Chicago, Chicago, 0D1
Ryan, *1 81 52.6A, $une .71 Would you #ree your children #rom the
monsterJ Denver Post 1
&challo), $1, % Mc0l)raith, R1 52.-342.-671 0s television vie)ing really ad
#or your imagination: Content and process o# TV vie)ing and imaginal styles1
0magination, Cognition, and Personality, 3, =>4A=1
44
&eiter, E1 5in press71 8o) parents vie) their children:s television vie)ing1
0n D1 Grosserg, $1 8ay, % E1 Wartella, 5Eds171 To)ard a comprehensive
theory o# the audience 1 Westvie) Press1 *oulder, Colorado1
&eyre+, &1 !1, Corah, (1 D1, % Pace, D1 ;1 52.-A71 Comparison o# three
distraction techni<ues in reducing stress in dental patients1 $ournal o# the
"merican Dental "ssociation, 2,-, /=64 /=.1
&hanahan, $1, % Morgan, M1 52.-.71 Television as a diagnostic indicator in
child therapy: "n e9ploratory study1 Child and "dolescent &ocial Wor+, 3,
26>42.21
&inger, $1 52.-,71 The po)er and limitations o# television: "
cognitive4a##ective analysis1 0n P1 Tannenaum 5Ed17 The entertainment
#unctions o# television 5pp1 /243>71
8illsdale, (1$1: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
&inger, $1, % &inger, D1, 52.-/71 0mplications o# childhood television vie)ing
#or cognition, imagination, and emotion1 0n $1 *ryant % D1 "nderson 5Eds171
Children:s understanding o# television: Research on attention and
comprehension 5pp1 =3>4=.371 (e) Nor+: "cademic Press1
&teiner, G1 52.3/71 The people loo+ at television1 (e) Nor+:
"l#red "1 !nop#1
&)onger, "1 !1, % Constantine, D1 D1 52.6371 Drugs and therapy: "
psychotherapists handoo+ o# psychotropic drugs 1 *oston: Dittle, *ro)n %
Co1
Tannenaum, P1 52.-,71 Entertainment as vicarious emotional e9perience1 0n
P1 Tannenaum 5Ed17, The entertainment #unctions o# television 5pp1 2,642/271
8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Taras, 81 D1, &allis, $1 ;1, Patterson, T1 D1, (ader, P1 R1, % (elson, $1 "1 52.-.71
Television:s in#luence on children:s diet and physical activity1 $ournal o#
Developmental and *ehavioral Pediatrics, 2, , 26342-,1
Weaver, $1 *1 52..A71 Pornography and se9ual callousness: The perceptual
and ehavioral conse<uences o# e9posure to pornography1 0n D1 Fillmann, $1
45
*ryant, % "1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the #amily: &ocial
scienti#ic, psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1 =2>4==-71
8illsdale, ($: Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Wil+ins, $1 "1 52.-=71 *rea+ing the TV hait 1 (e) Nor+: Charles &criner:s
&ons1
Williams, T1 M1 5Ed171 52.-371 The impact o# television: " (atural
e9periment in three communities 1 (e) Nor+: "cademic Press1
Williams, T1 M1, % 8and#ord, "1 G1 52.-371 Television and other leisure
activities1 0n T1 M1 Williams 5Ed17, The impact o# television 5pp1 2A/4=2/71
(e) Nor+: "cademic Press1
Winic+, C1 52.--71 The #unctions o# television: Di#e )ithout the ig o91 0n &1
Gs+amp 5Ed17, Television as a social issue 5pp1 =264=/671 (e)ury Par+:
&age1
Winn, M1 52.6671 The plug4in drug1 (e) Nor+: Vi+ing1
Fillmann, D1 52..A71 Erotica and #amily values1 0n D1 Fillmann, $1 *ryant, %
"1 C1 8uston 5Eds17, Media, children, and the #amily: &ocial scienti#ic,
psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives 5pp1 2..4=2/71 8illsdale, ($:
Da)rence Erlaum "ssociates1
Fillmann, D1, % *ryant, $1 52.--a71 E##ects o# prolonged consumption o#
pornography on #amily values1 $ournal o# #amily issues, ., >2-4>AA1
Fillmann, D1, % *ryant, $1 52.--71 Pornography:s impact on se9ual
satis#action1 $ournal o# "pplied &ocial Psychology, 2-, A/-4A>/1
46