Wcdma Ran Fundamental Issue

WCDMA RAN Fundamental N-0
Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading Without Permission

The first generation is the analog cellular mobile communication network in the time
period from the middle of 1970s to the middle of 1980s. The most important
period from the middle of 1970s to the middle of 1980s. The most important
breakthrough in this period is the concept of cellular networks put forward by the Bell
Labs in the 1970s, as compared to the former mobile communication systems. The
cellular network system is based on cells to implement frequency reuse and thus
greatly enhances the system capacity.
The typical examples of the first generation mobile communication systems are the
AMPS system and the later enhanced TACS of USA, the NMT and the others. The
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) uses the 800 MHz band of the analog
cellular transmission system and it is widely applied in North America, South America
and some Circum-Pacific countries. The TACS (Total Access Communication System)
uses the 900 MHz band. It is widely applied in Britain, Japan and some Asian
countries.
The main feature of the first generation mobile communication systems is that they
use the frequency reuse technology, adopt analog modulation for voice signals and
provide an analog subscriber channel every other 30 kHz/25 kHz.
However, their defects are also obvious:
Low utilization of the frequency spectrum
Limited types of services
No high-speed data services
Poor confidentiality and high vulnerability to interception and number
embezzlement
High equipment cost
To solve these fundamental technical defects of the analog systems, the digital
mobile communication technologies emerged and the second generation mobile
communication systems represented by GSM and IS-95 came into being in the
middle of 1980s. The typical examples of the second generation cellular mobile
communication systems are the DAMPS of USA, the IS-95 and the European GSM
system.
The GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is originated from Europe.
Designed as the TDMA standard for mobile digital cellular communications, it
supports the 64 kbps data rate and can interconnect with the ISDN. It uses the 900
MHz band while the DCS1800 system uses the 1800 MHz band. The GSM system
uses the FDD and TDMA modes and each carrier supports eight channels with the
signal bandwidth of 200 kHz.
The DAMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System) is also called the IS-54 (North
America Digital Cellular System). Using the 800 MHz bandwidth, it is the earlier of the
two North America digital cellular standards and specifies the use of the TDMA mode.
The IS-95 standard is another digital cellular standard of North America. Using the
800 MHz or 1900 MHz band, it specifies the use of the CDMA mode and has already
become the first choice among the technologies of American PCS (Personal
Communication System) networks.
Since the 2G mobile communication systems focus on the transmission of voice and
Since the 2G mobile communication systems focus on the transmission of voice and
low-speed data services, the 2.5G mobile communication systems emerged in 1996
to address the medium-rate data transmission needs. These systems include GPRS
and IS-95B.
The CDMA system has a very large capacity that is equivalent to ten or even twenty
times that of the analog systems. But the narrowband CDMA technologies come into
maturity at a time later than the GSM technologies, their application far lags behind
the GSM ones and currently they have only found large-scale commercial
applications in North America, Korea and China. The major services of mobile
communications are currently still voice services and low-speed data services.
With the development of networks, data and multimedia communications have also
witnessed rapid development; therefore, the target of the 3G mobile communication is
to implement broadband multimedia communication.
The 3G mobile communication systems are a kind of communication system that can
provide multiple kinds of high quality multimedia services and implement global
seamless coverage and global roaming. They are compatible with the fixed networks
and can implement any kind of communication at any time and any place with
portable terminals.
Put forward in 1985 by the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the 3G
mobile communication system was called the FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile
Telecommunication System) and was later renamed as IMT-2000 (International
Mobile Telecommunication-2000). The major systems include WCDMA, cdma2000
and UWC-136. On November 5, 1999, the 18th conference of ITU-R TG8/1 passed
the Recommended Specification of Radio Interfaces of IMT-2000 and the TD-SCDMA
technologies put forward by China were incorporated into the IMT-2000 CDMA TDD
part of the technical specification. This showed that the work of the TG8/1 in
formulating the technical specifications of radio interfaces in 3G mobile
communication systems had basically come into an end and the development and
application of the 3G mobile communication systems would enter a new and essential
phase.
The 3GPP is an organization that develops specifications for a 3G system based on
the UTRA radio interface and on the enhanced GSM core network.
The 3GPP2 initiative is the other major 3G standardization organization. It promotes
the CDMA2000 system, which is also based on a form of WCDMA technology. In the
world of IMT-2000, this proposal is known as IMT-MC. The major difference between
the 3GPP and the 3GPP2 approaches into the air interface specification development
is that 3GPP has specified a completely new air interface without any constraints from
the past, whereas 3GPP2 has specified a system that is backward compatible with IS-
95 systems.
ITU has allocated 230 MHz frequency for the 3G mobile communication system IMT-
2000: 1885 ~ 2025MHz in the uplink and 2110~ 2200 MHz in the downlink. Of them,
the frequency range of 1980 MHz ~ 2010 MHz (uplink) and that of 2170 MHz ~ 2200
MHz (downlink) are used for mobile satellite services. As the uplink and the downlink
bands are asymmetrical, the use of dual-frequency FDD mode or the single-frequency
TDD mode may be considered. This plan was passed in WRC92 and new additional
bands were approved on the basis of the WRC-92 in the WRC2000 conference in the
year 2000: 806 MHz ~ 960 MHz, 1710 MHz ~ 1885 MHz and 2500 MHz ~ 2690 MHz.
The WCDMA system uses the following frequency spectrum (bands other than those
specified by 3GPP may also be used): Uplink 1920 MHz ~ 1980 MHz and downlink
2110 MHz ~ 2170 MHz. Each carrier frequency has the 5M band and the duplex
spacing is 190 MHz. In America, the used frequency spectrum is 1850 MHz ~ 1910
MHz in the uplink and 1930 MHz ~ 1990 MHz in the downlink and the duplex spacing
is 80 MHz.
Compatible with abundant services and applications of 2G, 3G system has an open
integrated service platform to provide a wide prospect for various 3G services.
Features of 3G Services
3G services are inherited from 2G services. In a new architecture, new service
capabilities are generated, and more service types are available. Service
characteristics vary greatly, so each service features differently. Generally, there are
several features as follows:
Compatible backward with all the services provided by GSM.
The real-time services (conversational) such as voice service
generally have the QoS requirement.
The concept of multimedia service (streaming, interactive,
background) is introduced.
Formulated by the European standardization organization 3GPP, the core network
evolves on the basis of GSM/GPRS and can thus be compatible with the existing
GSM/GPRS networks. It can be based on the TDM, ATM and IP technologies to
evolve towards the all-IP network architecture. Based on the ATM technology, the
UTRAN uniformly processes voice and packet services and evolves towards the IP
network architecture.
The cdma2000 system is a 3G standard put forward on the basis of the IS-95
standard. Its standardization work is currently undertaken by 3GPP2. Circuit Switched
(CS) domain is adapted from the 2G IS95 CDMA network, Packet Switched (PS)
domain is A packet network based on the Mobile IP technology. Radio Access
Network (RAN) is based on the ATM switch platform, it provides abundant adaptation
layer interfaces.
The TD-SCDMA standard is put forward by the Chinese Wireless Telecommunication
Standard (CWTS) Group and now it has been merged into the specifications related
to the WCDMA-TDD of 3GPP. The core network evolves on the basis of GSM/GPRS.
The air interface adopts the TD-SCDMA mode.
In mobile communication systems, GSM adopts TDMA; WCDMA, cdma2000 and TD-
SCDMA adopt CDMA.
Frequency Division Multiple Access means dividing the whole available spectrum into
many single radio channels (transmit/receive carrier pair). Each channel can transmit
one-way voice or control information. Analog cellular system is a typical example of
FDMA structure.
Time Division Multiple Access means that the wireless carrier of one bandwidth is
divided into multiple time division channels in terms of time (or called timeslot). Each
user occupies a timeslot and receives/transmits signals within this specified timeslot.
Therefore, it is called time division multiple access. This multiple access mode is
adopted in both digital cellular system and GSM.
CDMA is a multiple access mode implemented by Spreading Modulation. Unlike
FDMA and TDMA, both of which separate the user information in terms of time and
frequency, CDMA can transmit the information of multiple users on a channel at the
same time. The key is that every information before transmission should be
modulated by different Spreading Code to broadband signal, then all the signals
should be mixed and send. The mixed signal would be demodulated by different
Spreading Code at the different receiver. Because all the Spreading Code is
orthogonal, only the information that was be demodulated by same Spreading Code
can be reverted in mixed signal.
In third generation mobile communication systems, WCDMA and cdma2000 adopt
frequency division duplex (FDD), TD-SCDMA adopts time division duplex (TDD).
WCDMA including the RAN (Radio Access Network) and the CN (Core Network). The
RAN is used to process all the radio-related functions, while the CN is used to
process all voice calls and data connections within the UMTS system, and
implements the function of external network switching and routing.
Logically, the CN is divided into the CS (Circuit Switched) Domain and the PS (Packet
Switched) Domain. UTRAN, CN and UE (User Equipment) together constitute the
whole UMTS system
A RNS is composed of one RNC and one or several Node Bs. The Iu interface is
used between RNC and CN while the Iub interface is adopted between RNC and
Node B. Within UTRAN, RNCs connect with one another through the Iur interface.
The Iur interface can connect RNCs via the direct physical connections among them
or connect them through the transport network. RNC is used to allocate and control
the radio resources of the connected or related Node B. However, Node B serves to
convert the data flows between the Iub interface and the Uu interface, and at the
same time, it also participates in part of radio resource management.
The overall structure of the WCDMA network is defined in 3GPP TS 23.002. Now,
there are the following three versions: R99, R4, R5.
3GPP began to formulate 3G specifications at the end of 1998 and beginning of 1999.
As scheduled, the R99 version would be completed at the end of 1999, but in fact it
was not completed until March, 2000. To guarantee the investment benefits of
operators, the CS domain of R99 version do not fundamentally change., so as to
support the smooth transition of GSM/GPRS/3G.
After R99, the version was no longer named by the year. At the same time, the
functions of R2000 are implemented by the following two phases: R4 and R5. In the
R4 network, MSC as the CS domain of the CN is divided into the MSC Server and the
MGW, at the same time, a SGW is added, and HLR can be replaced by HSS (not
explicitly specified in the specification).
In the R5 network, the end-to-end VOIP is supported and the core network adopts
plentiful new function entities, which have thus changed the original call procedures.
With IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem), the network can use HSS instead of HLR. In
the R5 network, HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access) is also supported, it
can support high speed data service.
In the R6 network, the HSUPA is supported which can provide UL service rate up to
5.76Mbps. And MBMS (MultiMedia Broadcast Multicast Service) is also supported.
The layer 1 supports all functions required for the transmission of bit streams
on the physical medium. It is also in charge of measurements function
consisting in indicating to higher layers, for example, Frame Error Rate (FER),
Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR), interference power and transmit power.
The layer 2 protocol is responsible for providing functions such as mapping,
ciphering, retransmission and segmentation. It is made of four sublayers: MAC
(Medium Access Control), RLC (Radio Link Control), PDCP (Packet Data
Convergence Protocol) and BMC (Broadcast/Multicast Control).
The layer 3 is split into 2 parts: the access stratum and the non access stratum.
The access stratum part is made of RRC (Radio Resource Control) entity
and duplication avoidance entity. The non access stratum part is made of CC,
MM parts.
Not shown on the figure are connections between RRC and all the other
protocol layers (RLC, MAC, PDCP, BMC and L1), which provide local inter-
layer control services.
The protocol layers are located in the UE and the peer entities are in the
NodeB or the RNC.
Protocol structures in UTRAN terrestrial interfaces are designed according to
the same general protocol model. This model is shown in above slide. The
the same general protocol model. This model is shown in above slide. The
structure is based on the principle that the layers and planes are logically
independent of each other and, if needed, parts of the protocol structure may
be changed in the future while other parts remain intact.
Horizontal Layers
The protocol structure consists of two main layers, the Radio Network
Layer (RNL) and the Transport Network Layer (TNL). All UTRAN-
related issues are visible only in the Radio Network Layer, and the
Transport Network Layer represents standard transport technology that
is selected to be used for UTRAN but without any UTRAN-specific
changes.
Vertical Planes
Control Plane
The Control Plane is used for all UMTS-specific control signaling. It
includes the Application Protocol (i.e. RANAP in Iu, RNSAP in Iur and
NBAP in Iub), and the Signaling Bearer for transporting the Application
Protocol messages. The Application Protocol is used, among other
things, for setting up bearers to the UE (i.e. the Radio Access Bearer in
Iu and subsequently the Radio Link in Iur and Iub). In the three plane
structure the bearer parameters in the Application Protocol are not
directly tied to the User Plane technology, but rather are general bearer
parameters. The Signaling Bearer for the Application Protocol may or
may not be of the same type as the Signaling Bearer for the ALCAP. It
is always set up by O&M actions.
User Plane
All information sent and received by the user, such as the coded voice
in a voice call or the packets in an Internet connection, are transported
via the User Plane. The User Plane includes the Data Stream(s), and
the Data Bearer (s) for the Data Stream(s). Each Data Stream is
characterized by one or more frame protocols specified for that
interface.
Transport Network Control Plane
The Transport Network Control Plane is used for all control signaling
within the Transport Layer. It does not include any Radio Network
Layer information. It includes the ALCAP protocol that is needed to set
up the transport bearers (Data Bearer) for the User Plane. It also
includes the Signaling Bearer needed for the ALCAP. The Transport
Network Control Plane is a plane that acts between the Control Plane
and the User Plane. The introduction of the Transport Network Control
Plane makes it possible for the Application Protocol in the Radio
Network Control Plane to be completely independent of the technology
selected for the Data Bearer in the User Plane.
About AAl2 and AAL5
Above the ATM layer we usually find an ATM adaptation layer (AAL).
Its function is to process the data from higher layers for ATM
Its function is to process the data from higher layers for ATM
transmission.
This means segmenting the data into 48-byte chunks and reassembling
the original data frames on the receiving side. There are five different
AALs (0, 1, 2, 3/4, and 5). AAL0 means that no adaptation is needed.
The other adaptation layers have different properties based on three
parameters:
Real-time requirements;
Constant or variable bit rate;
Connection-oriented or connectionless data transfer.
The usage of ATM is promoted by the ATM Forum. The Iu interface
uses two AALs: AAL2 and AAL5.
AAL2 is designed for the transmission of connection oriented,
real-time data streams with variable bit rates.
AAL5 is designed for the transmission of connectionless data
streams with variable bit rates.
Protocol Structure for Iu CS
The Iu CS overall protocol structure is depicted in above slide. The
three planes in the Iu interface share a common ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) transport which is used for all planes. The physical
layer is the interface to the physical medium: optical fiber, radio link or
copper cable. The physical layer implementation can be selected from
a variety of standard off-the-shelf transmission technologies, such as
SONET, STM1, or E1.
Iu CS Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Control Plane protocol stack consists of RANAP, on top of
Broadband (BB) SS7 (Signaling System #7) protocols. The applicable
layers are the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP), the Message
Transfer Part (MTP3-b) and SAAL-NNI (Signaling ATM Adaptation
Layer for Network to Network Interfaces).
Iu CS Transport Network Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Transport Network Control Plane protocol stack consists of the
Signaling Protocol for setting up AAL2 connections (Q.2630.1 and
adaptation layer Q.2150.1), on top of BB SS7 protocols. The applicable
BB SS7 are those described above without the SCCP layer.
Iu CS User Plane Protocol Stack
A dedicated AAL2 connection is reserved for each individual CS
service.
24
.
Protocol Structure for Iu PS
The Iu PS protocol structure is represented in above slide. Again, a
common ATM transport is applied for both User and Control Plane.
Also the physical layer is as specified for Iu CS.
Iu PS Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Control Plane protocol stack consists of RANAP, on top of
Broadband (BB) SS7 (Signaling System #7) protocols. The applicable
layers are the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP), the Message
Transfer Part (MTP3-b) and SAAL-NNI (Signaling ATM Adaptation
Layer for Network to Network Interfaces).
Iu PS Transport Network Control Plane Protocol Stack
The Transport Network Control Plane is not applied to Iu PS. The
setting up of the GTP tunnel requires only an identifier for the tunnel,
and the IP addresses for both directions, and these are already
included in the RANAP RAB Assignment messages.
Iu PS User Plane Protocol Stack
In the Iu PS User Plane, multiple packet data flows are multiplexed on
one or several AAL5 PVCs. The GTP-U (User Plane part of the GPRS
Tunneling Protocol) is the multiplexing layer that provides identities for
individual packet data flow. Each flow uses UDP connectionless
transport and IP addressing.
26 WCDMA RAN Fundamental N-27
The Iub interface is the terrestrial interface between NodeB and RNC. The
Radio Network Layer defines procedures related to the operation of the NodeB.
The Transport Network Layer defines procedures for establishing physical
connections between the NodeB and the RNC.
The Iub application protocol, NodeB application part ( NBAP ) initiates the
establishment of a signaling connection over Iub . It is divided into two
essential components, CCP and NCP.
NCP is used for signaling that initiates a UE context for a dedicated UE or
signals that is not related to specific UE. Example of NBAP-C procedure are
cell configuration , handling of common channels and radio link setup
CCP is used for signaling relating to a specific UE context.
SAAL is an ATM Adaptation Layer that supports communication between
signaling entities over an ATM link.
The user plane Iub Frame Protocol ( FP ), defined the structure of the frames
and the basic in band control procedure for every type of transport channel.
There are DCH-FP, RACH-FP, FACH-FP, HS-DSCH FP and PCH FP.
28
The transport network layer of the Iub interface consists of the transport network layer
user plane (area A), the transport network layer control plane (area B), and the
transport network layer user plane (area C).
Areas A, B, and C share the physical layer and ATM layer. Therefore, all links
in the three areas can be carried on common physical links.
Links in areas A and B are carried on SAAL links. Based on the type of carried
information, the upper layer of area A is classified into the NCP and CCPs.
Only Q.AAL2 links are carried in area B.
In area C, the user plane data is carried on AAL2 paths. The bearer at the
lower layer is the ATM PVC. Under the control of Q.AAL2, AAL2 connections
can be dynamically set up or released for the transmission of upper-layer
services. Therefore, each AAL2 path must have its corresponding controlling
Q.AAL2.
29
Iur interface connects two RNCs. The protocol stack for the Iur is shown in
above slide.
The RNSAP protocol is the signaling protocol defined for the Iur interface.
Source coding can increase the transmitting efficiency.
Channel coding can make the transmission more reliable.
Spreading can increase the capability of overcoming interference.
Through the modulation, the signals will transfer to radio signals from digital signals.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Bit : data after source coding
Symbol: data after channel coding and interleaving
Chip: data after spreading
AMR is compatible with current mobile communication system (GSM, IS-95, PDC and
so on), thus, it will make multi-mode terminal design easier.
The AMR codec offers the possibility to adapt the coding scheme to the radio channel
conditions. The most robust codec mode is selected in bad propagation conditions.
The codec mode providing the highest source rate is selected in good propagation
conditions.
During an AMR communication, the receiver measures the radio link quality and must
return to the transmitter either the quality measurements or the actual codec mode the
transmitter should use during the next frame. That exchange has to be done as fast
as possible in order to better follow the evolution of the channels quality.
Scrambling can make transmission in security.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
During the transmission, there are many interferences and fading. To guarantee
reliable transmission, system should overcome these influence through the channel
coding which includes block coding, channel coding and interleaving.
Block coding: The encoder adds some redundant bits to the block of bits and the
decoder uses them to determine whether an error has occurred during the
transmission. This is used to calculate Block Error Ratio (BLER) used in the outer
loop power control.
The CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is used for error checking of the transport
blocks at the receiving end. The CRC length that can be inserted has four different
values: 0, 8, 12, 16 and 24 bits. The more bits the CRC contains, the lower is the
probability of an undetected error in the transport block in the receiver.
Note that certain types of block codes can also be used for error correction, although
these are not used in WCDMA.
UTRAN employs two FEC schemes: convolutional codes and turbo codes. The idea
is to add redundancy to the transmitted bit stream, sO that occasional bit errors can
be corrected in the receiving entity.
The first is convolution that is used for anti-interference. Through the technology,
many redundant bits will be inserted in original information. When error code is
caused by interference, the redundant bits can be used to recover the original
information. Convolutional codes are typically used when the timing constraints are
tight. The coded data must contain enough redundant information to make it possible
to correct some of the detected errors without asking for repeats.
Turbo codes are found to be very efficient because they can perform close to the
theoretical limit set by the Shannons Law. Their efficiency is best with high data rate
services, but poor on low rate services. At higher bit rates, turbo coding is more
efficient than convolutional coding.
In WCDMA network, both Convolution code and Turbo code are used. Convolution
code applies to voice service while Turbo code applies to high rate data service.
Note that both block codes and channel codes are used in the UTRAN. The idea
behind this arrangement is that the channel decoder (either a convolutional or turbo
decoder) tries to correct as many errors as possible, and then the block decoder
(CRC check) offers its judgment on whether the resulting information is good enough
to be used in the higher layers.
Channel coding works well against random errors, but it is quite vulnerable to bursts
of errors, which are typical in mobile radio systems. The especially fast moving UE in
CDMA systems can cause consecutive errors if the power control is not fast enough
to manage the interference. Most coding schemes perform better on random data
errors than on blocks of errors. This problem can be eased with interleaving, which
spreads the erroneous bits over a longer period of time. By interleaving, no two
adjacent bits are transmitted near to each other, and the data errors are randomized.
The longer the interleaving period, the better the protection provided by the time
diversity. However, longer interleaving increases transmission delays and a balance
must be found between the error resistance capabilities and the delay introduced.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
Correlation is used to measure similarity of any two arbitrary signals. It is computed
by multiplying the two signals and then summing (integrating) the result over a
defined time windows. The two signals of figure (a) are identical and therefore their
correlation is 1 or 100 percent. In figure (b) , however, the two signals are
uncorrelated, and therefore knowing one of them does not provide any information on
the other.
By spreading, each symbol is multiplied with all the chips in the orthogonal sequence
assigned to the user. The resulting sequence is processed and is then transmitted
over the physical channel along with other spread symbols. In this figure, 4-digit
codes are used. The product of the user symbols and the spreading code is a
sequence of digits that must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the original encoded
binary signal.
The receiver dispreads the chips by using the same code used in the transmitter.
Notice that under no-noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered
without any error. In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but CDMA system employ
Forward Error Correction techniques to combat the effects of noise and enhance the
performance of the system.
When the wrong code is used for dispreading, the resulting correlation yields an
average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonal
property of the codes. Whether the wrong code is mistakenly used by the target user
or other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is
always zero because of the orthogonal property of codes.
Traditional radio communication systems transmit data using the minimum bandwidth
required to carry it as a narrowband signal. CDMA system mix their input data with a
fast spreading sequence and transmit a wideband signal. The spreading sequence is
independently regenerated at the receiver and mixed with the incoming wideband
signal to recover the original data. The dispreading gives substantial gain proportional
to the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal. The gain can be used to increase
system performance and range, or allow multiple coded users, or both. A digital bit
stream sent over a radio link requires a definite bandwidth to be successfully
transmitted and received.
For common services, the bit rate of voice call is 12.2kbps, the bit rate of video phone
is 64kbps, and the highest packet service bit rate is 384kbps(R99). After the
spreading, the chip rate of different service all become 3.84Mcps.
Spreading means increasing the bandwidth of the signal beyond the bandwidth
normally required to accommodate the information. The spreading process in UTRAN
consists of two separate operations: channelization and scrambling.
The first operation is the channelization operation, which transforms every data
symbol into a number of chips, thus increasing the bandwidth of the signal. The
number of chips per data symbol is called the Spreading Factor (SF). Channelization
codes are orthogonal codes, meaning that in ideal environment they do not interfere
each other.
The second operation is the scrambling operation. Scrambling is used on top of
spreading, so it does not change the signal bandwidth but only makes the signals
from different sources separable from each other. As the chip rate is already achieved
in channelization by the channelization codes, the chip rate is not affected by the
scrambling.
Orthogonal codes are easily generated by starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1
horizontally and vertically, and then complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is
to be continued with the newly generated block until the desired codes with the proper
length are generated. Sequences created in this way are referred as Walsh code.
Channelization uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different subscriber
physical channels. OVSF can be defined as the code tree illustrated in the following
diagram.
Channelization code is defined as Cch SF, k,, where, SF is the spreading factor of the
code, and k is the sequence of code, 0kSF-1. Each level definition length of code
tree is SF channelization code, and the left most value of each spreading code
character is corresponding to the chip which is transmitted earliest.
The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF)
codes. They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical channels.
codes. They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical channels.
They also increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps. The OVSF codes are defined using a
code tree.
In the code tree, the channelization codes are individually described by C
ch
,
SF
,
k
,
where SF is the Spreading Factor of the code and k the code number, 0 k SF-1.
A channelization sequence modulates one users bit. Because the chip rate is
constant, the different lengths of codes enable to have different user data rates. Low
SFs are reserved for high rate services while high SFs are for low rate services.
The length of an OVSF code is an even number of chips and the number of codes (for
one SF) is equal to the number of chips and to the SF value.
The generated codes within the same layer constitute a set of orthogonal codes.
Furthermore, any two codes of different layers are orthogonal except when one of the
two codes is a mother code of the other. For example C
4
,
3
is not orthogonal with C
1
,
0
and C
2
,
1
, but is orthogonal with C
2
,
0
.
SF in uplink is from 4 to 256.
SF in downlink is from 4 to 512.
For voice service (AMR), downlink SF is 128, it means there are 128 voice services
maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier;
For Video Phone (64k packet data) service, downlink SF is 32, it means there are 32
voice services maximum can be supported in one WCDMA carrier.
In addition to spreading, part of the process in the transmitter is the scrambling
operation. This is needed to separate terminals or base stations from each other.
Different scrambling codes will be planned to different cells in downlink.
Different scrambling codes will be allocated to different UEs in uplink.
The scrambling code is always applied to one 10 ms frame.
In UMTS, Gold codes are chosen for their very low peak cross-correlation.
There are totally 512 primary scrambling codes defined by 3GPP. They are further
divided into 64 primary scrambling code groups. There are 8 primary scrambling
codes in every group. Each cell is allocated with only one primary scrambling code.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
A data-modulation scheme defines how the data bits are mixed with the carrier signal,
which is always a sine wave. There are three basic ways to modulate a carrier signal
in a digital sense: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and
phase shift keying (PSK).
In ASK the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified by the digital signal.
In FSK the frequency of the carrier signal is modified by the digital signal.
The PSK family is the most widely used modulation scheme in modern cellular
systems. There are many variants in this family, and only a few of them are
mentioned here.
In binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation, each data bit is transformed into a
separate data symbol. The mapping rule is 1 > + 1 and 0 > 1. There are only two
possible phase shifts in BPSK, 0 and radians.
NRZ means none return zero.
The quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation has four phases: 0, /2, ,
and 3/2 radians. Two data bits are transformed into one complex data symbol; A
symbol is any change (keying) of the carrier.
The UTRAN air interface uses QPSK modulation in the downlink, although HSDPA
may also employ 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16QAM). 16QAM requires
good radio conditions to work well. As seen, with 16QAM also the amplitude of the
signal matters.
As explained, in QPSK one symbol carries two data bits; in 16QAM each symbol
includes four bits. Thus, a QPSK system with a chip rate of 3.84Mcps could
theoretically transfer 2 3.84 = 7.68 Mbps, and a 16QAM system could transfer 4
3.84 Mbps = 15.36 Mbps. In 3GPP also the usage of 64QAM with HSDPA has been
studied.
Bit, Symbol, Chip
A mobile communication channel is a multi-path fading channel and any transmitted
signal reaches a receive end by means of multiple transmission paths, such as direct
transmission, reflection, scatter, etc.
Furthermore, with the moving of a mobile station, the signal amplitude, delay and
phase on various transmission paths vary with time and place. Therefore, the levels of
received signals are fluctuating and unstable and these multi-path signals, if overlaid,
will lead to fast fading. Fast fading conforms to Rayleigh distribution. The mid-value
field strength of fast fading has relatively gentle change and is called slow fading.
Slow fading conforms to lognormal distribution.
Diversity technology means that after receiving two or more input signals with
mutually uncorrelated fading at the same time, the system demodulates these signals
and adds them up. Thus, the system can receive more useful signals and overcome
fading.
Diversity technology is an effective way to overcome overlaid fading. Because it can
be selected in terms of frequency, time and space, diversity technology includes
frequency diversity, time diversity and space diversity.
Time diversity: Channel coding
Frequency diversity: WCDMA is a kind of frequency diversity. The signal energy is
distributed on the whole bandwidth.
Space diversity: using two antennas
The RAKE receiver is a technique which uses several baseband correlators to
individually process multipath signal components. The outputs from the different
correlators are combined to achieve improved reliability and performance.
When WCDMA system is designed for cellular system, the inherent wide-bandwidth
signals with their orthogonal Walsh functions were natural for implementing a RAKE
receiver. In WCDMA system, the bandwidth is wider than the coherence bandwidth of
the cellular. Thus, when the multi-path components are resolved in the receiver, the
signals from different paths are uncorrelated with each other. The receiver can then
combine them using some combining schemes. So with RAKE receiver WCDMA
system can use the multi-path characteristics of the channel to get signal with better
quality.

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