Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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1
min
1
2 . 117 11
4 . 54 1
exp 1
1
min
5 . 0
R
R R
x
where
x
x
x
x
N
N N
y
Feed Stage Location :
N
R
/N
s
= 2.63039 and as we know N
R
+ N
s
= 56
Hence N
R
= 40 = No. of Trays in Rectifying Section
And N
S
= 16 = No. of Trays in Stripping Section
COLUMN DIAMETER:
Overall balance:
Component balance:
Equilibrium:
206 . 0
2
,
,
,
,
* *
(
(
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=
D
B
x
x
Z
Z
N
N
D HK
B LK
F LK
F HK
S
R
L= D*R
L =( 727.665/3600)*6 = 2.168681 kmol / sec
V = L +D = 2.168681 + (727.665/3600) = 2.37081 kmol/sec
L
= 750 Kg/m
3
V
= 2.3 Kg/m
3
Liq-Vap Flowrate F
Lv
= (2.168/2.3708)*(750/2.3)
0.5
= 0.050656 m/s
Flooding Velocity
For 0.5 m tray spacing K = 0.097
Flooding Velocity U
f
= 0.097*((750-2.3)/2.3)
0.5
= 1.748926 m/s
Design for 80% Flooding
V = 1.399141 m/s
Flowrate = Vapor velocity*M.W./ Density of Vapor
Net Area = (Flowrate / velocity) = 8.249589 m
2
Downcomer Area = 12% of total Area
C/S Area = 9.374533 m
2
5 . 0
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=
L
v
LV
V
L
F
5 . 0
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=
v
V L
F
K U
Column Diameter = 3.4557315 m
Hence Actual Column Diameter = 3.5 m
C/S Area A
c
= 9.61625 m
2
Downcomer Area A
d
= 1.15395 m
2
Net Area A
n
= A
c
- A
d
= 8.4623 m
2
Active Area A
a
= A
c
- 2A
d
= 7.30835 m
2
Hole Area = 10% of active area = 0.730835 m
2
Check for weeping
Weir Length l
w
= (0.77 x Column Dia)=(0.77*3.5)= 2.695 m
Max h
ow
= 750 (L
v
/
L
*l
w
) =750*(2.168681/(750*2.695)) = 8.72537 mm of Liq
Min h
ow
= 750 (V
/
L
*l
w
) =750*(2.37081/(750*2.695)) = 8.226993 mm of Liq
Assume h
w
=50 mm
h
w
+ h
ow
= 58.22699 mm
From Graph K= 32
U
h
= ((K 0.9(25.4 - d
0
))/
v
0.5
)
= 8.99395 m/s
Actual min Vapor velocity through holes U = (min. vapor rate/ hole area) = 13.81919 m/s
Since U> U
h
, there is no chance for weeping
Plate Pressure Drop
Pressure drop for flow of vapor through dry plate h
d
h
d
= (51*(U
h
/C
0
)
2
*(
V
/
L
) ) = 86.38675 mm of liq
Residual losses h
r
=( 12.5*10
3
/
L
) = 16.66667 mm of liq
L
h
w
+ h
ow
= 58.22699 mm
h
t
= h
d
+ (h
w
+ h
ow
) + h
r
= 86.386 + (58.226) + 16.66 = 161.7788 mm of liq
P =
L
h
t
g =(750*161.778*9.81) = 0.172636 Psi (tolerable)
Downcomer Backup Check
Height of bottom plate of apron h
ap
= 50-10 = 40 mm
A
ap
= h
ap
*weir length = 0.040*2.695 = 0.1078 m
2
A
d
= 1.15395 m
2
& A
ap
= 0.1078 m
2
Hence select A
m
= 0.1078 m
2
Head loss in downcomer h
d
= 166*(L
v
/
L
A
m
)
2
=166*(2.168/(750*0.1078))
2
= 0.119437 mm
h
bc
= (h
w
+ h
ow
)+ h
d
+ h
t
= (58.226) + 0.119 + 161.77 = 220.6236 mm
Now (0.05+0.5)/2 = 0.275 = 275 mm
220.6236 < 275 , hence Tray sapcing is adequate.
Downcomer residence time t
r
(From Graph) = 8.804498661 > 3 sec hence it is also satisfactory.
Check for Flooding & Entrainment
Velocity = (Vapor flow rate/ Net area) = 1.329184 m/s
Actual % flooding = ( 1.329184/Floodig velocity) = (1.329 / 1.746) = 76 % which is satisactory
For Entrainment
F
LV
= 0.050656
0.09 < 0.1 (From Graph)
Hence no Entrainment.
Hydraulic Gradient
F
va
= (Q/A
a
)(
v
)
0.5
= (0.8 / 7.30835)*(2.3)
0.5
= 11.97591 m/s
= froth density = 0.2
Q
P
= Aeration Factor = 0.8
q = 2.168681*55 / 750 = 0.0981 m3/sec
h
a
= 0.8 (0.1*h
w
+ h
ow
) = 0.8*(0.1*58.22699) = 10.9803 cm
h
f
= h
a
/ (2 Q
P
1)= 10.9803 / (2*0.8 1) = 18.30049 cm
D
f
= 3.0975 m
Hydraulic Radius R
h
= ( h
f
D
f
/2 h
f
+ 100 D
f
)
=( 18.30049*3.0975/2*18.3)+(100*3.0975)
= 0.163666
Velocity of Aerated Mass U
f
= (100 q / h
f
D
f
)
=(100*0.0981/ 18.3*0.2*3.09750)
= 1.263771 m/s
Reynolds modulus = ( R
h
U
f
L
/
L
) =
(0.163*1.263*750/4.674*10^-4)
=189179.3
f = 0.090 (from Graph)
=( 10000*f * U
f
2
weir length / R
h
g )
= (10000*0.090*1.263
2
*2.695 / 189179.3*9.81) = 24.12745 mm
Tray Layout
Area for unperforated edge strip = 0.243743 m
2
Area of Calming Zone = 0.2595 m
2
Total Area available for perforations = Active Area (Area for unperforated edge strip + Area of
Calming Zone)
= 7.3083 (0.24374 + 0.2595)
= 6.805108 m
2
Area of holes = (*d
2
/4) = 0.000019625 m
2
No. of Holes = (Active area / Area of holes)
= (6.805108/0.000019625)
= 372400
5.2 Design of Heat Exchanger :
Mass Flow Rate
(kg/hr)
Tin (C) Tout (C)
Hot Fluid 131339.7 500 330
Cold Fluid 80973.67 160 280
Difference 340 50
Q= 75496433.56 KJ/hr (From Non Oxidtive Rector Energy Balance)
LMTD = ((340-50)/ ln (340/50)) = 151.9269
o
C
Assumption : Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient U
f
= 900 W/m
2 o
C
Area = 75496433.56 / 900*151.9269
=154.0239 m
2
Assumptions :
Two pass Heat Exchanger with Square pitch Lay out with tube I.D. 0.016 m & the length of the
Heat Exhanger is assumed to be 11 ft.
CTP= 0.9
CL= 1.0
Pitch Ratio (PR)= P/d
o
LMTD
T U
Q
A
A
=
PR= 1.25
d
o
= 0.019 m
P=0.02375
L=3.35 m
A = 154.0239 m2
Dia. Of Shell (D
s
)
= 0.637 * (1/0.9)
0.5
* ( 154.0239*(1.25)
2
*0.019 / 3.35 )
= 0.78447 m 0.8 m
No. of Tubes
= 0.785* ( 0.9 / 1.0 )*( 0.8
2
/ 1.25
2
0.019)
(N
t
) = 770 For two pass
= 385 per pass
Baffle Spacing is 60%
B= 0.6 x 0.8 = 0.48 m
Shell Side : Feed from Non-Oxidative Reactor Unit
5 . 0
2
0
5 . 0
) (
637 . 0
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=
L
d PR A
CTP
CL
D
o
s
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=
2
2
2
785 . 0
o
s
t
d PR
D
CL
CTP
N
T = 415
o
C
= 750 Kg/m
3
, C
p
= 1920 J/Kg K , = 4.67 x 10
-4
, K = 0.652 W/m K ,
w
= 6.04 x 10
-4
Tube Side : Water
T = 220
o
C
= 1000 Kg/m
3
, C
p
= 4160 J/Kg K , = 4.2 x 10
-4
, K = 0.610 W/m K
Equivalent Diameter (D
e
)
D
e
= 4*( P
2
(*d0
2
/4))/( *d0) where P= d0*Pitch Ratio
= 4*(0.02375
2
(*0.019
2
/4))/( * 0.019)t
= 0.018818 m
C= P
d
o
C= 0.00475 m
Area of Flow = (D
s
*C*B/P) = 0.07384 m
2
G
s
= 131339.688/(3600*0.07384) = 494.5716 Kg/s m
2
R
es
= D
e
G
s
/ = 19907.67
h
o
= 4283.297 W/m
2
K
Now , calculations for h
i
m = 80973.67 Kg/hr = 0.037488 m
3
/s
C/s area of Flow = (N
t
* d
i
2
* / 8) = 0.077449 m
2
U
m
=0.037488/0.07744 = 0.48403 m/s
14 . 0
3
1
55 . 0
0
36 . 0
|
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\
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|
\
|
|
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|
\
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=
w
p
s e e
K
C
G D
K
D h
R
tube
= 10088.85
As
()
h
i
= 1759.641 W/ m
2
K
Hence overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U
f
) = 899.6566 W/ m
2
K
Design Summary :
Area = 154.0239 m
2
Dia. Of Shell (D
s
) = 0.8 m
No. of Tubes
(N
t
) = 770 For two pass
= 385 per pass
h
o
= 4283.297 W/m
2
K
h
i
= 1759.641 W/ m
2
K
(U
f
) = 899.6566 W/ m
2
K
1
0
ln
1
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\
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|
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.
|
\
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+ + + =
K
r
r
r
R
h r
r
h
U
i
o
o
ff
i i
o
f
5.2.1 Mechanical design of Heat Exchanger
(a) Shell side details
Material : carbon steel
Number of shell passes: one
Working pressure: 0.1N/mm2
Design pressure : 0.11N/mm2
Permissible stress for Stainless Steel: 95 N/mm2
(b) Tube side details
Number tubes: 770
Number of passes: 2
Outside diameter: 19.05mm
Inside diameter : 15.75
Length: 3.35 m
Pitch triangular: 1 inch
Working pressure: 0.1 N/mm2
Design pressure: 0.11N/mm2
Shell side
(1) Shell thickness
ts= PD/(2fJ+P)
= 0.11*838/(2*95*0.85+0.11)
= 0.57
Minimum thickness of shell must be=6.3 mm
Including corrosion allowance shell thickness is 8mm
(2) Head thickness.
Shallow dished and torispherical
ts=PRcW/2fJ
= 0.11*838*1.77/(2*95*1)
= 0.858
minimum shell thickness should be 10mm including corrosion allowance.
(3) Transverse Baffles
Baffle spacing =0.6*Dc
= 48mm
number of baffles,
Nb+1=L/LS=3350/480=7
Nb = 6
Thickness of baffles, tb=6mm
Nozzles
Tube side nozzles diameter=180 mm
Shell side nozzles diameter = 180 mm
Thickness of nozzles = t =10mm
Saddle support
Material: low carbon steel
Total length of shell: 6.6 m
Diameter of shell: 800 mm
Knuckle radius : 51.24 mm
Total depth of head (H)= (Doro/2)
0.5
= (800*51.24/2)
0.5
= 143 mm
Weight of the shell and its contents = 11943kg = W
R=D/2=400 mm
Distance of saddle center line from shell end = A =0.5R=200 mm
5.3 Reactor Design :
Reaction for Oxidative Dehydrogenation
3 C4H8 + 10O2 = C4H6 + 4CO + 4CO2 + 8H2O + H2
Flowrate
C4H8 863.3676 kmol/hr
Steam in feed 671.508133 kmol/hr
Air in feed 277.141 kmol/hr
Total F
a
1812.01673 kmol/hr
Pressure Pa = 350 kPa
Conversion Xa = 0.9
r = a/(a + bfo)2 , where
r1 = moles butene converted/ft3 catalyst-hr.
r2 = moles butadiene produced/ft3 catalyst-hr.
f0 = equivalent reciprocal space velocity for zero age catalyst, ft3 catalyst-hr/mol feed.
a and b = constants calculated from equations
In a = -13.03794 + 0.19267 (1 x lo5 )
In b = -4.48793 + 0.09814 (Ix lo5 )
But K value is given by this equation : K = 2.1x10
4
exp (-63.116/ RT) which is an empirical
equation
Hence K= 20000 kmol/m3reactor/h/(kPa)2
Volume of Reactor V= (F
a
/ K Pa)*((dXa/(1-Xa)
2
)
V = (F/K Pa)*((1/(1-Xa)) - 1)
V = (1812.01673/20000*350)*((1/(1 - 0.09)) 1)
Hence Volume of Reactor V = 2.3297358 m3
Now Volume of Catalyst
Catalyst particle diameter, dp = 5 mm
Catalyst particle density = 2100 kg/m3
Packing void fraction E = 0.45
Volume of catalyst = (1-E )* Volume of reactor
= (1 - 0.45) * 2.3297358
= 1.28135469 m3
Consider length of tube = 5 m
Diameter of tube = 2.5 cm
Volume of one tube = t/4 (d)
2
(L)
= t/4 (2.5 x 10
-2
)
2
(4)
= 0.00245313 m
3
Props. Shell Side (Water) Tube side (Butene Feed + H
2
O)
Cp 5.1865 (KJ/Kg
o
K) 1.920 (KJ/Kg
o
K)
9 x 10
-4
(Kg/m.Sec) 4.187 x 10
-4
(Kg/m.Sec)
K 0.62 (w/m.
o
K) 0.54 (w/m.
o
K)
995.40 (Kg/m
3
) 750 (Kg/m
3
)
No. of tube = ( Volume of reactor / Volume of one tube )
= 2.3297358 / 0.00245313
No. of tubes = 950 tubes
Area of tube per pass:
A
tp
= (t/4) (d)
2
(N
tp
)
= (t/4) (2.5 x 10
-2
)
2
(950)
A
t
= 0.46609375 m
2
Mass flow rate of reacting material = 57217.0976 kg/hr
= 15.8936382 kg/sec
Velocity:
U = m/ Atp
m = 15.8936382 Kg/Sec
U = 15.8936382 / 750*0.46609375
U = 19.3748066 m/sec
N
Re
= du/(1-E)
= (2.5 x 10
-2
) x (19.3748) x (794.09)/ (0.00000784) x (1 -0.45)
N
Re
= 108736.159
A
O
= N
t
x t x d xL
= (950) x t x (2.5 x 10
-2
) x (5)
A
O
= 372.875 m
2
Shell diameter:
Consider the Triangular pitch
C
TP
= 0.9
C
L
= 0.7
Take P
R
= Tube pitch ratio = 1.25
Ds = 0.637 * ( 0.7/ 0.9)
0.5
*(409.66 x (1.25)
2
x (2.5 x 10
-2
) / (0.5) )
0.5
Ds = 0.95883493 m
= 0.785* ( 0.9 / 0.7 )*( 0.9588
2
/ ( 1.25
2
* 0.025
2
)
= 1059.10 > Total No of tube that is required.
D
e
= 4*( P
2
(*d0
2
/4))/( *d0) where P= d0*Pitch Ratio
P
T
= 0.03125 m
De = 4*( ( 0.03125
2
( *0.025
2
/ 4 )) / ( *0.025))
5 . 0
2
0
5 . 0
) (
637 . 0
|
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\
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|
\
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=
L
d PR A
CTP
CL
D
o
s
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
2
785 . 0
o
s
t
d PR
D
CL
CTP
N
14 . 0
3
1
55 . 0
0
36 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
w
p
s e e
K
C
G D
K
D h
= 0.018 m
C= P
d
o
= 0.03125 0.025
= 0.00625
B = 0.6*Ds
B = 0.6 * 0.95883493
B = 0.38353397
As = Ds*C*B / P
T
= ( 0.95883493 x 0.00625 x 0.38353397 ) / ( 0.03125 )
As = 0.07354915 m
2
Gs = m/ As
= 8.648 / 0.07354915
Gs = 117.581231 Kg/m
2
.sec
From the above equation,
( h0 * 0.018 / 0.62) = ( )
14 . 0
333 . 0
4 3
55 . 0
4
1
62 . 0
10 9 10 1865 . 5
10 9
117.5812 018 . 0
36 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
x x x
x
x
ho = 1725.81167 W/m
2
K
Tube side H.T.C:
Nu = 0.023 (N
Re
)
0.8
(Pr)
0.4
( hi*di/k ) =
4 . 0 8 . 0
)
) (
( ) 09 . 2905 ( 023 . 0
k
Cpt
( hi*0.025/0.54) =
4 . 0
4 3
8 . 0
)
254 . 0
) 10 187 . 4 10 84 . 4 (
( ) 1059.107 ( 023 . 0
x x x
x
hi = 280.163 W/m
2
K
Over all H.T.C
1/U0 = ( (1/h0) + (1/hi) + 0.005 )
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ + 005 . 0
163 . 280
1
1725.8116
1
Uo = 39.0939011 W/m
2
K
Now,
Total H.T area available = 372.875 m
2
Rate of H.T. is given by
Q = UAAT
(4713400) = 39.0939011 x A x 30
A = 391.448444 m
2
> A available
5.3.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN
Now, Internal design pressure
Pd = 0.1 * 0.375
= 0.0375 N/ mm
2
External Design Pressure
Pd = 0.1*0.35
= 0.0375 N/mm
2
Material of Construction is stainless steel (SS 316).
Maximum Allowable Tensile Stress at 30
o
C = 98 N / mm
2
SHELL DESIGN:
For Internal Design Pressure
P Design Pressure
D- Mean Diameter
J- Joint Efficiency
f- Design Or Permissible stress at design temperature
D
i
Internal Diameter
D
o
Out Side Diameter
ts = PDi / (2fJ P)
= 0.0375*1000 /(2*98*0.85 - 0.11)
(Here Dia = 0.95883493 m 1000 mm)
= 0.26 mm
= 5.00 mm (Because minimum thickness of the plate available is 5 mm) + C.A.
Use 10 mm Thick Plate For Fabrication.
For External Design Pressure
Pc = 2.42 E ( t/D0 )
5/2
/ ((1-
2
)
3/4
[ ( L / Do ) 0.45 ( t / Do )
1/2
])
= {2.42*190*10
3
*( 5 /1000)
5/2
}/{( 1-0.3
2
)
3/4
[ (2000/1000) 0.45 (10/1000)
1/2
]}
= 0.4367 N/mm
2
Now, Allowable Pressure
P = Pc/4 = 0.4367/4
P = 0.109 N/mm
2
< Pd
Means critical buckling pressure is less than External design pressure.
So, we can use thickness of the shell ts = 5 mm.
HEAD DESIGN:
Here The Design Pressure is 0.0375 N/mm
2
so we can use Torrispherical Head.
Let Rc = Crown Radius = internal diameter of shell = 1000 mm
R
1
= Knuckle radius
= 6% of Inside Dia. Of Shell
= D * 0.06
= 1000 *0.06
= 60 mm
Torrispherical head:
Thickness of head t
h
= (P*Rc*W ) / 2fJ
Where, P - internal design pressure
Rc - crown radius
W - stress intensification factor
W = 0.25 * (3+ (Rc/R
1
)
0.5
)
W = 0.25 * (3+ (1000/60)
0.5
)
W =1.770
t
h
= 0.11*1000*1.77 /2*98*0.85
t
h
= 1.17 mm
= 5 mm
Thickness of Torrispherical head = 5 mm.
BRACKET SUPPORT DESIGN:-
Let,
Pt = Total force due to wind load acting on vessel
H = Height of vessel above foundation.
F = Vessel clearance from foundation to vessel bottom.
Db = Diameter of bolt circle.
W = Maximum weight of vessel with attachments & contents.
n = no. of brackets.
Pw = Wind pressure.
P
1
= Wind pressure for the lower part (Below 20m) of the vessel = 400 to 1000 N/m
2
Kp = Coefficient depending of the safe factor
Wind pressure = Pw = Kp*h*Do*P1
= 0.7*2.00*1.01*1000
= 1414 N
Density of SS-316 = 7750 kg/m3
Wt. of catalyst = 2000 kg = 20000 N
W = wt. of vessel with attachment + wt. of content
Weight of Shell = (3.14*Ds
2
*L/4)*7750 = 3.683*7750 = 39970 kg =399700 N
Weight of Tube = (3.14*Dt
2
*L/4)*7750 = 19.0117 kg = 190.11 N
P = ( 4*Pw*(H-F) / n*Db ) + ( w/ n)
= (4*1414*5.00 / 4*1.65) + (419890 / 4)
P = 109257 N
Bracket: Base plate size
a =140 mm, b=150mm
Allowable bending stress for structural steel = f = 157.5 N/mm
2
Pav =
P / a*b = 109257 / 140*150
Pav = 5.20 N/mm
2
f = 0.5 (Pav * b
2
/ T
1
2
) * ( a
4
/ a
4
+b
4
)
= 0.5* (5.20 * (150)
2
/ T
1
2
)
*(140
4
/ 140
4
+150
4
)
157.5 = 1689.09 / T
1
2
T
1
= 32 mm
So, thickness of base plate = T
1
= 32 mm = 3.2 cm.
5.3.2 Thickness of the Insulation:
From the heat balance it is clear that there is some amount of heat lost into the atmosphere.To limit the
heat loss to the same figure an insulation is to be given to the reactor. The insulating material can be
chosen as asbestos.
Density of asbestos = 577 Kg/m
3
Thermal Conductivity of asbestos = 681.4 x 10
-3
W/m
2
K
Material of the drier is stainless steel
Thermal Conductivity = 147.6 W/m
2
K
Convective Heat transfer Coefficient = 40 W/m
2
K
From Heat Balance Heat Loss = 97 KW
D
1
= 1 m
D
2
= 1.02 m
t
1
= 10 mm
Let y be the thickness of insulation.
D
3
= D
2
+ 2y = 1.02 + 2y
T
1
= 603 K , T
2
= 295 C
We have from the Continuity equation
Q = (T
1
T
2
)
t
1
+ t
2
+ 1
k
1
A
1
k
2
A
2
H
c
A
3
A
1
= (D
1
+ D
2
) x L/ 2
= 3.14 (1.0 + 1.02 ) x 7 /2
= 3.79 m
2
A
2
= (D
2
+ D
3
) x L / 2
= 3.14 (1.02+ 1.02 + 2y) x 7/2
= 22.42 + 21.98 y
A
3
= x D
3
x L
= 3.14 x (1.02 + 2y) x 7
= 22.42 + 43.96 y
97x10
3
= ( 603 295)
10 x 10
-3
+ y + 1
147.6 x 3.79 681.4 x 10
-3
(22.42 + 21.98 y) 56.8 (22.42+43.96 y)
y = 38.78 mm
Therefore the thickness of the insulation should be 40mm.
CHAPTER 6 : PLANT LAYOUT
PLANT LAYOUT
A preliminary determination of the plant layout enables consideration of pipe runs and pressure
drops, access for maintenance and repair, access in the event of accidents and spills, location of
the control room and administrative offices. The preliminary plant layout can also help to
identify undesirable and unforeseen problems with the preferred site, and may necessitate a
revision of the site selection.
The proposed plant layout must be considered early in the design work to ensure economical
construction and efficient operation of the completed plant. The plant layout adopted will also
affect the safe operation of the completed plant, and acceptance of the plant (and possibly any
subsequent modification or extension) by the community.
6.1 Factors in Choosing a Suitable Plant Location :
There are several major factors that contribute to the operability and economic aspects of a site
location for a plant, which are the primary factor and specific factor.
Primary Factors :
Availability of Raw Material
A plant with close proximity to the source of the raw material allows a lower cost of
transportation. The cost of shipping raw materials and fuel to the plant site should be considered
along with the cost of transporting the products to market so as to minimize the total
transportation cost as much as possible while balancing that cost against other operating
expenses. A seaport might have to be at a reachable distance from the site location if the raw
material is to be imported.
Reasonable land price
The cost of the land depends on the location itself. An ideal land will provide an economical land
price to the total investment cost. It is then vital to choose a suitable land price when initiating a
new plant in order to gain the highest economic and profit value.
Proximity to market
The plant should be constructed close to the primary market to minimize transportation costs.
Local demand of product should also be taken into account in selecting a proper plant site. It
would add as an extra point if both the raw material supplier and buyers are at a reachable
distance.
Electricity and water
Any chemical plant is in need of large quantities of water supply for cooling and other uses in the
plant. Electricity is needed to run all the machines and equipments. Therefore, sufficient local
water and power supply plants is required to ensure a smooth operation of the plant.
Geographical and Weather :
The climate conditions affect the budget and cost operation. It may be necessary to consider the
yearly weather consideration.
Specific Factors
Availability of low cost labor and services
Any chemical processing plant should be located where sufficient labor supply is adequately
available. The usual practice is to bring non-local, skilled construction workers and ample
number of local, unskilled workers for training of plant operation. The cost of operation will
reduce if inexpensive manpower for plant operation can be gathered from the surrounding area.
Transport facilities
The construction of the plant should be located close to road network, seaport and airport. All
these major facilities will aid to smooth transportation of the raw feed, product, plant personnel
and plant equipment supplies.
Government incentives
To attract investors to place their investment in a state, state governments offer attractive
investments incentives. Some incentives grant partial or total relief from income tax payment for
a specified period, while indirect tax incentives come in the form of exemptions from import
duty, sales tax and excise duty.
Waste and effluent disposal facilities
Site location should also take into account the availability of efficient and satisfactory disposal
system. This is to ensure that the factory waste and industrial effluent will have proper treatment
if those are to be treated off-site.
Plant layout is often a compromise between a numbers of factors such as :
- The need to keep distances for transfer of materials between plant/storage units to a
minimum to reduce costs and risks
- The geographical limitations of the site
- Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as existing roadways, drainage and
utilities routings
- Interaction with other plants on site
- The need for plant operability and maintainability
- The need to locate hazardous materials facilities as far as possible from site boundaries and
people living in the local neighbourhood
- The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable substances may occur
- The need to provide access for emergency services
- The need to provide emergency escape routes for on-site personnel
- The need to provide acceptable working conditions for operators
The most important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are:
- Prevent, limit and/or mitigate escalation of adjacent events (domino)
- Ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings
- Control access of unauthorized personnel
- Facilitate access for emergency services
Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site with respect to the marketing
area, raw material supply, transport facilities, availability of labor, availability of utilities,
availability of suitable land, environment impact, etc. All these factors play a significant role in
the choice of the site. The overall site layout is shown.
Several factors have been considered in laying out the site. The process units and ancillary
building should be laid out to give the most economical flow of materials and personnel around
the site. In term of safety, process area is located at enough distance from the place where there
are a lot of personnel.
6.2 Plant Layout Consideration Factors
When laying out the plant, these are the factors that we have considered;
1. I nherent Safety
The major principle in Inherent Safety is to remove the hazard altogether. The best method in
achieving this is to reduce the inventory of hazardous substances such that a major hazard is
no longer presented. However, this is not often achievable. Other possible methods to
achieve an Inherently Safer design are;
- Intensification to reduce inventories
- Substitution of hazardous substances by less hazardous alternatives
- Simpler systems/processes to reduce potential loss of containment or possibility of errors
causing a hazardous event
2. Domino Effect
Hazard assessment of site layout is critical to ensure consequences of loss of containment and
chances of escalation are minimized. Domino maybe by fire, explosion (pressure wave and
missiles) or toxic gas cloud causing loss of control of operations in another location.
3. Fire
There are four ways that fire can spread;
- Direct burning
- Convection
- Radiation
- Conduction
The use of vertical and horizontal compartmentation using fire-resisting walls and floors can
prevent the spread of fire from its origin to the other part of the premises. Protection against
domino by convection, conduction and radiation can be achieved by ensuring that the
distances between plant items are sufficient to prevent overheating of adjacent plants
compromising safety of that plant also. If this is not possible due to other restrictions, other
methods such as fire walls, active or passive fire protection may be considered.
4. Explosion :
Explosion propagation may be directly by pressure waves or indirectly by missiles.
Inherently safety methods that should be considered are;
- Arranging separation distances such that damage to adjacent plant will not occur even in
the worst case.
- Provision of barriers e.g. blast walls.
- Protecting plant against damage e.g. provision of thicker walls on vessels.
5. Toxic gas releases
Toxic gas releases may cause domino effects by rendering adjacent plants inoperable and
injuring operators. Prevention of such effects may be affected by provision of automatic
control system using inherently safer principles and a suitable control room.
6. Reduction of consequences of event on and off site
A plant layout design technique is also applicable to the reduction of the risks from release of
flammable or toxic materials include;
- Locating all high-volume storage of flammable/toxic material well outside process area
- Locating hazardous plant away from main road
- Siting of plants in the open air to ensure rapid dispersion of minor releases of flammable
gases and vapors and thus prevent concentrations building up which may lead to flash
fires and explosions.
- Provision of ditches, dykes, embankments, sloping terrain to contain and control releases
and limit the safety and environmental effects.
- Hazardous area classification for flammable gases, vapors and dusts to designate areas
where ignition sources should be eliminated.
7. Positioning of occupied buildings
The distance between occupied buildings and plant buildings will be governed by the need to
reduce the dangers of explosion. Evacuation routes should not be blocked by poor plant
layout, and personnel with more general site responsibilities should be housed in buildings
sited in a non-hazard area near the main entrance. Occupied buildings should not be sited
downwind of hazardous plant areas.
8. Aggregation / trapping of flammable vapors :
To avoid aggregation and trapping of flammable/toxic vapors which could lead to a
hazardous event, buildings should be designed so that all parts of the building are well
ventilated by natural or forced ventilation. Flammable storage should be sited in the open air
so that minor leaks or thermal out breathing can be dissipated by natural ventilation.
6.3 Site Layout : The site layout can be divided into two parts:
- Non-Process area area where there is no production activity and has low risk hazards to
workers and process units.
- Process Area - consists of all processing equipments, butadiene is produced.
6.3.1 Non-Process Area :
The non-process area usually occupies a smaller fraction of the overall plant site area. All the
facilities in the non-process area should be located in a logical manner that considers site terrain,
accessibility to roads, soil bearing capability and the climate including the wind direction and
other unusual weather condition. This is important to avoid any undesired incident due to
explosion or fire from the process zone will be easily spread to the non-process area. Taking this
into account, the entire process area where the reaction and separation occurs is surrounded with
a buffer zone to ensure that surrounding buildings or sites are not affected in case of an
emergency. Among the buildings or units in the non-process area are: -
a) Guard Post
Guard posts are located at the entrance of the site in order to ensure that only authorized
personnel gets access into the plant. There are 5 guard posts that are situated at the crucial
entrances in the plant:
- Main entrance guard post to control the flow in and out of personnel or cars between the
site and public area.
- Emergency entrance guard post security check for emergencies such as ambulance, fire
engine or other special occasions.
- Process entrance guard post As shown in the layout, there are two different main entrances
to the plant. The first one is for public entrance where only cars and other small vehicles are
allowed to pass through. The second main entrance is only open to trucks. This is to avoid
congestion and at the same time reduce the hazard of material spillage at the plant. With two
different entrances, the public are less exposed to the danger of chemicals exposure or
accidents with the trucks.
b) Administration Building
The administration block is built adjacent to the main entrance. This is to allow the
administration employees to enter their office without passing through the hazardous process
area. As shown in the plant layout, the administration building is place near to the process area.
This location is most strategic as it is aligned with the process area. This arrangement allows the
employees at the administration building to alert on any mishap at the process area that is visible
from the administration building but far enough to ensure that no accidents from the processing
area can affect the administration block.
c) Cafeteria
Canteen provides meals for the employees and visitors. Canteen is located in the public zone and
far away from the process area to avoid contaminant in food and ensure safety of the public.
There are other facilities that should be located in the non-process area including surau,
gymnasium, car park and also fire station.
6.3.2 Process Area
Process zone is an area where all processing equipment is allocated and is deemed as a hazardous
area, thus precaution has to be applied at all times. The buildings or units situated in this process
zone are:
- Process zone guard post
- Control Building
- Laboratory
- Wastewater treatment plant
- Plant Area
- Utilities
- Storage area
- Fire assembly points
- Flare area
a) Process zone guard post
This facility is to ensure no unauthorized personnel will be access into the process area by using
a security pass, to record the personnel activity, such as check-in and check-out between process
zone and public zone. The purpose of this process zone guard post is to ensure that all the
personnel will obey to the plant rule and regulations.
b) Control Building :
All the control valves for the whole process area will be controlled and monitored from this
central control building. The control rooms are designed with blast proof construction and have
emergency backup power and air conditioning. In case of emergency occurs in the plant, control
room will be the assembly point in the process area. At least two escape routes for
operators/personnel must be provided from each level in process buildings.
c) Laboratory
Here the quality of the purity of butadiene is tested to determine whether it meets the
specifications or not. All the result will be sent to the control room and some adjustments in
controlling will be made, if needed. Thus, the distance between laboratory and control room is
not too far. Laboratory staffs will also perform an analysis regarding waste of the process before
being channeled to nearby environment.
d) Wastewater Treatment Plant
The waste stream from Plant Area will first flow into the Wastewater Treatment plant to separate
the impurities from the water. The impurities will be treated before being recycled back to the
process released to the environment. It is located adjacent to the main process unit so that the
wastewater effluents from the process units can be channeled easily.
e) Plant Area
This area is the major processing unit where the butadiene is produced. Safety, economy,
operability and ease of maintenance are considered during the allocation of each equipment
within the area. Adequate spacing between equipment is also considered to minimize the spread
of fire in case it happens. Distances between each unit are also well designed to prevent any
hazards from occurring.
f) Utilities
This unit will supply cooling water, low pressure steam, instrument air and some other utilities to
the main process unit. For this plant, the utilities located near to plant area where all the process
of producing butadiene occurs. Its location is perfectly suitable to give the most economical run
of pipe to and from the process unit. The utilities and control building is situated near to the
utilities for easy monitoring.
g) Storage area
This unit stores vessels containing chemical substance, lubricants, and catalyst used for the
process. It also stores chemicals needed for the waste water treatment plant. It is situated next to
the waste water treatment plant.
h) Warehouse :
Warehouse stores all the equipments spare parts. It is placed near to the workshop to ease the
maintenance job and to conduct hot work.
i) Expansion Site
Ample expansion areas are allocated at the process area for future expansion in case the
management decides to increase production rate or other crucial considerations.
j) Fire assembly points
In case of emergency, the assembly point in the plant for public zone will be located in the
nearest car park area and next to the canteen. For process zone; the assembly point will be near
to the QC Laboratory building and next to the Utilities and Control building for personnel
working there. Once gathered, wait for further instruction from Health, Safety and Environment
personnel or from fire department personnel. There are a total of 5 assembly points planned at
the site.
k) Flare Area
Flare is used to burn all excess gas that is emitted from the process units as well as to burn some
of the waste gas from waste treatment area. The flare is located far from the process area and
administration complex
Process Unit :
Table below summarizes the layout consideration for process units
Table : Layout Consideration for Process Unit
PROCESS UNIT LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
Process Area - Located in well ventilated area with leak detector to allow
maximum safety if there is leakage or spillage
- Located as far s possible from ignition sources
Instrumentation - Instrumentation control cables are routed underground to
prevent any hazards.
- Fire proofing protection should be considered.
Pipelines
- Consider types of fluid, temperatures, pressures and flow
condition
Reactor/Column/Heat
Exchanger/Pressure
Vessels
- Isolated from other equipment and from flammable, toxic
or inert materials.
- Consider internal refractory of insulation due to
overheating and rupturing.
`
Figure : Plant Layout of Butadiene Production Plant
CHAPTER 7 : COST ESTIMATION
Cost Estimation
7.1 Direct Cost :
1.) Purchased Equipment
Total Cost of Equipment = 372545281 Rs.
Sr. No. Equipment Name Quantity Price in Rs.
1 Dehydrogenation Reactor 1 3424735
2 OxydativeDehydrogenation Reactor 1 749890
3 Deisobutanizer 1 16352892
4 Extractive Distillation Column 1 26147632
5 Solvent Recovery Column 1 4412826
6 Furnace 1 163076706
7 Flash Drum 1 6528834
8 Dehydrogenation Inter-Cooler 1 3478284
9 Dehydrogenation Reactor Cooler 1 3928860
10 Compressor 1 18602226
11 Deisobutanizer Pump 1 1133838
12 Extractive Pump 1 522756
13 Recovery Pump 1 268740
14 Feed Pump 1 368136
15 Solvent Pump 1 176706
16 Tanks 2 83372220
17 Heat Exchanger 10 40000000
2.) Purchased Equipment Installation
Installation of all the equipments listed, structural supports, paints (Taken as 25% of the
purchased equipment cost)
= 85685414 Rs.
Sr. No. Description Grand Total cost in Rs.
1 Purchased Equipment 372545281
2 Purchased Equipment Installation 85685414
3 Instrumentation and Control (17%) 63332697
4 Piping (20%) 74509056
5 Electrical (10%) 37254528
6 Building (17%) 63332697
7 Yard Improvement (3%) 11176358
8 Service Facilities (9%) 33529075
9 Land (15%) 55881792
Total Direct Cost (D) = 797246902 Rs.
7.1.1 Indirect Cost (I)
1) Engineering and Supervision
Total Engineering and Supervision Cost is taken as 8% of the Total Direct Cost
= 87,697,159.27 Rs.
2) Construction Expenses
Total Construction Expenses cost is taken as 7% of the Total Direct Cost
= 63,779,752.20Rs.
3) Contractor's Fee
Total Contractor's fee is taken as 5% of the Total Direct Cost = 39,862,345.12Rs.
4) Contingency
Total Contingency cost is taken as 8% of the Total Direct and Indirect cost
= 55,807,283.17 Rs.
Sr. No. Description Grand Total cost
1 Engineering and Supervision Cost (11%) 87,697,159.27
2 Construction Expenses (8%) 63,779,752.20
3 Contractor's Fees (5%) 39,862,345.12
4 Contingency (7%) 55,807,283.17
(% of Total Direct Cost)
Total Indirect Cost (I) = 247,146,539Rs
Total Fixed Capital Investment (D + I) = 1,044,393,442 Rs.
Working Capital (WC), 15% of TCI = 184,304,725.10 Rs.
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = 1,228,698,167.31 Rs.
7.2 Total Product Cost
Determination of the necessary Capital Investment is only one part of a complete cost estimate.
Another equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling the
products. These costs can be grouped under the general heading of Total Product Cost.
Basis:
1.) Total cost is calculated on the basis on the Annual Cost Basis
2.) Number of days working per year is taken as 330 days
3.) Plant is running in three shifts i.e. 24 hrs per day
4.) Capacity of the plant per year = 1512939600 Kg/yr
Manufacturing Cost
1.) Direct Production Costs
a.) Raw Material
Sr.
No.
Quantity per annum Kg Cost per unit
in Rs.
Total annual cost
in Rs.
1 LPG 1,512,939,600.00 26.00 39,336,4296
Total Cost of Raw Materials = 39,336,4296 Rs
Total Direct Production Cost :
Sr. No. Description % Cost in Rs.
1 Raw Material 50.00 39,336,4296
2 Operating Labour 15.00 5,900,464,4.40
3 Operating Supervision 15.00 885,069,6.66
4 Utilities 10.00 5,000,000.00
5 Maintainance and Repair 3.50 11176358.45
6 Operating Supplies 15.00 1676453.77
7 Laboratory Charges 0.20 1,180,0928.88
8 Patents and Royalities 0.00 0.00
9 Catalyst (yeast)
2,400,000.00
Total Direct Production Cost = 493273378Rs.
2) Fixed Charges
a) Depreciation
i) Annual cost of Depreciation for Machinery and Equipment is assumed as 10% of the Fixed
Capital Investment = 10,443,934.42 Rs.
ii) Annual cost of Depreciation for buildings is taken as 3% of the Initial Cost of buildings =
1,899,980.94 Rs.
iii) Annual cost of Depreciation for Instrumentation & Controls, piping, Electrical equipment and
Materials is assumed as 5% of FCI = 52,219,672.11 Rs.
b) Taxes : Annual property taxes for plant is assumed as 1% of the Fixed Capital Investment =
10,443,934.42 Rs.
c) Insurance : Annual cost of Insurance is assumed as 1% of the Fixed Capital Investment =
10,443,934.42 Rs
d) Rent Annual cost of Rent for Land and Buildings = 0.00 Rs.
Total Annual Fixed Charges :
S. No. Description Total Annual cost in Rs.
1.00 Depreciation 64563587.47
2.00 Taxes 10,443,934.42
3.00 Insurance 10,443,934.42
4.00 Rent 0.00
Total Fixed Charges = 85451456Rs.
4) Plant Overhead Costs
Annual Plant Overhead Costs is assumed as 30% of the total cost of operating labor, supervision
and maintenance = 2,038,193,918.38 Rs.
Total Manufacturing Cost :
S. No. Description Total Annual cost in Rs.
1 Direct Production Cost 47,319,169,059.24
2 Fixed Charges 50,706,388.08
3 Plant Overhead Cost 2,038,193,918.38
Total Manufacturing Cost = 49,408,069,365.70 Rs.
7.2.1 General Expenses
1) Administrative Expenses [9]
Annual cost of Administrative expenses is assumed as 25% of the total cost of operating labor =
1,475,1161.10 Rs.
2) Distribution and Marketing Expenses
Annual cost of Distribution & Marketing expenses is assumed as 10% of the Total Product Cost
= 49,327,337.82 Rs.
3) Research and Development
Annual cost of Research and Development = 24,663,668.91 Rs.
4) Financing (interest)
Annual cost of Financing (interest) = 0.00 Rs.
Total General Expenses (G)
S. No. Description Total Annual cost
1 Administrative Expenses 1,475,1161.10
2 Distribution and Marketing Expenses 49327337.82
3 Research and Development 24,663,668.91
4 Financing (interest) 0.00
Total Cost of General Expenses = 88,742,167.82 Rs.
Total Product Cost (TPC), M + G = 691,176,512.14 Rs.
7.3 Spreadsheet for Estimation of Total Capital Investment
S. No. Description Cost in Rs. Cost in Rs.
Direct Costs
1 Purchased Equipment 372,545,281.52
2
Purchased Equipment
Installation 85,685,414.75
3
Instrumentation and
Controls 63,332,697.86
4 Piping 74,509,056.30
5
Electrical Equipment and
Materials 37,254,528.15
6
Buildings (Including
services) 63,332,697.86
7 Yard Improvements 11,176,358.45
8 Service Facilities 33,529,075.34
9 Land 55,881,792.23
Total Direct Costs (D)
797,246,902.45
Indirect Costs
10
Engineering and
Supervision 87,697,159.27
11 Construction Expenses 63,779,752.20
12 Contractors Fee 39,862,345.12
13 Contingency 55,807,283.17
Total Indirect Costs (I)
247,146,539.76
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI),
D + I
1,044,393,442.21
Working Capital (WC), 15% of
TCI
184,304,725.10
7.4 Spreadsheet for Estimation of Total Product Cost
S. No. Description Cost in Rs. Cost in Rs.
Manufacturing Costs
Direct Production Costs
1 Raw Materials 393,364,296.00
2 Operating Labor 59,004,644.40
3 Operating Supervision 8,850,696.66
4 Power and Utilities 5,000,000.00
5
Maintenance and
Repairs 11,176,358.45
6 Operating Supplies 1,676,453.77
7 Laboratory Charges 11,800,928.88
8 Patents & Royalties 0.00
9 Catalysts and Solvents 2,400,000.00
Total Direct Production Costs
493,273,378.15
Fixed Charges
10 Depreciation 64,563,587.47
11 Taxes 10,443,934.42
12 Insurance 10,443,934.42
13 Rent 0.00
Total Fixed Charges
85,451,456.31
Plant Overhead Costs
14 Plant Overhead Costs 23,709,509.85
Total Plant Overhead Costs
23,709,509.85
Total Manufacturing Costs (M)
602,434,344.32
General Expenses
15
Administrative
Expenses 14,751,161.10
16
Distribution &
Marketing Expenses 49,327,337.82
7.5 Profitability Analysis
To Calculate Profitability Analysis two methods have been employed based on Fixed Known
Selling Price of the Finished Product API at 75% Capacity
Revenue Through sales
At present the market value of the Finished Product API manufactured under this facility per kg
= 110 Rs. [10]
Annual Revenue through sales at 75% capacity = 1248175170 Rs
Gross Profit = Annual Revenue through sales - Annual Operating Cost
Gross Profit = 556,998,657.86 Rs.
Net Profit = Gross Profit x (1 - tax%)
Assuming tax percent = 30 %
Net Profit = 389899061 Rs.
Pay Back Period = Total Investment / ( Net Profit + Depreciation )
where Total Investment = Fixed Capital Investment
Pay Back Period = 2.298084225 years
Rate of Return = ( Net Profit / Total Investment ) x 100
Rate of Return = 56.410925 %
17
Research &
Development 24,663,668.91
18 Financing (Interest) 0.00
Total General Expenses (G)
88,742,167.82
Total Product Cost, M + G
691,176,512.14
CHAPTER 8 : MATERIAL SAFETY AND HAZARD
Material, Safety and Chemical Hazard
8.1 INHERENT SAFETY ASPECT
Inherent safety aspect must be considered to reduce the potential consequences of accident.
Distillation
- In a distillation column, among the potential accident that can happen is flooding. This
circumstance occurs as a result of high pressure in the column. There are also large inventories
of boiling the liquid such as sometimes under pressure, in the distillation column both in the base
and held up.
To prevent the accident from happened, sequence that tends to minimize the flow rate of nonkey
component can be chose. Dividing wall column can be used to reduce the inventories and also
number of items to lower the potential for leaks. In case of over pressurization, the relief system
can be installed.
Pressure and Temperature
- High temperature condition in a plant can lead to possible rupture of tubes carrying process
fluids. Thermal shock and leaking flanges also can occur due to the loss of cooling medium.
Problem of fluids leaking can become more serious with high pressure operation because when
fluid is flashing, mass flow rate of liquid can increase which can leak through holes.
- In order to overcome the high temperature and pressure condition, relief system must be
installed. Automatic shutdown system also must be installed to prevent overpressure and
temperature. The system must always be operated at normal temperature and pressure condition.
Heat Transfer Operation
- Generally, problems include in heat transfer operation involve tube rupture, leaking,
polymerization and solidification. These problems will influence the pressure and temperature
conditions in heater and also cooler.
- Pressure relief can be used to overcome the overpressure consequences and also to protect
against tube rupture. To prevent thermal shock, the control valve (fail-to-open/fail-to-close) can
be used to control the flow rate of cooling or heating medium.
Chemical storage
- Chemicals which are highly flammable can lead to explosion. Leakage of chemical from the
storage tank can also cause the vapor cloud and toxic cloud to occur. Failure of instrumentation
especially those which indicate the pressure and temperature will also cause the explosion to
happen. Leaking of chemical into the sewage system also can happen in this area.
- Prevention step can be taken to avoid all of these accidents from occurring. To prevent
explosion, the explosion proof motor and switches should be installed. The use of non-sparking
tools and equipment is required. All storage areas must be clearly marked with warning notices
forbidding smoking and open fire. Pressure safety valve should be installed to maintain the
pressure inside the storage tank. The storage area also should have no drain without suitable
cover or water seal to prevent the chemicals from entering the sewage system.
Transportation
- Accident involves in this transportation factor involve spillage of toxic chemicals and also risk of
accident happened. Sometimes, the explosion can also happen due to pressure and temperature
change in the transportation tank.
- In handling the loading and unloading of the chemicals, the workers should wear proper Personal
Protection Environment (PPE). Training should be provided to the driver of the vehicles so that
they can drive carefully and avoid the risk of road accident. To reduce the effect caused by
sudden changes of vehicle speed, baffles should be installed. Other technical requirements such
as gauges, thermometers, safety valve, indicator for maximum and minimum filling and also
device to remove static electricity should be installed to make sure that the tanks are in normal
condition. In case of transportation by sea, tankers with heat-insulated reservoir should be used.
Plant Layout
- Weaknesses in the arrangement of facilities in the process area can lead to fire (via conduction,
convection and radiation), explosions and toxic gas releases.
- The spread of fire from its origin to the other parts of the premises can be prevented by vertical
and horizontal compartmentation using fire-resisting walls and floors. Fire accident through
convection, conduction and radiation can also be prevented by ensuring that the distances
between plant items are sufficient to prevent overheating of adjacent plants. To prevent
explosions, among inherently safe methods that should be considered are arranging separation
distances such that damage to adjacent plants will not occur, provision of barriers (blast walls),
protecting plant against damage (provision of thicker walls or vessels) and also directing
explosion relief vents away from vulnerable areas. Prevention of toxic gas releases may be
affected by provision of automatic control systems using inherently safer principles and a
suitable control room.
Sitting and Safe Location
- Human health will be affected in case if there is amount of toxic gas release into the
environment. The plant itself will be put into a high risk if it is build at an area which always
being strike by nature disaster such as flooding, earth quake and others.
- The plant area should be located far from the vulnerable area but near the raw materials supplier
so that the transportation can be made effectively. It should also be near the fire station so that
there are no difficulties in case of emergency.
Materials for Construction
- Leakage, corrosion, crack and explosions can happen due to the poor materials used for the
construction purpose. Crack problem can also arise if high pressures occur within the vessels.
- To prevent such incident from happening, stainless steel is recommended to be used for process
stream to prevent corrosion. Electrical equipments used should also be spark resistance to
prevent explosions.
Toxicology and health hazard
- Most chemicals used in the plant either in process stream or product has contains of several
hazardous materials. When the toxic chemicals come into contact with human being, it can cause
a very bad impact to humans health. Human being might expose to human mutagenic effect if
they are exposed to the chemicals for such long period.
- In order to prevent all these bad consequences from happening, proper Personal Protection
Equipment (PPE) should be worn by workers when dealing with the toxic chemicals. Handling
procedure of these hazardous materials should also be understood well to avoid the accident.
Supervision from expert personnel during handling chemicals also is useful to prevent any
accident from occurring.
Flammability
- If the chemicals in reboiler or heater are overheated, explosion may occur. In addition, spark can
be produced from tools or vehicles used in the process area which can lead to explosion or fire
accident.
- The vehicles and also the tools with spark resistance can only be used in the process area. All
activity which can lead to the production of sparks must be prohibited in the process area
(especially smoking).
Explosion limit
- If the oxygen content in the reactor and other equipments exceed its normal limit, explosions can
occur.
- To reduce the risk, total oxygen amount content in all these equipments should always be less
than its maximum limit. . A standard practice of ensuring oxygen content less than 2% shall be
employed prior to introduce flammable chemicals.
Hazop Analysis
8.2 Distillation Column Inlet
Intention: To transport process raw material into the distillation column.
PARAMETER: FLOW
Table : HAZOP Analysis for Node 1 (Flow)
GUIDE
WORD
DEVIATION
POSSIBLE
CAUSES
CONSEQUENCE SAFEGUARDS
NO No flow - Feed pump
failure
- Control valve
fails to close
- No raw material to
the
distillation column.
- Install flow
indicator
- Install low flow
alarm
- Install standby
pump
- Install
Emergency
Shutdown (ESD)
valve
LESS Less flow - Cavity in pump
- Partially
plugged line
- Less raw material
to the distillation
column
- Install flow
indicator
- Install low flow
alarm
- Install bypass
line valve
- Install
Emergency
Shutdown (ESD)
valve
MORE More flow - Control valve
malfunction
- More raw material
to the distillation
column.
- Install flow
indicator
- Install high flow
alarm
REVERSE Reverse Flow - Backflow due
to backpressure
- Desired flow could
not be achieved
- Install the check
valve
- Regular
inspection and
maintenance for
valve.
8.3 Heat Exchanger Outlet to the Non-oxidative Dehydrogenation Reactor
Intention: To transport process material from heat exchanger into the reactor.
PARAMETER: FLOW
Table : HAZOP Analysis for Node 2 (Flow)
GUIDE
WORD
DEVIATION
POSSIBLE
CAUSES
CONSEQUENCE SAFEGUARDS
NO No flow - Control valve
fails to
close
- No process
material to the
reactor
- No product from
the reactor.
- Install flow
indicator
- Install low
flow alarm
- Install bypass
line valve
- Install
Emergency
Shutdown
(ESD) valve
LESS Less flow - Leakage in
pipeline
- Partially
plugged
line
- Less process
material to the
reactor
- Less product
from the reactor
- Install flow
indicator
- Install low
flow alarm
- Install bypass
line valve
- Install
Emergency
Shutdown
(ESD) valve
MORE More flow - Control valve
malfunction
- More process
material to
the reactor.
- Build up pressure
in the
reactor
- Install flow
indicator
- Install high
flow alarm
- Install release
valve at reactor
REVERSE Reverse Flow - Backflow due
to
backpressure
from reactor
- Desired flow
could not be
achieved.
- Less of process
material
- Install the
check valve.
- Regular
inspection and
maintenance
for valve
CONCLUSION
The design project of the Butadiene production plant has met its objectives of producing
15,129,39600 tonne / year of Butadiene with a purity of more than 99% and is based on 330
working days and 7920 operating hours per year.
It has been proven conceptually that the setting up of a Butadiene plant in India is feasible and
crucial in order to meet the high demand of Butadiene in the Asian region. From the feasibility
research carried out, the Jamnagar or Hazira are identified to be the best location for a Butadiene
production plant. This is due to the combination of attractive features, incentives and availability
of raw material. Basic utilities such as steam and raw water are obtained easily. Moreover heavy
machinery and raw materials, fuel and all equipments can be directly delivered to Jamnagar Plant
because of Arabian Sea. Furthermore, the product can also be transported easily through marine.
The initial information of product and feed together with the reaction kinetics has been vital in
evaluating the feasibility of the chosen process route. The best method to produce Butadiene so
far has been the non-oxidative dehydrogenation reaction of n-butane to butenes and followed by
oxidative dehydrogenation of butenes to butadiene.
The process is carried out in four stages. In distillation column, the height of distillation column
is 28 m. The no. of actual trays are 56. The diameter of column is 3.5 m. In second stage n-
butane is dehydrogenated to butenes. The butenes are further dehydrogenated in oxidative
dehydrogenation reactor to 1,3 butadiene.In final stage the product 1,3 butadiene is separated
from unreacted n-butane by extractive distillation column.
As far as designing of the reactor is concerned the volume calculated for the reactor is 2.4 m3.
The diameter of the multitubular reactor is 1m. The no, of tubes are 1060.The catalyst used in
Non-oxidative dehydrogenation reactor is Pt
0.3
Sn
0.6
Cs
0.5
K
0.5
La
3.0
. While the catalyst used in
oxidative dehydrogenation reactor is Mo
12
Bi
1
Cr
3
Ni
8
Zr
1
Fe
0.1
K
0.2
. The solvent used in extractive
distillation column is DMF (dimethyl formaldehyde).
Finally the cost of the butadiene production plant is also reasonable. The Total Capital
Investment is 1,228,698,167 Rs. The Total Production Cost of the plant is 691,176,512 Rs. The
annual net profit after the income tax paid is 389899061. The payback period of the project is
2.298084225 year & the rate of return of the project is 56.41 %.
Overall, as a conclusion, the project has achieved the overall objectives for preliminary design
stages of the Butadiene production plant. For accurate design purposes, the recommendations
should be taken into consideration and applied into the design project of Butadiene production
plant.
References :
[1] Biegler L.T, Grossmann I.E and Westerberg A.W, Systematic Methods of Chemical
Process Design, Prentice Hall, United States. (1997)
[2] Bhasin M.M et al, Dehydrogenation and Oxydehydrogenation of Paraffins to Olefins,
Applied Catalyst A: General 221, 397-419 (2001)
[3] Douglas J.M, Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, Mc Graw Hill, Singapore. (1988)
[4] Dow , Propylene Oxide, http://www.dow.com/propyleneoxide/app /index.htm (2007)
[5] Geoff Wells, (1996) Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment
[6] Jackson S.D and Rugmini S., Dehydrogenation of n-butane Over Vanadia Catalysts
Supported on Alumina, Journal of Catalysts 251, 59-68 (2007)
[7] Peters M.S and Timmerhaus K.D., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, 4
th
Edition, Mc Graw Hill, Singapore.(1991)
[8] Wikipedia , http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane (2007)
[9] Schindler G.P, Walsdorff C., Harth K. Hibst H., Method for the production of butadiene
from n-butane, United States Patent.(2006)
[10] Chang J.(2006), http://www.icispricing.com/
[11] Introduction to Process Equipment Design By Bhattacharya
[12] Process Equipment Design By M.V. Joshi
[13] Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Eighth Edition [Don Green, Robert Perry] 8
th
Edition.
APPENDICES