Quanta to Quarks

Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org

1
1 Edwin Tran
Discuss both the evidence for and the limitations of Rutherfords atomic model

Discuss the limitations of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the spectra of larger atoms, the
relative intensity of spectral lines, the existence of hyperfine spectral lines and the Zeeman Effect.

When alpha particles scattered at large degrees when a gold foil was within its path,
Rutherford proposed that an atom consisted of a very small, dense, positively charged
nucleus. The electrons were in orbit about the nucleus at distances very large compared to
the dimensions of the nucleus.
One problem was that it was not mathematically explained. Furthermore it did not account
for any of the properties of the electrons in the atom, in particular how electrons could be
accelerating without emitting electromagnetic radiation. Also it failed to provide any
information about the radius of the atom or orbital frequencies of the electron
While successful in explaining the wavelengths of the spectral lines in the hydrogen
spectrum, Bohrs model failed to account for:

o The spectra of larger atoms -The Rutherford-Bohr model only worked for hydrogen. It did not
work for atoms with more than one electron.
o The relative intensity of spectral lines - Different spectral lines were different intensities. This
could not be explained by the Rutherford-Bohr model.
o The existence of hyperfine spectral lines - It was found that some spectral lines consisted of
much finer lines that when viewed at a low zoom appeared as one. The cause of these hyperfine
spectral lines could not be explained by the Rutherford-Bohr model.
o The Zeeman Effect - The Zeeman Effect (the splitting of spectral lines when the sample was
placed in a magnetic field) could not be explained by the Rutherford-Bohr model.

Discuss Plancks contribution to the concept of quantised energy
Planck said that energy was quantised in discreet packets of energy. This is given by the formula,
=h, where h is Plancks constant. This means that the energy is a multiple of h and therefore
quantised. This differs from classical physics where energy was thought to be a continuous wave.
This concept of quantised energy was initially brought up for an explanation of black body radiation.

Define Bohrs Postulates

1. Despite the nucleus (positively charged) and electron (negatively changed) being oppositely
charged they do not attract and collapse together. The electrons are stable in their shells and
are not pulled towards the nucleus. This violates classical physics. Also an electron that is stable
and doesnt change energy level will not radiate energy.
2. If an electron moves down an energy level, energy is released in the form of a photon. Similarly
if an electron moves to a higher energy level then the atom must absorb some quanta of energy.
This explains the existence of spectral lines
3.

where n is a positive integer. This means that (angular momentum) can only
take on certain values and is quantised.







Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


2
2 Edwin Tran
Perform a first-hand investigation to observe the visible components of the hydrogen
spectrum

A hydrogen discharge tube was connected to high voltage electricity. The discharge tube was
observed with a spectroscope. Spectral lines were observed. This process is shown in the diagram
below.














The colours and wavelengths of the visible spectrum of hydrogen is shown below.






























Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


3
3 Edwin Tran
Discuss and quantify de Broglies proposal that any kind of particle has both wave and particle
properties. Describe the confirmation of de Broglies proposal by Davisson and Germer and further
explain the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom using de Broglies hypothesis

De Broglie proposed that any moving object should have a wavelength given by :

He proposed that wave and particle nature of light was inextricably linked. He then
predicted that matter must also have a dual particle-wave nature.
De Broglie believed in the claim that it should be possible to observe the wave nature of a
beam of electrons diffracted from the surface of a crystal. This impacted on the Davisson
and Germer experiment.
In an experiment on reflection of electrons, the vacuum had a crack and nickel surface
oxidised. Heat recrystallised the surface, forming crystals larger than the electron beam they
used. When they shot the electrons, they saw diffraction which was a wave property.
Electrons had both wave and particle characteristics and thus De Broglies idea was
confirmed.


Define diffraction and identify that interference occurs between waves that have been
diffracted
Diffraction refers to the spreading out of light waves around the edges of a small slit or aperture.

If two slits are open at the same time then the two waves will interfere (the interference is possible
because of the diffraction pattern). The wave will be heightened in some places and cancelled out in
other places.














Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


4
4 Edwin Tran

Explain the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom using de Broglies hypothesis
Using de Broglies hypothesis of the wave nature of particles we can explain why electrons can only
exist in specific energy levels. Because these orbiting electrons can be thought of as waves, where
the shell number relates to the number of waves, if you have non integer number of waves then the
wave will not join and will collapse. So electrons can only exist where a whole number of waves is
possible. This coincided with the specific orbits that Bohr had postulated. Since the electron could
exist as a wave it was in a non-radiating energy level as also postulated by Bohr.



n=5 n=4.5 n=4

If n=4.5, the waves would not join, therefore collapsing the orbit

Gather, process, analyse and present information and use available evidence to assess the
contributions made by Heisenberg and Pauli to the development of atomic theory
Heisenberg:
Heisenbergs contribution to the development of atomic theory was the Uncertainty Principle,
which states that both the position and the momentum of a subatomic particle cannot be accurately
determined simultaneously. The more you know about the momentum of the particle, the less you
know about its position. And the more you know about the particles position the less you know
about its momentum. This can be expressed mathematically,

Uncertainty of momentum uncertainty of position 2

This is because the best methods we have to determine the position of a particle will change its
momentum, and the methods used to determine momentum change the position. For example to
see the position of the particle, we need to shine light on it to see it. However when photons are
shown on the particle they collide and the momentum and path of the particle is changed by this
collision.

Pauli:
Paulis contribution to the development of atomic theory was the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which
states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. Paulis
Exclusion Principle provides reason why electrons in atom are arranged in shells. An electron in an
atom has four such quantum numbers. They define the energy of the electron in terms of the
distance of its orbit from the nucleus, its orbits shape, the orientation of the axis of the orbit, and
the electrons spin on its own axis. He also explained the existence of the neutrino.





Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


5
5 Edwin Tran
Discuss the importance of conservation laws to both (i) Chadwicks discovery of the neutron and
(ii) Paulis suggestion of the existence of neutrino.

(i) Chadwicks discovery of the neutron

Chadwick analysed the work of Curie after she bombarded paraffin wax with the unknown radiation
that was found by Bothe and Becker in 1930. From there he undertook experiments in examining
the recoil of nuclei of hydrogen and nitrogen when hit by this unknown radiation. He then applied
laws of conservation of momentum and energy to discover the neutron which was 1.15 the mass of
the proton.















(ii) Paulis suggestion of the existence of neutrino

According to energy laws, when an atom undergoes beta decay, the energy of the emitted electron
should fall within a relatively small range of energies. However, observed experimental results
showed a large range, which seemed to defy the law of conservation of energy. To explain this, Pauli
suggested the existence of a neutrino that was released concurrently with beta emission which
possessed the missing energy to obey the conservation of energy law.

Define the components of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) as nucleons and
contrast their properties
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons, neutrons and other sub-atomic particles, known as
nucleons. Protons have a positive charge and neutrons have no charge. The mass of the proton is
slightly less than that of a neutron.

Symbol Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Proton


1.6021019

1.6731027
Neutron

0
1.6751027

Define the term transmutation
Transmutation is the changing of one element into another by nuclear reactions, remembering
that the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the type of element.




Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


6
6 Edwin Tran

Describe nuclear transmutations due to natural radioactivity
Large unstable elements naturally decay into smaller elements in an aim to become more stable.
During nuclear transmutations three forms of radiation can be emitted.








For example, Radium is an unstable element and goes through natural decay and thus, changes
to the element Radon and hence, transmutation occurs.
The natural nuclear radioactive decay of uranium-238 is shown below.

Describe Fermis initial experimental observation of nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atom into other smaller elements of the atom. Fermi
bombarded Uranium-235 with neutrons and saw that the slower the neutron travelled, the
more effective nuclear reactions occurred. He observed that Kr-92 and Ba 141 was produced
as a result of the Uranium atoms becoming unstable. Two lighter elements occurred and thus it
was nuclear fission. He also observed that more neutrons were produced.











Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


7
7 Edwin Tran


Explain the significance of mass defect to atomic physics using Einsteins equivalence between
mass and energy. Also, compare requirements for controlled and uncontrolled nuclear chain
reactions with specific reference to fission reactors and describe Fermis demonstration of a
controlled nuclear chain reaction in 1942.

Mass defect is the difference between the mass of the constituent nucleons and nucleus.
This mass defect is responsible for the energy as per (E =m

), which is the energy to bind

the reactants (often referred to binding energy).
















A critical mass of fissile material is required for self-sustaining chain reaction. To create a
self-sustaining nuclear reaction, each fission reaction requires the release of an average 2.5
neutrons to continue the process. An appropriate isotopic mix e.g. U235/238 (Uncontrolled).
Control rods (steel cadmium), that absorb neutrons are inserted into a fission reactor to
slow or stop the chain reaction completely, or removed to allow more reaction (controlled)

















Femi demonstrated this controlled reaction by slowly withdrawing cadmium control rods, 15
cm at a time, while reaction count was measured. Rate of fission and prediction of when
reaction was self-sustaining were calculated
Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


8
8 Edwin Tran



Evaluate the relative contributions of electrostatic and gravitational forces between
nucleons

Nucleons are protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and so their force of electrostatic
repulsion is repelling them. This force is quite large. The other force acting on protons is the force of
gravity. But this force is very weak because the mass of a proton is very small.
Two protons in a nucleus are about 1015 m apart, and so the force of gravity between these two
protons will be about 1.91034 N, of attraction. But the electrostatic force is about 230 N, of
repulsion. This means that the force of gravity is nowhere near large enough to hold these protons
together in the nucleus. Neutrons have the force of gravity as attraction but this again is extremely
weak. Neutrons have no electrostatic force because they are neutrally charged.

Account for the need for strong nuclear force and describe its properties
So how can protons exist together in the nuclear with such a strong force of electrostatic repulsion?
Well this is where the strong nuclear force comes in. It is this strong nuclear force that holds these
protons together in the nucleus. This strong nuclear force acts on both protons and neutrons1.


As seen in the graph, the typical nucleon separation has a strong nuclear force of 10^4 N where as
the electrostatic force is 250 N. This shows that the strong nuclear force is able to hold together the
nucleons with ease. However, as the the nucleon separation becomes smaller, the strong nuclear
force becomes a repulsive force and as it gets further, it becomes weaker.


Explain the concept of a mass defect using Einsteins equivalence between mass and
energy

The mass of protons and neutrons can be measured to be 1.6731027 kg and 1.6751027 kg
respectively. The mass of a nucleus of an atom can also be measured. Take helium as an example, it
is made up of two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus and its atomic mass is 4.003 amu.
However when we add the mass of two protons, two neutrons and two electrons we get a mass of
4.031 amu. This is slightly greater than the measured mass of the atom. The difference in these two
masses is known as the mass defect, i.e. mass defect helium is 0.028 amu.
We know that the conservation of mass must hold, so where does this mass go? Well it is converted
into energy (=2) called the binding energy which holds the atom together. The graph below
shows the binding energy per nucleon graphed against mass number.

Quanta to Quarks
Download More Notes for free at www.Kickhsc.org


9
9 Edwin Tran


Describe Fermis demonstration of a controlled nuclear chain reaction in 1942

In 1942 Fermi managed to attain a controlled nuclear chain reaction in a squash court at the
University of Chicago. He used the entire nations supply of uranium to do this. Control rods were
known to be neutron absorbers and were inserted amongst the uranium. This was done to prevent
the reaction from becoming uncontrollable and unstoppable. Geiger counters were used to detect
the radiation emitted from the nuclear fission. Neutrons were shot at the uranium and it was
noticed that by placing control rods in between the uranium, the detected radiation stabilised and
continued at this stable rate. Fermi had achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction.

Working from secondary sources discuss the operational principles and radiation
observed to be emitted from a nucleus using a Wilson Cloud Chamber or similar
detection device

A Wilson cloud chamber consists of supersaturated vaporised alcohol or supersaturated vaporised
water. It uses the ionising ability of radiation, to differentiate between alpha radiation, beta
radiation and gamma radiation. The process of this utilisation begins when radiation is fired into the
chamber. This radiation causes the ionisation of atoms as it passes. The vapour condenses at the
ions and the radiation hence leaves behind a vapour trail which can be analysed to determine
radiation type. Alpha radiation is observed to have a thick and short trail (figa). Beta radiation is
observed to have a thinner and longer trail than alpha (figb). Gamma radiation has the thinnest and
longest trail.

Describe the use of a named isotope in each of the medicine, agriculture and engineering
application areas.

Gamma radiation from technetium-99m is a diagnostic tool used to test for blood clots and
problems with circulatory system. Small dosages of gamma radiation are detected from the
gamma camera. Technetium-99m has a short half life of 6 hours to reduce damage to the
patient
Gamma rays from Co-60 are used to sterilise food products and extend their shelf life
significantly. Radiation kills the bacteria/viruses that cause decomposition of substances.
Cobalt-60 has a half life is 5.3 years
A common application of radioisotopes is the use of americium-241 in smoke detectors. It
emits alpha (half life of 432.7 years) particles that ionise the air between two plates that
have a potential difference. If smoke interferes with the air, it will get attracted to the
ionised air particles and change the current flow. This change sets off the alarm