64 Strength and Conditioning Journal August 2000

National Strength & Conditioning Association

Volume 22, Number 4, pages 6469
IF YOU LISTEN CLOSELY NEAR
the cardiovascular equipment in a
tness center, you can hear the
whispers in the crowd: Whats
your target heart rate? Oh, no,
Im above my target heart rate!
Your target heart rates lower
than mine.
We all know that as the inten-
sity of an activity increases, so
does ones heart rate. Therefore, in
order to prescribe an exercise in-
tensity, tness professionals typi-
cally calculate a target heart rate,
which is a percentage of the maxi-
mum heart rate (max HR). During
the activity, the target heart rate is
sustained for an extended period
of time, usually 2030 minutes. It
is continuous. This is the type of
exercise with which we are most
familiar. There is another type of
exercise, however, that takes ad-
vantage of the heart rates linear
relationship with exercise intensi-
ty. This is called interval training,
and it can greatly enhance the t-
ness levels of your clients by
abruptly increasing and decreas-
ing the heart rate by manipulating
the intensity of the activity.
Interval training is based on
the premise that a greater amount
of intense work can be accom-
plished if the work is interspersed
with periods of rest. This has im-
portant implications for gains in
tness, since tness is affected to
a greater extent by the intensity of
exercise than by either the dura-
tion or frequency. You can also ex-
pend more calories during an in-
terval workout, since the exercise
is performed at a greater intensity
than during continuous exercise.
Furthermore, interval training has
been found to be more effective
than continuous training in stim-
ulating fatty acid oxidation in
muscle mitochondria (5). Interval
training may therefore be a good
choice of activity for your clients
who want to decrease their per-
cent body fat.
During an interval-training
workout, an individual performs a
work interval in a specied time
for a specic number of repeti-
tions. The work intervals are inter-
spersed with recovery periods. In-
terval training has most common-
ly been used by sprint and en-
durance athletes, but can also be
performed by the tness club
member using almost any piece of
cardiovascular equipment in a t-
ness center. There are 4 variables
that can be manipulated in inter-
val training: distance (or duration)
of each work interval, intensity,
duration and type of rest periods,
and the number of repetitions.
With so many possible combina-
tions of these variables, the poten-
tial to vary training sessions is
nearly unlimited.
I History of Interval Training
Interval training originated in Eu-
rope in the 1930s as a method of
developing speed and endurance
in track athletes. Although ath-
letes used interval training with-
out knowing exactly why it
worked, the credit for placing in-
terval training on a scientic basis
has been attributed to the coach-
physiologist team of Waldemar
Gerschler and Hans Reindell of
Germanys Freiburg University
(14). Their belief was that the pri-
mary stimulus for cardiovascular
improvement occurs during the
Interval Training for the Fitness
Professional
Jason R. Karp, MS
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Keywords: training; work interval; rest period; lactic acid
August 2000 Strength and Conditioning Journal 65
recovery period when the heart
rate is being reduced from
170180 to 120140 beats/min.
Gerschler and Reindells original
method required periods of effort
ranging from 3070 seconds at an
intensity that elevated the heart
rate to about 180 beats/min. The
effort phase was followed by suffi-
cient recovery time to allow the
heart rate to return to 120
beats/min.(21)
Interval training was brought
into the global spotlight by the
great distance runner Emil
Zatopek of Czechoslovakia whose
renowned grueling interval work-
outs helped him win the 1948
Olympic 10,000 meters and the
1952 Olympic 5,000 meters,
10,000 meters, and marathon (a
feat that has only been accom-
plished by him). Also during that
time, another track coach, Hun-
garian Mihaly Igloi, developed the
concept of sets of short distances
run quickly to permit a greater
total training stimulus. His coach-
ing centered on huge amounts of
interval training; he believed that
an incredible amount of speed
training also built stamina. Today,
most competitive athletes use
some form of interval training.
However, you do not need to be an
athlete to gain the tness benets
from it.
I Physiology of Interval Training
With each work interval, fatigue is
caused by the depletion of stored
fuel in the muscles, the accumula-
tion of lactic acid (a by-product of
high-intensity exercise) in the
muscles and blood, or the inade-
quate supply of oxygen to the ac-
tive muscles. The repetition of the
work intervals causes the onset of
fatigue many times during a single
workout. This type of training,
therefore, improves the resistance
to fatigue of the active muscles by
repeatedly exposing them to high-
intensity exercise (13). As a result,
your client will be able to sustain a
given exercise intensity for a
longer period of time, increasing
his or her endurance.
There are a number of physio-
logical effects associated with in-
terval training. The repeated eleva-
tion and depression of the heart
rate places an overload on the
heart and stimulates an increase
in the stroke volume (SV), or the
amount of blood that the heart
pumps with each beat (6). This is
important since the greater the SV,
the greater the amount of oxygen
that is delivered to the active mus-
cles. Interval training also increas-
es glycolytic and aerobic enzyme
activity in the active muscles (16).
As a result of these adaptations,
maximum oxygen consumption
(V

o
2
max) is increased (12, 16, 20).
In fact, compared with continuous
training, during which the heart
rate is elevated at a submaximal
level and sustained for an extend-
ed period of time, interval training
seems to be a better stimulus for
improving V

o
2
max (12).
The duration of the work peri-
ods will affect the physiological
adaptations. Performing long work
periods at a moderate intensity
has a much different physiological
effect than performing short work
periods at a high intensity. For ex-
ample, short, intense work periods
(510 seconds) will primarily train
the phosphagen system by caus-
ing an increase in the amount of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and
creatine phosphate (CP) stored in
the muscle (11, 15, 17), leading to
an increase in strength and power.
Fast-twitch muscle bers are also
heavily recruited during this type
of training. The ATP-CP system is
utilized when the goal of training
is to increase maximum strength,
power, or speed. Repeat the work
intervals 510 times, depending
on your clients tness level.
Moderate-length work periods
(30 seconds to 2 minutes) will pri-
marily train the anaerobic gly-
colytic (lactic acid) system. In
order for this system to be effec-
tively trained, the body must be-
come accustomed to the discom-
fort and fatigue resulting from
high levels of lactic acid in the
muscles and blood. This is accom-
plished by repeating intense work
intervals that cause an accumula-
tion of lactic acid during each in-
terval. The concentration of lactic
acid will be greater than normal at
the start of each successive work
interval, and will rise again as the
work is performed. Accumulating
lactic acid and keeping its concen-
tration above normal for the dura-
tion of the workout forces the body
to adapt to greater and greater
concentrations of lactic acid. In re-
sponse to this type of training,
there is an increase in glycolytic
enzymes and the rate of removal of
lactic acid is enhanced, which
helps to raise the lactate threshold
(the point at which lactic acid be-
gins to quickly accumulate in the
blood). This adaptation delays the
onset of fatigue, allowing exercise
at a higher intensity before lactic
acid begins to accumulate. Fast-
twitch bers are also recruited
when training in this manner. The
glycolytic system is utilized when
the goal of training is to increase
the ability to sustain physically in-
tense efforts for up to a couple of
minutes; for example, when carry-
ing heavy objects from one place to
another (e.g., a laundry basket,
groceries, or furniture). The num-
ber of times the work period is re-
peated will depend on the tness
level of the individual, but the pe-
riod should be repeated at least 3
times with more advanced individ-
uals performing 68 repetitions.
66 Strength and Conditioning Journal August 2000
Long work periods (greater
than 2 minutes) will primarily
train the aerobic system, enhanc-
ing the bodys ability to deliver and
use oxygen and increase en-
durance. The key to training the
aerobic system with interval train-
ing is the volume of work per-
formed, rather than the intensity.
The focus of training should be on
the volume of work at a specic in-
tensity. During aerobic interval
training, slow-twitch and interme-
diate fast-twitch muscle bers are
recruited. The number of repeti-
tions will vary from about 35 to
812, depending on the duration
of the work intervals and your
clients tness level.
The intensity of the work in-
tervals may be determined by
heart rate. It has been suggested
that a heart rate of 180 beats/min
is a good training stimulus for
people who are 2029 years old,
170 beats/min for people age
3039, 160 beats/min for people
age 4049, 150 beats/min for peo-
ple 5059 years old, and 140
beats/min for those 6069 years
old (11). Since exercise heart rates
can vary between individuals
based on tness level and not all
people of similar ages have similar
max HR, using a percentage of
your clients max HR may be a
more valid method of determining
interval intensity than using an
absolute number.
Knowing the needs and goals
of your client and his or her exer-
cise history will help in deciding
what types of interval training
should be performed. Cardiovas-
cular tness refers to the capabili-
ties of the aerobic system. With in-
terval training, clients will benet
by training the aerobic system.
Aerobic exercise decreases the
risk for cardiovascular disease,
decreases blood pressure and
cholesterol, and improves the
hearts ability to pump blood and
oxygen to the rest of the body.
From a health and tness per-
spective, training this system is
very important. After all, one can-
not live very long or very well with-
out a healthy heart.
I Rest Periods
Although much attention is usual-
ly given to the period of activity
during an interval workout, the
training stimulus associated with
performing intervals occurs from a
combination of work and recovery.
This is what makes interval train-
ing different from continuous train-
ing. Therefore, the duration and
nature of the recovery periods are
also an important part of interval
training. A very short recovery peri-
od may not allow the body to recov-
er sufficiently to perform the next
work interval at the desired intensi-
ty. Conversely, a very long recovery
period may allow the body to recov-
er too much and some of the train-
ing effect would be lost. Generally,
the duration of the recovery period
depends on the duration of the
work interval and the specic ener-
gy system that is being trained.
As with the intensity of the
work interval, heart rate may also
be used to determine the duration
of the recovery period. It has been
recommended that a subsequent
work interval can begin once the
heart rate has dropped to 140
beats/min in people 2029 years
old, 130 beats/min for those
3039 years old, 120 beats/min
for those 4049 years old, 115
beats/min for those 5059 years
old, and 105 beats/min for those
6069 years old (11).
I ATP-CP Intervals
The longer the duration of the re-
covery interval, the more ATP and
CP will be restored and can then
be used as an energy source dur-
ing subsequent work periods (9).
In order to restore all of the ATP
and CP following exhaustive exer-
cise, recovery periods should be
about 35 minutes in duration (3).
However, since you do not totally
deplete the ATP and CP stores dur-
ing the work interval (unless the
activity was truly maximal and of
sufficient duration), it is not neces-
sary to take this long to recover be-
fore beginning the next work inter-
val. Since 5070% of the ATP and
CP is restored within the rst 30
seconds of rest (3), a work-to-rest
ratio of approximately 1:3 to 1:6
(e.g., 10 seconds work, 3060 sec-
onds rest) is generally used.
Inactive recovery periods
should be used when training the
ATP-CP system to allow for replen-
ishment of the muscular stores of
ATP and CP (9, 11). If active recov-
ery is used, part of the ATP pro-
duced through the aerobic system
is used to provide the energy to
perform the activity (9). Therefore,
this ATP is not available to replen-
ish the CP stores or become part
of the ATP stores. If the ATP-CP
system is not replenished during
the recovery period, it will not be
available for use during the next
work interval, and the ATP will
have to be supplied by 1 of the
other 2 systems. Consequently,
the ability to perform the next
work interval at the desired inten-
sity will decline.
I Anaerobic Glycolytic Intervals
When training the glycolytic sys-
tem, the length of the rest periods
will depend on the duration of the
work but should be about twice as
long as the work period (1:2 work-
to-rest ratio). For example, if the
work interval is 45 seconds, the
rest period should be about 90
seconds. Lactic acid is removed
more quickly when active recovery
periods are used (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 18,
August 2000 Strength and Conditioning Journal 67
22). Active recovery also blocks the
replenishment of the ATP-CP sys-
tem (11), so it is not available as
an energy source during the work
intervals causing the glycolytic
system to be the principle contrib-
utor of energy during the next
work interval.
I Aerobic Intervals
When training the aerobic system,
the recovery period is typically
equal to or less than the work in-
terval (i.e., 1:<1 work-to-rest
ratio). For example, if 3-minute in-
tervals are used, the rest should
last up to 3 minutes.
Generally, if the duration of the
work intervals is at the low end of
the range (about 2 minutes), inac-
tive recovery should be used (9).
With inactive recovery, any lactic
acid accumulated during the work
intervals will not be removed as
quickly as with active recovery
and, as a result, the glycolytic sys-
tem will not be able to supply a
large amount of the ATP required
for the work intervals. This places
a greater demand on the aerobic
system to supply the required ATP.
If the duration of the work inter-
vals is long (e.g., 46 minutes),
however, active recovery should be
used. As the duration of the work
intervals increases, the intensity of
work necessarily decreases, result-
ing in less contribution from the
glycolytic system and, therefore,
less lactic acid accumulation. With
active recovery, complete recovery
of the oxidative system does not
occur since this system will still be
active to support the activity dur-
ing the recovery period. Subse-
quent work periods will begin at a
higher V

o
2
, stressing the aerobic
system to a greater extent (7).
I Using Interval Training in the
Fitness Center
Because of its physically stressful
nature, interval training should
only be used as a method of en-
hancing cardiovascular tness fol-
lowing a relatively long period of
continuous training. Although it is
true that the intensity of exercise
does a lot more for gains in tness
than does the duration, it also
causes more fatigue and increases
the risk for injury and overtraining
(3). When you rst begin to train a
client who was previously seden-
tary, the cardiovascular training
program should be very general
and focus on increasing basic t-
ness and endurance. Initially, the
amount of time spent doing car-
diovascular exercise is of primary
importance. As your clients t-
ness improves, the exercise stimu-
lus should become more specic.
It is important to keep in mind
that tness club members are not
highly trained athletes and most
commonly join tness centers
when they are out of shape. Their
rst goal should be to adapt to
continuous exercise.
For continuous exercise last-
ing at least 20 minutes, ACSM rec-
ommends an intensity of 6080%
of the max HR (2). To prescribe an
interval-training workout, you can
adjust this heart rate guideline
based on the tness level of your
client. For example, have your
client warm up on the treadmill (or
cardiovascular equipment of
choice) by walking easily for 5
minutes at 60% max HR. Then
have him or her run for 5 minutes
at 75% max HR, followed by 5
minutes of walking as a recovery.
Repeat this sequence 3 times: 5
minutes run, 5 minutes walk. Fi-
nally, nish the workout with a 5-
minute cooldown. For a more cre-
ative workout, following a 5-
minute warm-up at 60% max HR,
increase the speed of the treadmill
(or resistance of the bike) to elicit
70% max HR for 2 minutes fol-
lowed by 2 minutes recovery at
60% max HR, 2 minutes at 80%
max HR, 2 minutes recovery at
70% max HR, 2 minutes at 85%
max HR, and nally a 5-minute
cool down at 60% max HR. Add it
all up and your client just spent
20 minutes getting a great interval
workout. If you are performing a
similar workout on a stationary bi-
cycle, you can increase and de-
crease the workload by manipulat-
ing either the resistance or the ca-
dence (revolutions per minute
[RPM]). Table 1 presents some
other examples of interval work-
outs for the beginner, intermedi-
ate, and advanced client.
Although you should build a
base with continuous training
prior to beginning interval train-
ing, for various reasons there are
some people who cannot sustain
exercise for at least 20 minutes
(orthopedic problems, very poor
physical condition, cardiac dis-
ease, etc.). In this case, alternating
periods of running and walking or
even fast and slow walking can be
used. When working with cardiac
clients, short work periods (per-
formed at similar intensities of
continuous exercise) may be used
to provide an exercise stimulus for
the active muscles with minimal
cardiac strain. Interval training
has been shown to elicit an in-
crease in V

o
2
max in patients with
severe chronic heart failure (20)
and has been found to be a better
stimulus for increasing physical
performance than continuous
training following coronary bypass
surgery (19).
Interval training is also a great
way to get your clients past a
plateau in their tness level and
add variety and fun to their work-
outs. Plateaus occur when the
training stimulus does not change
appropriately and the body has al-
ready adapted to the training
stimulus to which it has been sub-
jected. By varying the training,
you change the stimulus so that
68 Strength and Conditioning Journal August 2000
the muscles and the body contin-
ue to adapt (10).
These guidelines should help
next time you decide to use interval
training with your clients. With
some proper planning and creativi-
ty, incorporating interval training
into their programs can help your
clients overcome their plateaus and
improve their tness dramatically.
Then they will really be talking
about their target heart rates! L
I References
1. Ahmadi, S., P. Granier, Z.
Taoutaou, J. Mercier, H.
Dubouchaud, and C. Pre-
faut. Effect of active recovery
on plasma lactate and anaer-
obic power following repeated
intensive exercise. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc. 28(4):450456.
1996.
2. American College of Sports
Medicine. Guidelines for Exer-
cise Testing and Prescription
(5th ed.). Baltimore: Williams
& Wilkins, 1995.
3. Bompa, T.O. Periodization:
Theory and Methodology of
Training. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1999.
4. Bond, V., R.G. Adams, R.J.
Tearney, K. Gresham, and
W. Ruff. Effects of active and
passive recovery on lactate
removal and subsequent iso-
kinetic muscle function. J.
Sports Med. Phys. Fitness.
31(3):357361. 1991.
5. Chilibeck, P.D., G.J. Bell,
R.P. Farrar, and T.P. Martin.
Higher mitochondrial fatty
acid oxidation following in-
termittent versus continuous
endurance exercise training.
Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol.
76(9):891894. 1998.
6. Cumming, G.R. Stroke vol-
ume during recovery from
supine bicycle exercise. J.
Appl. Physiol. 32:575578.
1972.
7. Daniels, J. Daniels Running
Formula. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1998.
8. Falk, B., M. Einbinder, Y.
Weinstein, S. Epstein, Y.
Karni, Y. Yarom, and A.
Rotstein. Blood lactate con-
centration following exercise:
Effects of heat exposure and
of active recovery in heat-ac-
climatized subjects. Int. J.
Sports Med. 16(1):712.
1995.
9. Fleck, S.J. Interval training:
Physiological basis. Natl.
Strength Cond. Assoc. J. 5(5):
40. 1983.
10. Fleck, S.J., and W.J. Krae-
mer. Periodization Break-
through. New York: Advanced
Research Press, 1996.
11. Fox, E.L. Interval training.
Bull. Hosp. Joint Dis. 40:
6471. 1979.
12. Gorostiaga, E.M., C.B. Walter,
C. Foster, and R.C. Hickson.
Uniqueness of interval train-
ing at the same maintained
exercise intensity. Eur. J.
Appl. Physiol. 63(2):101107.
1991.
13. Hawley, J.A., K.H. Myburgh,
T.D. Noakes, and S.C. Den-
nis. Training techniques to
improve fatigue resistance
and enhance endurance per-
formance. J. Sports Sci.
15(3):325333. 1997.
14. Humphreys, J., and R. Holl-
man. Focus on Middle-Dis-
tance Running. London:
Adam & Charles Black,
1985.
Workout Beginner Intermediate Advanced
1 5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes warm-up 810 minutes warm-up
5 1-minute at 7075% max 5 2-minute at 7585% max 5 2-minute at 8590% max
HR with 2-minute recoveries HR with 3-minute recoveries HR with 2-minute recoveries
at 5060% max HR at 5565% max HR at 6070% max HR
5 minutes cooldown 5 minutes cooldown 810 minutes cooldown
2 5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes warm-up 5 minutes warm-up
3 5-minute run with 2 10-minute run with 5 5-minute at 8085% max
5-minute walk recoveries 5-minute walk recovery HR with 3-minute recoveries
at 6070% max HR
5 minutes cooldown 5 minutes cooldown 810 minutes cooldown
Table 1
Sample Interval Workouts
August 2000 Strength and Conditioning Journal 69
15. Karlsson, J., L. Nordesjo, L.
Jorfeldt, and B. Saltin. Mus-
cle lactate, ATP, and PC levels
during exercise after physical
training in man. J. Appl.
Physiol. 33(2):199203. 1972.
16. MacDougall, J.D., A.L. Hicks,
J.R. MacDonald, R.S. Mc-
Kelvie, H.J. Green, and K.M.
Smith. Muscle performance
and enzymatic adaptations to
sprint interval training. J.
Appl. Physiol. 84(6):2138
2142. 1998.
17. MacDougall, J.D., G.R. Ward,
D.G. Sale, and J.R. Sutton.
Biochemical adaptation of
human skeletal muscle to
heavy resistance training and
immobilization. J. Appl. Phys-
iol. 43(4):700703. 1977.
18. Mero, A. Blood lactate pro-
duction and recovery from
anaerobic exercise in trained
and untrained boys. Eur. J.
Appl. Physiol. 57(6):660666.
1988.
19. Meyer, K., M. Lehmann, G.
Sunder, J. Keul, and H. Wei-
demann. Interval versus con-
tinuous exercise training after
coronary bypass surgery: A
comparison of training-
induced acute reactions with
respect to the effectiveness of
the exercise methods. Clin.
Cardiol. 13(3):851861. 1990.
20. Meyer, K., L. Samek, M.
Schwaibold, S. Westbrook, R.
Hajric, R. Beneke, M.
Lehmann, and H. Roskamm.
Interval training in patients
with severe chronic heart
failure: Analysis and recom-
mendations for exercise pro-
cedures. Med. Sci. Sports
Exerc. 29(3):306312. 1997.
21. Reilly, T., N. Secher, P. Snell,
and C. Williams. Physiology
of Sports. New York: E. & F.N.
Spon, 1990.
22. Taoutaou, Z., P. Granier, B.
Mercier, J. Mercier, S. Ahma-
di, and C. Prefaut. Lactate ki-
netics during passive and
partially active recovery in
endurance and sprint ath-
letes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
73(5):465470. 1996.
Jason R. Karp, MS, has a mas-
ters degree in exercise physiology
and biomechanics. He is the head
track and eld coach at George
Washington High School in San
Francisco, CA, a professor in the
tness certicate program at the
University of California, Berkeley,
head marathon coach for San
Francisco Fit, and coach of the Im-
pala Racing Team. He is also a
personal trainer, a freelance
writer, and a competitive distance
runner who uses intervals as an
integral part of his training pro-
gram.