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February 1999

DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES


VOLUME 2 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:
DESIGN
(SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SPECIAL STRUCTURES)
SECTION 1 MATERIAL
SUBSTRUCTURES
PART 7
BA 80/99
USE OF ROCK BOLTS
SUMMARY
This Advice Note covers the design, construction and
testing of rock bolts. Some information provided is also
applicable to similar ground support systems such as
rock dowels and cable bolts.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE
1. This is a new document to be incorporated into
the Manual.
2. Insert BA 80/99 into Volume 2, Section 1, Part 7.
3. Archive this sheet as appropriate.
Note: A quarterly index with a full set of Volume
Contents Pages is available separately from The
Stationery Office Ltd.
ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
BA 80/99
Use of Rock Bolts
THE HIGHWAYS AGENCY
THE SCOTTISH OFFICE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT
THE WELSH OFFICE
Y SWYDDFA GYMREIG
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR
NORTHERN IRELAND
DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES
Summary: This Advice Note covers the design, construction and testing of rock bolts.
Some information provided is also applicable to similar ground support
systems as rock dowels and cable bolts.
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REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS
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amendments amendments
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VOLUME 2 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:
DESIGN
(SUBSTRUCTURES AND
SPECIAL STRUCTURES)
SECTION 1 MATERIAL
SUBSTRUCTURES
PART 7
BA 80/99
USE OF ROCK BOLTS
Contents
Chapter
1. Introduction
2. Uses of Rock Bolts
3. Types of Rock Bolts
4. Design
5. Construction details
6. References
7. Enquiries
DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES
February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
1. INTRODUCTION
1/1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Scope
1.1.1 This Advice Note covers the design, construction
and testing of rock bolts. Some of the information
provided is also applicable to similar ground support
systems such as rock dowels and cable bolts. It is
intended to give the reader an introduction to the
potential uses and benefits of this technique for ground
support. This document does not cover the design of
structures supported by rock bolts.
1.1.2 The British Standard Code of Practice for ground
anchorages (BS 8081: 1989) provides comprehensive
information on the design, construction and testing of
anchorage systems. BD 71 (DMRB 2.1.6) covers the use
of ground anchorages for highway works. The range of
application of each of these documents excludes rock
bolts but they all state that some of the information they
provide may be applicable to particular elements of the
design, construction and testing of rock bolts. Indeed BS
8081: 1989 has sections that cover the design and use of
rock bolts within the overall context of ground
anchorage systems.
Equivalence
1.2.1 The construction of rock bolts will normally be
carried out under contracts incorporating the
Specification for Highway Works (MCHW Volume 1).
In such cases, products conforming to equivalent
standards of technical specifications of other member
states of the European Economic Area, and tests
undertaken in other states of the European Economic
Area will be acceptable in accordance with the 104 and
105 series of clauses of that specification. Any contract
not containing these clauses must contain suitable
clauses of mutual recognition having the same effect
regarding which advice should be sought.
Rock bolts
1.3.1 A rock bolt is a short, low capacity reinforcement
comprising a bar (or tube) fixed into rock and tensioned
to a predetermined load. Some of the components of a
rock bolt are defined in Figure 1.1. Rock bolts are
usually less than 6m long and rarely longer than 10m.
Their working load is typically between 150 and 200kN
and they would normally be formed from high yield steel
bars with diameters up to 32mm. However, but
unusually, working loads of up to 300kN may be
specified; typically these would be formed from high
yield steel bars having diameters up to 40mm.
1.3.2 The types of rock bolt commonly used for civil
engineering works include:
(i) Mechanical bolts - typically these have a wedge
shaped shell assembly which, when expanded,
anchors them into the drillhole.
(ii) Cement grouted bolts - typically these are formed
by inserting the bar into a drillhole filled with
grout.
(iii) Two-speed resin bonded bolts - with these the bar
is fixed (and then stressed) within a fast setting
resin at the distal end and subsequently bonded
along the remainder of its length by a slower
setting resin.
Typical arrangements of these types are shown in
Figures 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 respectively.
1.3.3 Rock bolts are used widely to improve the stability
and load bearing characteristics of a rock mass. Often
they are used to stabilise relatively small blocks of rocks
in cuttings, slopes and underground excavations such as
tunnels, caverns and mines. They can be used on their
own or in conjunction with other support systems such
as ground anchorages.
1.3.4 The proximal end of the bar may be threaded so
that a nut and faceplate can be attached; the plate may
provide local support to the rock surface and allow the
attachment of mesh reinforcement which may be
required for a shotcrete finish.
Rock dowels
1.4.1 A rock dowel comprises a bar which is inserted in
a drillhole and fixed along its entire length. Movement of
the rock surrounding the drillhole is relied upon to
induce tension in the dowel and thereby strengthen the
mass as a whole.
Cable bolts
1.5.1 Cable bolts utilise bundles of steel wires or
fibreglass rods to form a fixed anchorage at depth. The
inherent flexibility of cable bolts allows long unjointed
bolts to be installed where there are cramped working
conditions or where access is difficult.
Durability
1.6.1 BD 71 (DMRB 2.1.6) specifies that permanent
ground anchorages must be provided with a double
corrosion protection system sufficient to provide a
service life of 120 years; such a system requires the
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1/2
Chapter 1
Introduction
provision of two physical barriers to protect the steel
tendon from corrosion. Details of such systems are given
in BD 71 (DMRB 2.1.6) and BS 8081: 1989. Rock bolts
are not provided with a similar standard of protection as
given to ground anchorages because;
(i) rock bolts are formed from high yield or mild
steels rather than the high tensile prestressing
grades of steel that are commonly used for ground
anchorages; the latter are more susceptible to
stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement,
(ii) rock bolts provide local support at a multitude of
points, whereas ground anchorages support much
higher loads at wider spacings, and thus the
failure of a bolt is much less likely to lead to the
catastrophic collapse of the supported structure.
1.6.2 Rock bolts in new permanent structures shall be
designed for a service life of 120 years but in structural
maintenance applications, slope stabilisation and
temporary works the service life should be compatible
with the needs of those works. Corrosion protection
should take account of the aggressivity of the ground
and groundwater, the required service life and the
consequences of failure.
Definitions
1.7.1 The following definitions apply to common terms
used in this Advice Note; other terms are defined as they
arise or in the references quoted. Many of the component
parts of a rock bolt are shown in Figures 1.1 to 1.4.
1.7.2 A Rock bolt is a short, low capacity reinforcement
comprising a bar fixed into rock and subsequently
tensioned to a predetermined load.
1.7.3 The Bolt head usually comprises a faceplate, nut
and washer: a cap to the nut may also be included. It
transmits the load from the tendon to the rock face or
structure requiring support.
1.7.4 Distal the end situated furthest from the bolt
head.
1.7.5 Proximal the end situated nearest to the bolt
head.
1.7.6 The Tendon, or shank, is that part of the rock bolt
that transmits the tensile load from the anchor to the bolt
head.
1.7.7 The Design anchor length is the length over which
the tensile load is designed to be transmitted to the
surrounding ground.
1.7.8 The Free length is the distance between the
proximal end of the design anchor length and the bolt
head.
1.7.9 The Tendon bond length is the length of tendon
that transmits the applied tensile load to the surrounding
grout.
1.7.10 The Free tendon length is the length of tendon
that is decoupled from the surrounding grout.
1.7.11 Primary grout is a thin fluid mortar placed or
injected prior to the stressing of the bolt.
1.7.12 Secondary grout is a thin fluid mortar injected
following the stressing of the bolt.
1.7.13 Debonding is the breakdown of bond at an
interface.
1.7.14 Decoupling is the separation of components to
provide, ideally, a frictionless interface; for example the
separation of the free tendon length from the secondary
grout by a greased sheath.
1.7.15 The Proof load is the maximum pull out load to
which a bolt is subjected during stressing.
1.7.16 The In-service load is that load specified to be
carried by a bolt throughout its service life.
1.7.17 The Faceplate is usually a flat steel plate that
distributes the load from the rock bolt to the rock face or
structure requiring support.
1.7.18 A Cable bolt is a bolt comprising a number of
steel wires or fibreglass rods formed into a strand or
cable.
1.7.19 A Rock dowel is a short, low capacity
reinforcement comprising a bar (usually of steel), which
is bonded by grouting over its full length at installation;
it is not tensioned to a predetermined load.
Implementation
1.8.1 This Advice Note should be used forthwith on all
future schemes for the construction, improvement and
maintenance of trunk roads, including motorways. It
shall also apply to schemes currently in preparation
provided that, in the opinion of the Overseeing
Organisation, this would not result in significant
additional expense or delay progress. Design
Organisations shall confirm its application to particular
schemes with the Overseeing Organisation.
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Fig.1.1 Components of typical rock bolts
Proximal end
Drill hole
Bar, tendon or shank
(fully bonded after stressing)
Secondary grout
Primary grout
Distal end
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a. Fully bonded rock bolt
Face plate
Bolt head
Nut and washer
End anchorage
b. Mechanical expansion shell rock bolt for temporary works
Chapter 1
Introduction
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1/4
Fig 1.2 Schematic view of a typical mechanical rock bolt
Expansion anchor
Tendon
Grout return tube
Face plate
Spherical washer
Shortcrete lining
Grout tube
Chapter 1
Introduction
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
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Face plate
Spherical washer
Grout inlet
tube
Grout seal
Grout
tubes
Deformed shank
to form anchor
Grout return
tube
Self-locking
spherical washer
with integral nut
Resin mixed with
hardener by rotation
of bar
Slow setting
resin
Fast setting
resin
Face plate
Fig 1.3 Schematic view of a typical cement grouted rock bolt
Fig 1.4 Schematic view of a typical two-speed resin bonded rock bolt
Chapter 1
Introduction
Volume 2 Section 1
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2. USES OF ROCK BOLTS
2/1
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
Underground excavations
2.1.1 Rock bolts are installed:
(i) to support discrete wedges or blocks of rock that
would otherwise be free to fall or slide;
(ii) to reinforce the crown or sidewalls of a tunnel:
(iii) in older designs rock bolts were used as part of
temporary support, but more recently as part of
the permanent support system
Typical support schemes are shown schematically in
Figures 2.1 to 2.4 and in detail in Figure 2.5.
Rock excavations, slopes and faces
2.2.1 For highway works, rock bolts are predominantly
used to stabilise relatively small instabilities. Rock bolts
can give support to discrete unstable blocks bounded by
discontinuities of various types. Where there is
widespread instability a gridage of rock bolts has been
used to improve the overall integrity and stability of the
rock mass, sometimes in combination with netting, or
where bolts/dowels (and cables) have been used to hold
rock fall protection (ie at the crest and toe). Common
situations are shown in Figure 2.6. Future usage could
be envisaged in areas of maintenance and improvement
schemes (ie rock slope protection)
A typical stabilisation scheme for a highway cutting is
shown in Figure 2.7. As shown here an integrated
approach is commonly used in such works combining
ground anchorages and rock bolts with small-scale
buttressing and dental concrete.
Other applications
2.3.1 Rock bolts have been used to restrain light
structures, such as gantry signs, which are subject to
overturning or tension forces.
2.3.2 Rock bolts have also been used to strengthen or
repair earth retaining walls, see for example Figure 3.12.
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2/2
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
Fig 2.1 Use of rock bolts to support wedges in underground excavations
(i) For roof support (ii) For side support
(iii) Location of rock wedges requiring support
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Fig 2.3 Rock bolting to generate beam effect in layered strata
Fig 2.2 Arrangement of rock bolts to support roof excavation
Joint planes Rock bolts
Asymmetric distribution of rock bolts to take account of variation in structural
features of rock
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
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2/4
Fig 2.4 Compression zone or arch formed by tensioned rock bolts
Compression Zone
Arch created
by bolting Limit of loosening
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 2.5 Typical outline scheme defining pattern of rock bolting for a tunnel
through jointed rock, after Hoek and Brown (1980)
Optional
bolt to
improve
stability
of this wall
Possible
overbreak
Bolts radial
from this point
Angle bolts
across bedding
Orthogonal joints
average spacing
about 1.5m
Use spherical
washer to angle
bolts - angle not
to exceed 15
Bedding inclined at 15,
average spacing about 1m
Compression stress in shaded zone
45
8 metres
4m long 25mm
bolts on 2 x 2m
grid.
Tension to
15 tonnes &
grout
1
1

m
e
t
r
e
s
4

m
e
t
r
e
s
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 2.6 Use of rock bolts to stabilise blocks on a slope
Cut slope
Potential toppling
after removal of key
block
Potentially unstable
key block
Bedding planes
Possible alignment
of rock bolt to
stabilise
key block
Joint
planes
(i) Key wedge in rock slope
(ii) Bolting of unstable blocks in rock face
(iii) Bolting to resist toppling of blocks of rock
Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
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Chapter 2
Uses of Rock Bolts
2/7
Fig 2.7 Details of a typical slope stabilisation scheme, Anon (1972)
R.C. retaining wall variable
height & plan line
Rock Bolts
Disturbed or weathered
material to be trimmed
off whree necessary
W
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V
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Jointing normal
to bedding - stable
Unfavourable jointing creating
unstable wedges or masses
of rock to be supported
by rock bolts
Solution effects in limestone.
Infilling removed and replaced
by concrete with masonry
facing
Coal measures in Limestone-
Dolomite thrust interface
material hacked out
and replaced with
reinforced concrete
tied with rock
bolts and masonry
faced
Slope of S/B Rock face vaults 1or 1
1
/
2
to 2 or 1
Note: Weathered rock zone also effects top of median face
1
2
L
IM
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T
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B
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D
D
IN
G
Dip of limestone varies
10 to 40 with strike
between 0 and 25
to motorway
36
(i) Range of measures used to stabilise a rock slope
Mass concrete retaining wall R C retaining wall Anchored retaining wall
Thrust Crib walls
R C wall tied back to sound
rock with rock bolts
Face rock bolted
where necessary
R C retaining wall
Crib wall
60 Ton ground anchors
at 5ft centres
Coal measures
pennant sandstone and shales
80 Ton ground anchors
at 10ft centres
T
H
R
U
S
T
F
A
U
L
T
LIMESTONE
ELEVATION OF CUT VIEWED FROM NORTH SIDE
MOTORWAY IN ROCK CUTTING
(ii) Overall view of a stabilisation scheme
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3. TYPES OF ROCK BOLTS
3/1
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Introduction
3.1.1 Because they are installed for similar purposes,
there are inevitably similarities between rock bolts and
other types of support devices, such as rock dowels,
cable bolts and ground anchorages. Some of the
information given in this chapter is relevant to dowels
rather than bolts but has been included to provide a
comprehensive coverage of the range of low capacity
rock support methods.
3.1.2 Details of proprietary devices and materials are
given in this Advice Note, but the presence or absence of
information for a particular device or material should
not be taken to imply that it is recommended or not
recommended for use. Further details of the types and
uses of rock bolts and similar devices have been
provided by Hoek and Brown (1980), by Hobst and
Zajic (1983) and by Stillborg (1994).
Types of anchor
3.2.1 Rock bolts and dowels can be divided into three
broad categories, according to how they are anchored
into the rock mass.
(i) Mechanical - where the load is transferred to the
rock through some form of mechanical device.
Typically this is achieved through the use of
expanding wedge systems or deformable steel
tubes placed in intimate contact with the sides of
the drillhole.
(ii) Cement grouted - where a cementitious grout is
used to anchor the bolt into the rock. Such grouts
are usually pumpable, but systems based on the
use of capsules have also been developed.
Cementitious grouts are commonly used for
secondary grouting works.
(iii) Resin bonded - typically these employ polyester
resins to anchor the bolt into the rock, but epoxy
resins have also been used. In most cases, for
convenience, the grout is supplied in pre-packed
sausage-like capsules which contain the resin and
hardener in separate compartments (Exchem
Mining & Construction Ltd). The action of
rotating the tendon during installation ruptures the
capsules and mixes their contents. Resinous
grouts have been used in pumped or poured forms
but these are less common.
3.2.2 Mechanical anchors
(i) Expansion shell anchor
With an expansion shell anchor a wedge attached
to the shank is pulled into a conical shell forcing it
to expand against the walls of the drillhole; a
typical arrangement is shown in Figure 3.1.
This type of bolt can be tensioned immediately
after installation and grouted at a later stage when
short-term movements have ceased. The
expansion shell anchor has a proven track record
in competent rocks where relatively high bolt
loads can be sustained but systems have been
developed for use in soft rocks by increasing the
surface area of contact through an increase in the
length or diameter of the shells or by the use of
coupled assemblies. A range of expansion shell
systems is shown in Figure 3.2.
Often such bolts are used as a permanent support
and in such cases secondary grouting would be
employed to provide the tendon with some
protection against corrosion. Various means have
been developed to achieve this, but typically a
rubber bung is inserted in the collar of the
drillhole to centralise the bolt and act as a seal
against grout leakage. Alternatively, a rapid set
mortar can be used to seal the collar - and often in
such cases the mortar is extended to bed down the
faceplate. Grout can be injected into the drillhole
by various arrangements. For upward facing
holes, the grout is injected into the collar end and
the return pipe is extended to the base of the hole;
grout injection is stopped when all the air has
been displaced and grout flows from the return
tube. For downward facing holes, grout is pumped
to its base through a full-length injection pipe and
exits at its collar. The shank of the bolt can be
formed from a tube, as in the Titan injection
anchor (Ischebeck Titan Ltd), which makes it far
easier to inject the secondary grout. In upward
facing drillholes the centre bore acts as the air
bleed and grout relief vent, whereas in
downwardly inclined holes it acts as the grout
injection tube. Details of typical arrangements are
shown in Figure 3.1.
Skilled workmanship and close supervision are
required to install expansion shell systems
correctly. It is essential that the size of the
expansion shell anchor is suitable for the diameter
of the drillhole.
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Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
(ii) Full length expansion anchor
A form of this type of anchor, developed by
Worley Co. of Philadelphia, is shown in Figure
3.3: technical details of the bolt can be obtained
through Mine Roof Support Systems. As the nut
is tightened against the washer, the ramps along
the tendon expand the anchor against the sides of
the drillhole. Undoing the nut and hammering on
the end of the bolt reverses the process and allows
the anchor to be loosened and removed; provided
that it is not too deformed or corroded the device
may be reused. Because it cannot be grouted, and
hence protected from deterioration, this device is
only suitable for short-term applications.
Furthermore the device cannot be tensioned so
that load is transferred to its distal end. It is
therefore usually installed as soon as possible
after the excavation of the drillhole, i.e. before
any movement of the rock has occurred due to
relaxation.
(iii) Split set stabiliser
As shown in Figure 3.4 this device, which was
developed by Scott (1976) for Ingersoll-Rand Co.
Ltd, comprises a split steel tube which is driven
into a slightly smaller diameter drillhole. The
spring action of the compressed tube applies a
radial force against the rock surface and generates
a frictional resistance along the interface. The
split tube cannot be tensioned; its support action
is developed by movement of the rock and so to be
effective it must be installed as soon as possible
following excavation. The effectiveness of this
method is critically dependent upon the diameter
of the drillhole; most of the failures that occur
during installation are due to the diameter being
either too small or too large. The split tube can
deteriorate and therefore the device is unsuitable
for long-term use.
The Split set system has found worldwide usage
in the mining industry, but is not commonly used
in civil engineering works.
(iv) Swellex frictional anchor
In the Swellex system, which was devised in
Sweden by Atlas Copco Construction and Mining
Ltd, a collapsed steel tube is expanded by water
pressure to fit the drillhole. This expansion leads
to some reduction in the length of tube, which
effectively loads the faceplate and thereby
provides immediate support. Details of the system
are shown in Figure 3.5.
Corrosion of the tube can be a problem, and
although a coated tube is available its long-term
performance is unproven. Whilst commonly used
worldwide for mining applications, the device has
not found much use in civil engineering works.
(v) Slotted bolt and wedge
Although this type of bolt is now rarely used in
civil engineering works in the UK, details are
included for completeness. As shown in Figure
3.6, the device comprises a tube with a short cut
at its distal end: a wedge is fitted into this slotted
end. The wedge is driven into the end of the tube
by pushing or driving the assembly against the
base of the drillhole. The wedge expands the end
of the tube thereby anchoring it to the rock.
Because of the small contact area between the
expanded section of the tube and the rock, local
crushing of the rock can occur with consequent
slip of the anchor; this is a particular problem
when the intact rock strength is less than about
10MPa. The device probably represents the
earliest type of mechanically anchored rock bolt,
but it has been superseded by the more versatile
mechanical expansion shell anchors and capsule
resin systems. Early devices used in the mining
industry were manufactured from timber, but
these have been superseded by ones manufactured
from fibreglass and from steel - details of these
have been given by Hoek and Brown (1980).
3.2.3 Cement grouted anchors
Where time and conditions allow, rock bolts may be
formed using pumpable cementitious grouts. The
advantages of such grouts are their ability to develop a
good bond in poorer quality rocks, their flexibility of use
and the relative cheapness of the components: methods
of mixing and placing are also likely to be familiar to
site operatives. A disadvantage is the time required
between the installation of the bar, its tensioning, and
any subsequent secondary grouting operations: these
delays limit production rates in tunnelling works for
example.
A two-stage grouting process can be adopted whereby
the anchor length is formed and the bolt tensioned when
the grout has achieved the required strength, followed by
secondary grouting to bond the remainder of the shank.
However this is a lengthy process and often is not well
suited to construction works that require rapid cycle
times, such as the drill, blast, excavate and install
support cycle of tunnelling operations. Details of a bolt
installed through a two stage process are shown in
Figure 1.3. Alternatively the free length of the bolt can
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Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
be decoupled, for example with a smooth plastic sleeve,
and a single stage grouting process adopted as used for
the installation of a low capacity ground anchorage. In
such cases the free length of the tendon is not bonded to
the surrounding rock, and for permanent works attention
has to be paid to the corrosion protection of the exposed
shank and the threaded connections - corrosion at these
locations would result in the loss of the bolt.
Systems have been developed which utilise prefabricated
dry cement capsules, which themselves contain wax
sealed water micro-capsules. The action of installing and
rotating the bar crushes the capsules and micro-capsules
to form a rapid hardening cement grout. This system
was developed by the US Bureau of Mines in the late
1970s (Hoppe, 1979), but current usage of the system is
unknown. Pre-packaged cement capsules with permeable
outer covering have also been used in the mining
industry. The capsules are soaked in water for a few
minutes and the hydrating mix is then injected into the
drillhole, using a purpose built high pressure piston
pump, prior to installing the bar. However to date such
systems have not been widely used in civil engineering
works.
(i) Perfobolt system
As shown in Figure 3.7, this system comprises
two perforated half tubes which are packed with
cement mortar and then wired together and
inserted into the drillhole; half tubes of fine-
meshed wire have also been used (Kennedy et al,
1973). The mortar is extruded as the central bar
is pushed down the tube. A stiff mortar or grout
can be used to control the volume extruded when
the device is installed in an upwardly inclined
drillhole.
The system has been used mainly to form
(untensioned) rock dowels, used for example as
roof fixings, but it has also been used to form the
anchor of a (tensioned) rock bolt.
(ii) Untensioned grouted dowel
This type of dowel is formed simply by pumping a
thick grout into the drillhole, using a hand pump
or a mono pump, and pushing a steel bar into the
grout, excess grout being extruded out of the
mouth of the drillhole. Thixotropic admixtures
can be added to the grout to reduce run-out. A
faceplate and nut can be added if required, as
shown in Figure 3.8. Because the tendon cannot
be tensioned it must be installed before any
significant deformation of the rock mass has taken
place. Resins or grouts are increasingly being
used as the fixing medium because these offer
support almost immediately following installation.
These dowels are cheaper than the Perfobolt
system described above and are widely used as
low capacity supports, for example, to steel mesh
and ventilation trunking in tunnels.
3.2.4 Resin grouted anchors
Resin bonded anchor systems most commonly utilise
capsules which contain both the resin and catalyst, the
catalyst being held within the resin in a glass or plastic
container. The essential features of this system are
shown in Figure 1.4. The capsules are placed within the
drillhole and the bar is then inserted and rotated in the
hole thereby breaking the capsules and containers and
mixing their contents. In most systems capsules
containing a fast setting resin are placed at the distal end
of the drillhole, so that the bolt can be tensioned within a
few minutes of mixing, whilst a slow setting resin mix
fills the remainder of the hole to bond the bar after
tensioning.
In some applications pre-mixed resins have been injected
on site: the advantages of this are that it requires less
expensive bulk materials and is more suitable for larger
diameter drillholes (to bulky, encapsulated bolts) which
require higher volumes of resin. Such bolts are often
used in conjunction with secondary grouting techniques
but close control and supervision are essential with such
techniques. For large-scale production works, systems
have been used in which both the resin and catalyst are
supplied to the drillhole by a proportioning pump via
separate delivery lines. A nozzle at the injection point
mixes the components as they are injected into the
drillhole and the bar is inserted into the setting resin.
Virtually all currently used resin-based systems employ
polyester resins: these have the advantage over epoxy
based systems in that the mixing and proportioning of
the resin and hardener are not so critical to its successful
performance. Furthermore whilst the setting reactions of
both types of resin are exothermic, the performance of
epoxy resins are more adversely affected by low
temperatures at mixing. A disadvantage of polyester
resins is that they exhibit a small reduction in volume on
curing and so they are not usually considered suitable
for smooth sided drillholes such as produced, for
example, by coring techniques; rotary percussive drilling
techniques are usually required for such resins.
The gelling time of a resin is considerably affected by
temperature. In hot conditions the curing process is
accelerated so that the shelf life and the available
working time of a resin are greatly reduced. The limited
shelf life of the materials must be considered when
storing and rotating stock for a particular site.
Conversely the rate of curing is reduced in cold
conditions, ceasing altogether at temperatures close to
zero and this temperature dependency must be addressed
at the work site.
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Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
The great advantages of resin-based systems are that
they are simple to use and they set relatively quickly
which maintains a rapid cycle time in a construction
sequence where the cost of the material may be a
relatively inexpensive part of the process. Depending
upon the quality of the rock, this type of bolt can
mobilise high lock-off loads. With appropriate setting
times, a one-shot installation can produce a fully grouted
and tensioned rock bolt, and such bolts are widely used
for permanent works.
3.2.5 Cable bolts
Cable bolts have been formed from seven-wire steel
prestressing strand and also from bundles of individual
glass fibre rods. With the former, a single 12.7 or
15.2mm steel strand having a breaking load of between
200 and 300kN is commonly used. The individual wires
of the strand are unwound from around the king-wire
and bushed (bird-caged) over the load transfer length
into a series of nodes and antinodes, as shown in Figure
3.9. Fibreglass rods are typically 6mm in diameter and 6
to 12 of these are formed into a bundle: the bundle is
usually fabricated on suitable spacers to form a node/
antinode configuration similar to that used for steel
strands.
Cable bolts are usually fixed in place with cementitious
grouts, but pumpable resinous grouts have also been
used. The flexibility of these types of bolt allows them to
be used in long unjointed lengths in areas of restricted
access.
Types of tendon
3.3.1 Steel bars
Steel bars are by far the commonest form of tendon used
for rock bolts. In principle any suitable steel may be
utilised but, because of the potential loss in section due
to corrosion, it is uncommon for bars of less than 20mm
in diameter to be used, particularly in permanent works.
Details of the type, size and yield strengths of steels that
have been used for rock bolts in the UK are presented in
Table 3.1.
(i) High yield steel
Currently in the UK, tendons are most commonly
formed from high yield steels (to BS 4449: 1997),
which have a characteristic yield strength of
460N/mm. The characteristic rupture and yield
strength for a range of Grade 460 bars are given
in Table 3.2.
The bar must be threaded at the proximal end to
allow tensioning of the bolt and for a nut and
faceplate to be attached. The distal end may be
threaded for attaching mechanical expansion
shells or for coupling and extending the bars.
Such threads are usually formed by machining the
ribs off the end of the bar and machine-cutting the
thread. This removes material and therefore
reduces the allowable design strength of the bolt.
Table 3.3 gives details of the characteristic
rupture and yield strengths for a range of standard
cut thread-forms used with Grade 460 bars.
Alternatively, rolled threads can be provided
which, because they do not remove material,
retain the full strength of the bar. Such threads
can be formed on a bar after machining off the
ribs, however a coarse thread can be rolled
directly onto a ribbed bar to provide a thread as
strong as the parent bar. A common and
convenient alternative to rolled or cut threads is to
form a coarse continuous thread-like
configuration onto the surface of the deformed bar
during the rolling process. Such bars would have
characteristic yield and ultimate strengths of
500N/mm and 550 to 600N/mm respectively.
Examples of this form of bar are Dywidag
Gewi-Steel (Dywidag-Systems International Ltd)
and Macalloy Mac500 (M
c
Calls Special Products
Ltd): data for these products are given in Tables
3.4 and 3.5 respectively. Couplers, end nuts and
fittings are available for all the various forms of
thread.
(ii) Mild steel
Mild steel bars are rarely used for rock bolts
mainly because they are more expensive per kN of
load carried than high yield bars. In addition, mild
steel bars are formed with a smooth rather than a
deformed surface and hence generate a lower bond
stress between the tendon and any surrounding
grout. However, for reference purposes, the
characteristic rupture and yield strengths for a
range of cut and rolled threaded bars are provided
in Table 3.6.
(iii) Stainless steel
Austenitic stainless steel bars (Grade 302, 304 or
316 to BS 970: various parts and dates or BS
6744: 1986), with diameters of between 16 and
40mm have been used for rock bolts. Cut or rolled
threads can be provided to such bars. The
characteristic rupture and yield strengths for a
range of products are given in Table 3.7.
(iv) High tensile steel
Because they require protection against corrosion,
prestressing quality high tensile steel bars are not
commonly used for rock bolts particularly for
permanent works. Furthermore, for the majority
of diameters available, the bars are over-strong
for most rock bolting applications.
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Chapter 3
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The range of standard high tensile bars include the
Dywidag (Dywidag-Systems International Ltd)
and Macalloy (M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd)
systems, which are both used extensively for
ground anchorages, prestressed and
post-tensioned structures. Details of the physical
properties of these bars are given in Tables 3.8
and 3.9 respectively. Stainless steel Macalloy
bars (M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd) have also
been used for some contracts; and data for these
bars are given in Table 3.10.
3.3.2 Glass fibre composites
In recent years, glass fibre reinforced composite
materials (GFRC) have developed to occupy a
significant niche for a range of structural applications,
particularly where its non-corrodible property is valued.
GFRC and GRP (glass reinforced plastic) rock bolts
were originally developed for the coal mining industry to
meet the need for a strong but temporary reinforcement
to an advancing face or a sidewall, which could be
subsequently excavated by tunnelling and cutting
machines without damage to the cutting teeth. For this
application alone, over half a million GRP bolts have
been used in the British coal industry. Other higher
strength fibres can be used, such as aramid or carbon
fibres, but these materials are usually too expensive for
normal civil engineering usage.
A composite bar consists of thousands of continuous
glass fibres laid parallel to one another and encased in a
matrix of polyester or epoxy resin. Typically the
composite is manufactured by a continuous pultrusion
process which produces bars having diameters ranging
from 1mm to in excess of 20mm. As an example, a
7.5mm diameter bar might contain about 64,000
individual fibres which have a mean diameter of 25
microns (i.e. 25x10
-3
mm). The volume of fibre varies
from between 45% to greater than 75% of the
composite: the percentage varying according to the
manufacturer and application.
A range of Polystal GFRC bars (Miesseler and Preis,
undated Polystal Composites GmbH), including plain
and epoxy-coated bars, and Durglass FL bars round,
hollow, flats, Y and patented structural sections, (Sireg
Spa) have been used for rock bolting and soil nailing
applications: the components for the latter are shown in
Figure 3.10. Usually such bars are manufactured with a
central hole which is used as a tremie pipe to allow grout
to be pumped to the bottom of the drillhole. GFRC tubes
are also manufactured, in this case using glass fibres
having a diameter of about of 3.5 microns. Data for
glass fibre products are provided in Table 3.11 along
with, for comparative purposes, data for carbon and
aramid fibre composites and high yield steel. However,
because GFRC products are currently under
development, it would be prudent to confirm the
properties of a particular product prior to design and
use.
One of the difficulties with GFRC bolts is the gripping
of the tendon to allow tensioning and load lock-off at the
head; currently the capacity of a GFRC bolt is limited
by the strength of the head. For example, the bolt head
assembly shown in Figure 3.10 has a breaking load of
160kN and a design working load of 100kN compared
with a rupture load of 310kN for the tendon (Weidmann
AG).
The results of pull out tests on GFRC composite bars
are reproduced from Faoro (1991) in Figure 3.11. The
tests were carried out on epoxy coated glass fibre bars
having a 30mm bond length. Ultimate bond strengths of
9.2N/mm were recorded for the tests with the bars
embedded in a sand-cement mortar, and in excess of
26.4N/mm with an epoxy mortar. It is necessary to
undertake specific tests for the particular GFRC system
under consideration.
By way of example, the use of tensioned GFRC bars in
stitching masonry blocks together is illustrated in Figure
3.12, taken from Faoro (1991). For this application the
bolts were post tensioned and the force from the bolt
head had to be transferred to the masonry facing blocks
so that the bolt heads were not visible. In design, a force
of 15kN was assumed to be transferred into the facing
blocks over a bond length of 120mm and a factor of
safety against bond failure of 2.5 was adopted. GFRC
bolts, fully bonded with a single speed resin, have been
used as permanent support in the Vereina rail tunnel;
details have been provided by Streuli and Klahr (1995).
GFRC bolts can be fitted with purpose-made expansion
shells that allow a pre-tensioning force of perhaps 20%
of the ultimate lock-off load of the bar to be applied
immediately following installation. Usually in such cases
grout is injected through the centre of the anchor tube to
bond the bolt to the rock.
Other components
3.4.1 Faceplates
Usually a faceplate is attached following the installation
of the tendon in the drillhole. Load is transferred from
the tendon via threaded nuts onto the faceplate. In most
cases the plate bears directly onto the rock face or
structure, but on irregular surfaces the faceplate will
often be bedded into a rapid-set mortar.
Faceplates are usually square, rectangular or circular in
plan but triangular plates have also been used.
Faceplates are most usually formed from a flat steel
plate, typically 150 to 250mm square, but they can be
domed or dished. Forged, cast or pressed plates can also
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Chapter 3
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be used, and these may be ribbed to increase strength. A
ribbed plate deforms as the load in the bolt reaches a
certain level and this provides some warning of
overloading. Faceplates used in conjunction with
corrosion protected rock bolts often have protection
spigot tubes attached, these are similar to those
described in BS 8081: 1989 for ground anchorages.
Where the tendon is not perpendicular to the faceplate,
the load may be transferred uniformly to the plate
through a hemispherical nut or washer bedded in a
suitable tapered seating; alternatively a pair of bevelled
washers can be used. Where the load to the rock bolt is
to be applied by a torque wrench, washers are usually
hardened and lubricated to reduce friction. Where a bolt
is tensioned by an hydraulic jack, usually a purpose
made foot is attached to the jack so that the force acts
directly through the washer system thereby avoiding
eccentric loading between the jack and faceplate.
For permanent installations, consideration should be
given to protecting the thread and nut from damage and
corrosion by a cap assembly or by a cover of structural
grade concrete. When used, a cap should be filled with
approved grease or other corrosion protection
compound.
3.4.2 Centralisers
Centralisers are attached to the tendon to ensure correct
alignment and a minimum cover of grout.
3.4.3 Grouts
(i) Cementitious grouts would usually be formed
from one of the following;
a) Ordinary Portland cement to BS 12: 1996
b) Rapid hardening cement to BS 12: 1996
c) Portland blast furnace cement to BS 1370:
1979
d) Low heat Portland cement to BS 1370: 1979
e) Sulphate resisting Portland cement to BS 4027:
1996
f) Low heat Portland blast furnace cement to BS
4246: 1996
Cement used in grout capsules should comply
with BS 12: 1996 or BS 915: 1983.
(ii) Epoxy and polyester resins in pumpable, pourable
or capsule form are commonly used for rock
bolting: such resins should be designed and
recommended for this application. If appropriate,
to suit the conditions of the particular application,
the selection of material performance criteria
should be established in conjunction with the
manufacturer. Laboratory and field tests should
be undertaken, or the results of previous tests
should be available, to verify mix times, setting
times and pull out capacity.
Corrosion protection
3.5.1 For permanent works, or where bolts are installed
in a corrosive environment, the rock bolt (including the
head) should be protected from corrosion. The degree
and type of protection depends upon the design life of
the bolting system, the corrosivity of the environment,
and the severity of the consequences of failure. Means of
assessing the aggressivity of a site are given for ground
anchorages in BD 71 (DMRB 2.1.6), and for reinforced
soils in BS 8006: 1995 as implemented through BD 70
(DMRB 2.1.5). In these, aggressivity is assessed by
allocating weighted values to a range of variables and a
similar system for rock bolts is provided in Table 3.12.
This gives a general guide to aggressivity but it is
important to understand the influence of individual
factors and their affect on the specific installation. The
corrosion of rock bolts has been discussed by Baxter
(1997) and Franzn (1997).
3.5.2 Rock bolts are often considered to need a lower
level of corrosion protection than ground anchorages for
the following reasons.
(i) Most rock bolts for permanent works are required
to be fully bonded after stressing. This is achieved
either by the injection of a secondary grout to the
free length soon after the bolt has been stressed,
or by the use of a two-speed resin system.
(ii) The tendons of ground anchorages are usually
formed from high tensile steels which are far more
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking than the
lower grades of steel more commonly used for
rock bolts.
(iii) Rock bolts carry much lower individual loads
than ground anchorages, and usually act in
consort with other measures, such as shotcreting,
to provide support. Thus the failure of a bolt
would be far less significant to the overall support
system than would the failure of a ground
anchorage.
(iv) The loss of part of a bolt by corrosion may not
lead to the catastrophic detensioning of the entire
member.
Despite the foregoing it is important to remember that
rock bolts are load carrying tensile members installed
into natural ground which is inherently heterogeneous.
Furthermore, a bolt may not always be installed entirely
in accordance with the specification. Thus, for all sites,
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the installation process and the corrosivity of the ground
within which the bolts are installed must be assessed to
determine the appropriate corrosion protection measures.
3.5.3 Details of various corrosion protection measures
are given below.
(i) Sacrificial thickness
The specification of sacrificial thickness of steel
for reinforced earth and soil nailing applications
are covered by BS 8006: 1995 as implemented
through BD 70 (DMRB 2.1.5). The corrosion
allowances for a particular design life vary
according to the aggressivity of the ground with
the over-riding proviso that unprotected steel
should not be used in highly aggressive conditions
for permanent works. Such allowances may be
adapted for rock bolting works. It should be noted
that the sacrificial thickness (t) is applied to each
exposed surface; thus the diameter of a bar is
increased by 2t.
At present, there is no way of predicting corrosion
rates to a comfortable level of confidence.
Because of this BS 8081: 1989 recommended
that, as a general rule, permanent ground
anchorages should be protected from corrosion
but it proposed that a secondary grout cover may
provide sufficient protection to low capacity
permanent rock bolts used solely as secondary
reinforcement.
Water flow in rock masses, and the corresponding
transport of potentially corrosive fluids, is
predominantly through fissures. Thus the local
effect of water flow upon a particular bolt cannot
be predicted well. Therefore it is recommended
that permanent rock bolts should not be used
without some form of corrosion protection and,
where the failure of a bolt could lead to a
significant risk to public safety, a sacrificial
thickness of material should not be relied upon to
provide longevity.
(ii) Secondary grouted annulus
Secondary grouting can be applied to various
types of rock bolts. Where there is a risk that the
failure of a bolt would have serious consequences
it is not recommended that a cement grout
annulus, by itself, be deemed adequate protection
for the most aggressive ground conditions, or in
the most demanding of work conditions. The
execution of the grouting operations should ensure
that an adequate cover of grout is provided along
the full length of a bolt: the inflow of water into a
drillhole can reduce severely the effectiveness of
grouting operations, see for example Azir et al
(1992).
For upward facing holes, grout is usually injected
at the mouth of the hole and air expelled through a
bleed tube installed to the distal end of the
drillhole. For downward facing holes grout can be
injected to the bottom of the hole, either through a
small inlet tube or through a central hole within
the bar. Alternatively a temporary oversized tube
can be placed over the shank to the distal end of
the free length; this tube is withdrawn as the
secondary grout is injected. The bolt is then
tensioned, or retensioned, before the secondary
grout hardens. However secondary grouting
techniques are time-consuming compared with a
single pass two-pack resin capsule system.
The effectiveness of the method of grouting must
be assessed when the drillholes are inclined at low
angles to the horizontal (i.e. about 10). At such
low angles, bleed or small losses of grout can
leave parts of the bolt ungrouted.
Attention must also be given to the centring of the
bolt within the drillhole. The problem with
centralisers is that they restrict the available bore
which can lead to the formation of grout
blockages or air pockets, particularly with smaller
diameter holes. Water flow within the rock mass
is predominantly through fissures and the
permeability of the intact rock is often relatively
low compared to that of the rock mass. An
appraisal of the properties of the rock mass and
the proposed grout may demonstrate that the
filling of the annulus with a dense homogeneous
grout is of prime importance, and the use of
centralisers could be counter-productive to this
aim.
Where resin grouted rock bolts are fixed in place
using a capsule system, the resins not only bond
the free length of the bolt but effectively encase it
within an inert medium. Such systems are
commonly employed for permanent rock bolts,
particularly where they form part of the secondary
support system. For example they were used
extensively at the Pen-y-Clip and Penmaenbach
road tunnels on the A55 North Wales coast road:
details have been provided by Littlejohn et al
(1987) and Xu et al (1995).
(iii) Coatings
The most usual coating to the shank of a rock bolt
is zinc applied through a hot dip process. In
addition to providing a physical barrier, zinc will
corrode preferentially to the steel substrate. With
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Chapter 3
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minor mechanical damage, such as a scratch, the
zinc adjacent to the breach will reduce the rate of
corrosion of the underlying steel, and in some
cases the resulting corrosion products will inhibit
further corrosion at the breach. The rates of
corrosion of a galvanised coating can vary
markedly with both time and position, and
currently the lifetime of a coating cannot be
determined with a high degree of confidence. Thus
it is not recommended that galvanising be used as
the sole or primary corrosion protection measure
where long term durability is a prime
consideration. (The density of the galvanising can
be assumed to be equivalent to 7.15g/m
2
per
micron of coating thickness).
Epoxy resins are inert and provide a physical
protection to the steel surface. The characteristics
and use of these proprietary coatings should be
defined in an approval certificate. Most of the
proprietary systems that have been used involve
the factory application of fusion bonded coatings.
With these a coating of epoxy powder is deposited
onto the pre-heated bars and allowed to cure in a
heat catalysed reaction. Such coatings can be
applied to galvanised bars, and the Combi-coat
(Ischebeck Titan Ltd) is claimed to enhance the
service life of a galvanised bar by a factor of
about 2 to 3.
The possibility of coatings being damaged during
installation must be considered and site
procedures should ensure that the extent of any
such damage is minimised. A damage factor could
be assumed in design which, effectively, would
lead to the installation of additional rock bolts
over and above that required to maintain stability.
However this may not be applicable to all sites
and applications, and the selection of an
appropriate damage factor is problematic.
(iv) External sheaths
Details of externally protected rock bolt
assemblies that have been used in practice are
given in Figures 3.13 and 3.14. Typically, these
require centring the bar within a corrugated
plastic sleeve which is then filled with a
cementitious grout, i.e. in a similar manner to
ground anchorages. Indeed such rock bolts are
often termed double corrosion protected, but note
that neither BS 8081: 1989 nor BD 71 (DMRB
2.1.6) recognise grout as being an effective
corrosion protection barrier.
There are important differences between an
externally protected rock bolt and a double
corrosion protected ground anchorage. Firstly,
unlike ground anchorages, most bolts are not
debonded over their free length: with permanent
bolts the free length is grouted following its
tensioning. Secondly, the protection to the bolt
does not necessarily extend over the complete bar
and head assembly. For example as shown in
Figure 3.13, the base of the bolt is exposed: bolts
fixed by resin capsules require some form of
puncturing, stirring and mixing device at their
distal end. In other cases the primary bond length
is left exposed with the external sheath covering
only the free length. In addition, it is not
uncommon for the protection provided to the outer
head of permanent ground anchorages to be
omitted for rock bolts. For example where the
bolts are incorporated into a shotcrete lining, the
lining may be deemed to obviate the need for
protection to the cap. This accords with the view
that the bolts and the shotcrete are part of an
integrated support system.
Figure 3.14 shows the arrangement of a double
corrosion protected rock bolt which meets the
requirements of BS 8081: 1989 except that the
arrangement at the head is not as complex
because the bolt is fully bonded after tensioning
and is incorporated into shotcrete facing. If the
head of the rock bolt is to be left exposed, the
head assembly should be capped and protected in
a similar manner to the requirements of BD 71
(DMRB 2.1.6).
Figure 3.15 shows details of a rock bolt where a
heat-shrink sleeve has been fitted to the free length
of a coarse threaded bar.
External sheaths have been used in combination
with hot dip galvanised and epoxy coated bolts,
see for example Smith (1994).
(v) Corrosion resistant bars and fittings
Glass fibre reinforced composites and stainless
steels have been used to form the tendons and
other components of rock bolts. The use of either
of these materials bears a cost premium and so
their use is usually only justified where longevity
is a particular concern. It should not be assumed
that such materials will not deteriorate over time,
but in most situations they are essentially durable.
In many cases they are simpler to install than steel
bars that require some form of protection.
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Chapter 3
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Type of bar Nominal diameter Characteristic yield
(mm) strength (N/mm
2
)
Mild steel smooth 20, 25, 32, 40, 50 250
High yield deformed 20, 25, 32, 40, 50 460
Cold worked deformed 20, 25, 32, 40, 50 460
Stainless steel deformed 20, 25, 32, 40 460
Table 3.1 Typical sizes and characteristic yield strengths of steel bars used
for rock bolts and ground anchorages in the UK
Nominal diameter Nominal cross Characteristic loads (kN)
sectional area
(mm) (mm
2
) Rupture Yield
16 201.1 120 93
20 314.2 187 145
25 490.9 292 226
32 804.2 478 370
40 1256.6 748 578
50 1963.7 1168 903
Table 3.2 Characteristic rupture and yield loads for Grade 460 high yield reinforcing bars
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Chapter 3
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Nominal ISO Characteristic UNF Characteristic Whitworth Characteristic
diameter metric loads threads* loads threads* loads
threads*
(mm) (mm) (inch) (inch)
Rupture Yield Rupture Yield Rupture Yield
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
16 M142 55 46 51 43 40 34
20 M182.5 92 77 - 83 70 - 68 57
25 M222.5 150 125 - 167 140 - 144 120
32 M303.5 277 231 284 237 1 240 200
40 M364 406 339 1 533 446 450 376
50 M454.5 657 550 - - - 1 607 508
* Thread types defined, for example, in Kempes Engineers Yearbook (1997)
Table 3.3 Typical characteristic rupture and yield loads for machine
cut threads on Grade 460 high yield reinforcing bars
Nominal bar diameter (mm) 16 20 25 28 32 40 50 63.5
Steel grade (N/mm
2
) 500/600 500/600 500/600 500/600 500/600 500/600 500/600 555/700
Diameter over threads (mm) 19 23 29 32 36 45 56 69
Mass per unit length (kg/m) 1.58 2.47 3.85 4.83 6.31 9.87 15.40 24.80
Cross sectional area (mm
2
) 201 314 491 616 804 1260 1960 3167
Characteristic yield load (kN) 100 157 245 308 402 630 980 1758
Minimum ultimate tensile load (kN) 121 188 295 370 482 756 1176 2217
Standard lengths (m) 6 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Table 3.4 Physical properties of Dywidag Gewi-Steel Grade 500/600 high yield fully threaded bar
(Dywidag-Systems International Ltd)
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Nominal Maximum Cross Mass per Thread pitch Rupture load Yield load
diameter diameter sectional area metre length
(mm) (mm) (mm
2
) (kg/m) (mm) (kN) (kN)
20 21.7 314 2.47 8 173 157
25 27 491 3.85 10 270 246
28 30.1 616 4.83 11 339 308
32 34.6 804 6.31 12.5 442 402
40 42.9 1256 9.87 16 691 628
50 53.1 1963 15.4 20 1080 981
Table 3.5 Physical properties of Macalloy 500 high yield threaded bar (M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd)
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/11
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Nominal Cut threads Rolled threads
diameter
(mm)
Thread type* Characteristic load Thread type* Characteristic load
(kN) (kN)
Rupture Yield Rupture Yield
12 M12 1.75 29 18
" UNF 37 23
" BSW 29 18
16 M16 2 55 35 M16 2 63 39
-" UNF 61 38 -" UNF 65 41
-" UNF 50 31 --
20 M20 2.5 87 54 M20 2.5 98 62
" UNF 89 56 " UNF 95 59
" BSW 75 47 --
25 M24 3 125 78 M24 3 142 89
1" UNF 158 99 1" UNF 169 106
1" BSW 138 86 1" BSW 161 100
32 M30 3.5 201 126 M33 3.5 283 177
" UNF 261 163 1" UNF 277 173
" BSW 224 140 1" BSW 261 163
40 M39 4 356 222 M42 4.5 458 286
1" UNF 388 242 1" UNF 406 254
1" BSW 327 204 1" BSW 377 236
50 M48 5 537 336 M52 5 715 447
2" BSW 672 420
* Thread types defined, for example, in Kempes Engineers Yearbook (1997)
Table 3.6 Characteristic rupture and yield loads for mild steel bars with cut and with rolled threads
3/12
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
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Bar type Nominal Nominal cross Characteristic strengths (N/mm
2
) Characteristic load of parent bar (kN)
diameter sectional area
(mm) (mm
2
)
Rupture Yield Rupture Yield
(0.2% proof stress) (0.2% proof load)
Stairib 304/ 16 201.1 700 525 141 106
Stairib 316
20 314.2 700 525 220 165
25 490.9 700 525 344 258
32 804.2 700 525 563 422
40 1256.2 700 525 879 660
Table 3.7(a) Characteristic rupture and yield strengths for Grade 304/316 austenitic
stainless steel deformed reinforcing bar (Ancon CCL)
Nominal Thread ISO Characteristic UNF Characteristic Whitworth Characteristic
Diameter process metric load (kN) thread* load (kN) thread* load (kN)
thread*
(mm) (mm) (inch) (inch)
Rupture Yield Rupture Yield Rupture Yield
16 Cut M14 x 2 55 46 51 43 40 34
Rolled M14 x 2 64 54 - 90 75
20 Cut M18 x 2.5 92 77 - 83 70 - 68 57
Rolled M18 x 2.5 107 90 131 109
25 Cut M22 x 2.5 150 125 - 167 140 - 144 120
Rolled M24 x 3 195 163 - 179 149 - 168 141
32 Cut M30 x 3.5 277 231 - 284 237 - 240 200
Rolled M30 x 3.5 316 264 - 305 255 - 285 238
40 Cut M36 x 4 406 339 533 446 450 376
Rolled M39 x 4 547 457 559 467 519 434
* Thread types defined, for example, in Kempes Engineers Yearbook (1997)
Table 3.7(b) Typical characteristic rupture and yield loads for stainless steel
high yield deformed reinforcing bar with cut threads
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/13
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Nominal bar diameter (mm) 16 20 24
Diameter over threads (mm) 16.4 20.1 24.0
Diameter thread root (mm) 13.4 17.1 20.2
Mass per unit length (kg/m) 1.3 2.1 2.9
Characteristic yield load (kN) 91 147 190
Minimum ultimate tensile strength (N/mm
2
) 750 750 750
Ultimate tensile load (kN) 105 170 219
Standard lengths (m) 3 - 6 3 - 6 3 - 6
Table 3.7(c) Typical physical properties of Grip-Bar stainless steel threadbar:
Grade 304 or 316 austenitic stainless steel (Stainless UK Ltd)
Nominal Steel grade Ultimate Yield Mass Cross Pitch
diameter yield/ultimate load load sectional area
strength
(mm) (N/mm
2
) (kN) (kN) (kg/m) (mm
2
) (mm)
15 900/1100 195 159 1.44 177 10
20 900/1100 345 283 2.56 314 10
26.5 900/1030 568 496 4.48 551 13
26.5 1080/1230 678 595 4.48 551 13
32 900/1030 828 724 6.53 804 16
32 1080/1230 989 868 6.53 804 16
36 900/1030 1049 916 8.27 1018 18
36 1080/1230 1252 1099 8.27 1018 18
Modulus of elasticity, E=205kN/mm
2
5%
Table 3.8 Physical properties of Dywidag fully threaded steel bars used for
prestressing works (Dywidag-Systems International Ltd)
3/14
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
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Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/15
Nominal diameter Characteristic rupture load Minimum 0.1% proof load
(mm) (kN) (kN)
25 506 410
26.5 569 460
32 828 670
36 1049 850
40 1295 1050
50 2022 1639
70 4311 3495
Nominal diameter Characteristic ultimate Minimum 0.1% Minimum Approximate modulus
tensile strength proof stress elongation of elasticity
(mm) (N/mm
2
) (N/mm
2
) (%) (kN/mm
2
)
25 to 50 1030 835 6 170
70 1030 835 6 205
Table 3.9 Physical properties of standard grade Macalloy steel bars
used for prestressing works (M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd)
Nominal diameter Characteristic rupture load Minimum 0.1% proof load
(mm) (kN) (kN)
20 314 251
25 491 393
32 804 643
40 1257 1006
Grade Characteristic ultimate Minimum 0.1% Minimum Approximate modulus
tensile strength proof stress elongation of elasticity
(N/mm
2
) (N/mm
2
) (%) (kN/mm
2
)
Stainless 1000 800 15 210
Table 3.10 Physical properties of Macalloy stainless steel bars
used for prestressing works (M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd)
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3/16
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Material Tensile Yield Strain at Modulus of Density Range of
strength strength failure elasticity available
diameters
(N/mm
2
) (N/mm
2
) (%) (N/mm
2
) (Mg/m
3
) (mm)
'Polystal' 1670 - 3.3 51 000 2.0 1 to > 25
(68% glass fibres)
'Durglass FL' 1000 - >3 40 000 1.9 5 to 40
(70% glass fibres)
'Weidmann' 1200 - - 50 000 2.5 22 OD
(75% glass fibres) 10 ID
(tubular)
'Twarun' 2150 - 2.0 125 000 1.45 -
(aramid fibres)
Carbon fibres 2800 - 0.7 400 000 1.75 -
High yield steel >500 >420 10 210 000 7.65 20 to 50
Table 3.11(a) Comparison of material values for glass fibre composites and other materials,
after Miesseler and Preis (undated), Faoro (1991) and Sireg Spa
Diameter Ultimate tensile load Ultimate shear load End loading* Normal weight
(mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kg/m)
Bolts
22 380 120 100 - 250 0.75
25 500 150 125 - 250 0.97
32 820 275 130 - 300 1.67
6 (strand) 145 50 90 0.056
Tubes
22 (OD) 10 (ID) 250 85 90 - 140 0.65
32 (OD) 15 (ID) 495 195 - -
* The higher figure is obtained with high end load fittings
Table 3.11(b) Data for polyester resin Fibregrip products (Weldgrip)
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Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/17
Item Measured value Mark
Composition of ground Material containing not more than 10% of particles (by weight) +2
passing the 63 micron sieve size with material passing the 425 micron
sieve being essentially non-plastic
Material containing not more than 75% and 10% of particles 0
(by weight) passing the 63 and 2 micron sieve sizes respectively
and with the material passing the 425 micron sieve having a
plasticity index less than 6
Any grading, material for which the particles passing the 425 micron -2
sieve have a plasticity index greater than 6 but less than 15
Any grading, material for which the particles passing the 425 micron -4
sieve have a plasticity index of 15 or greater
Material having an organic content of 2% or greater -4
Fill material containing cinder, coke or slag -4
Groundwater Well drained area +1
Poorly drained area -1
Above level of rock bolt -4
Resistivity (ohm-cm) 10,000 or more 0
10,000 - 3,000 -1
3,000 - 1,000 -2
1,000 - 100 -3
100 or less -4
pH of ground or Greater than 9 -2
groundwater Between 6 and 9.0 0
Less than 6 -2
Between 4.5 and 6.0 -4
Soluble sulphate (ppm) 200 or less 0
within ground or 200 - 500 -1
groundwater 500 - 1000 -2
1000 or more -4
Presence of sulphide None 0
and/or hydrogen sulphide Trace -2
Present -3
High -4
Chloride ion (ppm) within 50 or less 0
ground or groundwater 50 to 250 -1
250 to 500 -2
500 or more -4
Table 3.12 Assessment of the aggressivity of a site
Ranking value Aggressivity
-3 Low
-4 to -6 Medium
-7 or less High
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Fig 3.1 Details of a typical expansion shell rock bolt having the provision for secondary grouting
Grout return
tube
Expansion shell
anchor
Rubber grout
seal
Grout inlet
tube
Face plate
Nut
Spherical
washer
Grout inlet
and return
tubes attached
to shank
Grout return
tube in slot
to shank
Grout return
through centre
of shank
3/18
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
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Pattin bolt Goldenberg bolt Bail bolt
(a) Standard types
(b) Shells for large diameter drillholes or for use in soft rock
Fig 3.2 Details of typical expansion shell rock bolts
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/19
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 3.3 Details of the Worley mechanical rock bolt (Mine Roof Support Systems)
Washer
Expansion anchor
Expansion anchor
Washer
Ramps machined
or cast into bolt
3/20
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
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Fig 3.4 Details of the Split set rock bolt (Ingersoll-Rand Co Ltd)
Face plate
Split tube forced
into drillhole
Anchor formed by
folding end of tube
back on itself
Section through
split tube
13mm
2.3mm
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/21
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 3.5 Details of the Swellex frictional anchor (Atlas Copco Construction and Mining Ltd)
expanded after insertion
in drill hole
prior to installation
Fig 3.6 Details of slotted bolt and wedge device
Face plate
Bevelled washers
Hardened washer
Nut
Bolt shank
Slot
Wedge
Wedge
3/22
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
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Fig 3.8 Details of untensioned grouted rock dowel
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/23
Perforated half tube
Mortar
Halves wired
together
Mortar extruded as bar
is inserted
Bar
Grout
Face plate
Fig 3.7 Details of the "Perfobolt" system, after Hoek and Brown (1980)
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 3.9 Schematic view of wire cable bolt installation
Grout seal
Distal
Competent strata Weak strata
Locking plate
and cone
Breather tube
Proximal
Cable
Injection tube
3/24
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
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Fig 3.10 Details of a typical GFRC bolt head assembly
Dimensions in mm
but not to scale
115.0
130.0
7
0
.
0
4
5
.
5
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/25
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 3.11 Results of bond tests for GFRC bars, taken from Faoro (1991)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3
deflection (mm)
(i) GFRC bars embedded in sand/cement mortar
(N/mm
2
)

=9.2N/mm
2
30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
deflection (mm)
(ii) GFRC bars embedded in epoxy-acrylate resin
(N/mm
2
)

= 26.4N/mm
2

= 26.4N/mm
2
Type A
mortar
Type B
mortar
3/26
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
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Fig 3.12 Use of tensioned GFRC bars for masonry repairs, taken from Faoro (1991)
Masonry facing block
GFRC - bars installed in
22mm diameter drill hole
1000mm 0
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/27
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Fig 3.13 Details of externally protected rock bolts
End nut
Resinous mortar
Corrosion sheathing
with cement grout filling
Stopper and centring plug
Grout tube for
secondary grouting
Vent tube
3/28
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Volume 2 Section 1
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Bottom end plug
Corrugated plastic duct
Bar
External centralisers,
as required
Cement grout filling to
corrugated duct
Resin retainer/sealer
Internal spacer
Secondary grout vent
tube
Primary resin grout bleed/
vent tube
Outer trumpet assembly
Anchor head assembly nut
and washer
Tendon bond length
Polyester resin
(Primary grout)
Free tendon length
Cement grout
(Secondary grout)
Secondary grout
injection tube
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
3/29
Fig 3.14 Details of a double corrosion protected rock bolt
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Resin mortar
Heat shrink with
inner lining and
corrosion protection
coating to bar
(e.g. epoxy coating)
Shortcrete facing
3/30
Chapter 3
Types of Rock Bolts
Fig 3.15 Details of a rock bolt provided with a heat-shrink sleeve
Volume 2 Section 1
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4. DESIGN
4/1
Chapter 4
Design
Principles and objectives
4.1.1 This section covers the design of rock bolts. The
design of rock bolted structures is beyond the scope of
this Advice Note.
4.1.2 The objective of using rock bolting systems is to
create a stable rock mass. The design of the support
system is dependent upon the physical properties and
characteristics of the rock mass - including the strength
of the intact rock; the in situ stress field; the spacing,
persistence, nature and infill of discontinuities; and the
orientation of the discontinuities relative to the face of
the excavation. In addition, the stress strain
characteristics of the rock mass and the reinforcement
system should be matched to suit the end product
required (Gerrard 1983, Barton & Bakhtar 1983).
4.1.3 The methodology behind the design of rock bolts,
rock dowels or cable dowels can be divided into two
approaches, Active and Passive, examples of which are
given in Figure 4.1
Active reinforcing elements are stressed with a design
working load on installation. Active reinforcement
limits strains and therefore prevents, or minimises,
movement or deformation of the rock mass. Hence, this
type of reinforcement should be targeted at sites where
strain must be limited (eg serviceability limits).
Tensioned rock bolts are most effective in retaining loose
blocks or wedges of rock. The support is only usually
required to hold up the dead weight of loose material.
The tensioning of the bolts is required in order to tighten
the loose blocks and provide as much interlocking as
possible between these blocks and their failure plane. It
is by helping the rock to support itself, and by
prevention of further unravelling and deterioration of the
rock mass that tensioned rock bolts provide effective
support (Hoek and Wood 1992).
Passive reinforcement is so called because the
reinforcing elements are not stressed. Passive elements
only become stressed once deformation/movement takes
place in the rock mass. This type of reinforcement
includes dowels and cable dowels (McMillan 1993).
Untensioned dowels are often installed before significant
movement has taken place in the rock mass, and become
tensioned through strain of the rock mass (Hoek and
Wood 1992)
4.1.4 Information on the design of rock bolts is provided
in BS 8081: 1989, and references such as Hoek and
Brown (1980) and Hobst and Zajic (1983).
Loads
4.2.1 Determination of the loads to be resisted by a rock
bolting system often requires a complex analysis to take
into account the large number of factors, many of which
may be ill-defined. However, the revealing of
unforeseen ground conditions, or poorly executed
construction techniques, such as blasting, may well
require the original analysis to be reworked with new
information. Thus an important, if not the crucial,
ingredient of any rock support work is the ability of the
engineering team to adapt the design and installation
programme to the conditions encountered on site. It is,
therefore, common practice for any sizeable bolting or
rock stabilising operation to be controlled and refined on
a day-to-day basis in the field; in such cases the
engineering team must have a clear understanding of
what is to be achieved, what options are available, and
which option should be selected to suit the conditions
encountered.
4.2.2 The orientation of a bolt or dowel is important as
it determines the efficiency of action of the
reinforcement. For active reinforcement the force
required to stabilise a block sliding on a failure plane
varies with the angle of inclination between the force and
the failure plane (Figure 4.2a) (Franklin and Dusseaut
1989). The example given in Figure 4.2a is a simple
case, but the same principle applies for more complex
situations as shown in Figure 4.2b. For passive
reinforcement the shear resistance of the doweled
discontinuity varies as a function of the angle between
the dowel and the discontinuity (Gaziev and Lapin 1983,
Ludvig 1983). There is an optimum angle for the
installation of a dowel. This angle lies in the range 35
to 50 to the plane of the discontinuity (Barton and
Bakhtar 1983).
4.2.3 The loads in individual rock bolts commonly range
from 150 to 200kN. Loads of up to 300kN have been
used in practice but they are exceptional for surface, or
near-surface, construction works.
Design of individual bolts
4.3.1 Following the establishment of the overall outline
support scheme, the detailed design of the bolting system
must address the transference of the required support
forces from the bolt head (which applies the stabilising
force into the structure, excavated face or jointed block)
to a stable anchor zone at some depth. The design of
individual bolts must address the following aspects.
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4/2
Chapter 4
Design
(i) The available bond at the anchor/rock interface.
(ii) The location of a stable anchor zone.
(iii) The available bond at the tendon/anchor interface.
(iv) The available bond at any encapsulation/grout
interface.
(v) The properties of the tendon.
(vi) The adequacy of the bolt head with regard to
strength, stiffness, robustness and durability.
4.3.2 Bond at the anchor/rock interface
The transfer of load from the tendon to the rock surface
in the anchor zone can be achieved by mechanical
means, such as the expansion shell anchorage, or by
cement or resin bonding.
(i) Mechanical anchors
Mechanical rock bolts are tensioned immediately
after installation, and so it is unnecessary to
prescribe a specific approach to their design.
Manufacturers of such types of rock bolt have a
range of products to cope with varying rock
conditions and give guidance on design for a
range of rock qualities and strengths. The act of
tensioning the bolt to its required loading
confirms, at least in the short term, the ability of
the mechanical bolt to support a particular load.
High tensions, where the yield strength of the
tendon is approached, can be achieved in good
quality rock, but in poor quality rocks local
crushing of the rock can be generated by the high
local point loads exerted by an expansion shell,
and anchor slip can also occur.
A summary of the results of pull out tests on
mechanical anchors is reproduced from Moy
(1973) in Table 4.1. The data show the
decreasing pull out resistance of mechanical
expansion shell type rock bolts in weaker rocks.
Although capacity can be increased in such rocks
using special types of malleable expansion shells
and coupled expansion assemblies, such devices
are not commonly used in the civil engineering
industry in the UK.
(ii) Cement grouted anchors
The calculation of the design anchor length (L) of
a cement grouted rock bolt generally follows a
similar methodology to that employed for ground
anchorages, i.e. the ultimate shaft friction (P
s
) is
calculated using an equation of the form;
P
s
= d L
u
where
u
is the ultimate bond strength of the rock/
grout interface and d is the diameter of the bonded
length (the units of the variables should be
consistent).
It should be noted that this equation is based on
the assumption that load is transferred uniformly
over the whole surface area of the design fixed
anchor length. Littlejohn (1979) cautions that this
approach may lead to high concentration of stress
at the proximal end of anchorages in weak
deformable rock; nevertheless the assumption of a
uniform bond stress is common practice.
Preliminary design values of ultimate bond
strength
u
may be derived from the results of
laboratory or in situ tests, or from previously
published values.
(a) Laboratory tests. Values of
u
are commonly
based on the unconfined compression strength
(UCS) of the rock, for example;

u
= 0.1UCS
An upper limit of 4000kN/m
2
is normally applied
to
u
- this commonly being about 10 per cent of
the design characteristic unconfined compressive
strength of a cementitious grout.
(b) Field tests. Correlation between strength and
standard penetration blow counts (N) have been
derived for a range of rock types.
Chalk: For stiff/hard chalk (weathering grades I
to III), Littlejohn (1970) suggested the following
relation;

u
= 10N (kN/m
2
)
Barley (1988) derived the following from tests on
pressure grouted anchorages;

u
= 20N to 30N (kN/m
2
)
similarly, Turner (1980) derived values of
u
(in kN/m
2
) equivalent to 16N for chalk grades II
to III.
Volume 2 Section 1
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February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY. 4/3
Chapter 4
Design
It should be noted that a new system for
classifying chalk has been developed since the
above was carried out. Details of the new
classification system can be found in CIRIA
Project Report 11, 1994 entitled Foundations in
Chalk.
Weathered granite: Suzuki et al (1972) gave the
following relation for anchorages installed in
weathered granite in Japan,

u
= 7N + 120 (kN/m
2
)
Mudrocks: Barley (1988) suggested that the
correlation for the various types of mudstone fell
into the following range;

u
= 2.4N to 6N (kN/m
2
)
but suggested that a lower bound value of
190kN/m2 for
u
seemed to be appropriate for a
wide range of mudstones with N values ranging
between 34 and 95.
Sandstones: Barley (1988) gave the following
relation for weak sandstones;

u
= 5.5N to 15N (kN/m
2
)
(c) Published values. A review of bond strengths
completed by Littlejohn and Bruce (1977) was
reproduced in Tables 24 and 25 of BS 8081:
1989. Barley (1988) also tabulated bond
strengths for a wide range of rock types. Turner
(1980 and 1995) gave bond strengths derived
from a range of tests (undertaken mainly in the
UK) and compared them to other parameters such
as rock type, strength, Rock Quality Designation
and degree of weathering. All the above data,
however, relate to ground anchorages which
usually have larger diameters and pull out
capacities than rock bolts.
The results of pull out tests undertaken on cement
grouted rock bolts are reproduced from Moy
(1973) in Table 4.2. In all these tests the yield
strength of the bar was reached before the
ultimate strength of the interface was attained.
Cement grouted rock bolts can incorporate a
mechanical expansion fixing device to provide the
initial load holding capacity: this can be
subsequently enhanced by grouting of the full
length or just the anchor length of the bolt.
(iii) Resin bonded anchors
An estimate of the strength of a resin/rock
interface can be based on previous experience,
empirical relations or site tests. The results of on
site pull out tests are reproduced from Whittaker
et al (1977) in Table 4.3. They suggested that the
design anchor length is a major consideration
when the uniaxial compressive strength of the
rock is less than 35MN/m
2
: this is equivalent to
the mid-range of a moderately strong rock
according to BS 5930: 1981. For weaker rocks,
the bond strength of a resin/rock interface often
has to be established or confirmed from the results
of site tests. For stronger rocks the bond between
the resin and the bar often controls the pull out
capacity of the bolt. Whittaker et al (1977)
suggested that an estimate of the bond length (L
b
)
for a polyester resin bolt embedded in a strong
rock can be derived from;
L
b
= (50 + 2.5P)
where L
b
is in mm and P is the maximum
anticipated design load (in kN).
Franklin and Woodfield (1971) produced a design
chart relating a bond factor (in inches/short ton)
with rock strength expressed as point load index;
their chart is reproduced in Figure 4.3 after
conversion to metric units. They suggested that
the required bond length (L
b
) can be derived from
the relation;
L
b
= (bond factor x P) + safety margin.
Their approach gives bond lengths of typically
less than 0.5m. Franklin and Woodfield (1971)
noted that failure in weak rocks tended to occur at
the resin/rock interface, but with very strong
rocks it was likely to occur at the resin/anchor
interface.
In conventional civil engineering practice bond
lengths generally range between 1 and 2m; these
longer lengths are adopted to account for
variations in rock quality over a site and
construction practice.
4.3.3 Uplift or pull out capacity
It is usually necessary to check that the anchor length is
sufficiently deeply embedded that in the event of the full
design force being mobilised (for example to resist an
uplift or toppling load for a tensioned structure) failure
is not generated by excessive movements. Whilst this
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4/4
Chapter 4
Design
failure criterion may not be critical in many rock bolting
applications, such as in bolting arrays for roof support,
it nevertheless must be assessed.
Usually it would be assumed that at failure an inverted
cone of rock resists the anchor loads in the manner
shown in Figure 4.4. The included angle of the cone of
failure would typically be taken to be between 60 and
90, but values outside this range may be assumed
where the rocks were well bedded or jointed. The results
of tests on resin bonded rock bolts installed in intact
strong sandstone have been reported by Whittaker et al
(1977); they found that breakage through the intact rock
gave an included angle of around 120. Usually the
apex of the cone is taken to be half way along the fixed
anchor length or at the top of a mechanically or
point-loaded bolt. In assessing resistance the weight of
rock within the cone is multiplied by a factor of between
0.5 and 1.0, the value being dependent upon the
percentage of the intact strength of the rock that can be
relied upon to provide stability
4.3.4 Bond at the tendon/grout interface
(i) Cement grouted bolts
BS 8081: 1989 recommends that the ultimate
design bond stress between a deformed bar and its
surrounding cement grout should not exceed 2N/
mm
2
, but bond strengths in excess of 6N/mm
2
have been reported from the results of pull out
tests; see for example Dywidag-Systems
International Ltd and M
c
Calls Special Products
Ltd. It is recommended, therefore, that design
values in excess of 2N/mm
2
may be used with the
proviso that such values are supported either by in
situ tests or by relevant documented test data.
BS 8081: 1989 also recommends a minimum
fixed anchor length of 2m for rock anchors
carrying loads of less than 200kN, i.e. typical of
rock bolts. Again depending upon site conditions
and loads it may be acceptable to use shorter bond
lengths, particularly where positive interlock is
provided on the tendon bond length; for example
an end nut can be screwed on to the distal end of
the bar as shown in Figure 3.13
(ii) Resin bonded bolts
Test data provided by the manufacturers of resin
grouts suggest that ultimate bond stresses of
about 10N/mm
2
can be mobilised on deformed
bars embedded in the types of polyester resins
used for rock bolts and ground anchorages.
However few confirmatory data have been
published and design proof tests should be
undertaken if such high bond values are proposed
for design.
Whittaker et al (1977) reported the results of pull
out tests undertaken on 16mm and 20mm diameter
high yield deformed bars embedded in resin; they
found negligible creep with tendon bond lengths
as short as 150mm and 190mm respectively.
4.3.5 Bond at the encapsulation/grout interface
(i) Cement grouted bolts
The bond strength of the duct/grout interface must
be assessed where corrugated plastic ducts are
used for corrosion protection. BS 8081: 1989
recommends that for cementitious grouts the
assumed ultimate bond stress over a grout/
encapsulation interface should not exceed 3N/
mm
2
. However test data support higher ultimate
bond strengths and values in excess of
4.1N/mm
2
have been mobilised without failure,
see for example M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd. In
many such cases the tendon/grout interface is the
controlling factor. It is recommended, however,
that where design strength in excess of 3N/mm
2
is
proposed, the value should be supported by
relevant documented test data.
(ii) Resin bonded bolts
Corrosion protected bolts, where the tendon is
encapsulated within a cement grout, have been
bonded into drillholes with resinous grouts. The
results of pull out tests undertaken on such bolts
showed that, upon failure by yielding of the
system, an ultimate bond stress of 5.4N/mm
2
was
developed at the resin/encapsulation interface,
Turner (undated). (These bolts were embedded in
a pumpable polyester grout in a 50mm diameter
drillhole and installed into fresh granite). It is
recommended that the values assumed in design
for a resin/duct interface should be supported by
relevant documented test data.
4.3.6 Tendon design
For permanent works and for temporary works where
the risk of corrosion of the rock bolts is high and/ or the
consequences of failure are serious, the maximum
allowable working load (T
w
) in a steel tendon should be
taken as:
T
w
< 0.5 x characteristic yield strength
as given in BS 8081: 1989.
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Chapter 4
Design
For temporary works, where failure would have no
serious consequences and would not endanger public
safety, the following will be appropriate for most
applications,
(i) T
w
< 0.625 x characteristic yield strength for
bolts having a service life of up to 2 years, and
(ii) T
w
< 0.7 x characteristic yield strength for bolts
with a service life of up to 6 months.
Notwithstanding the above, where failure could have
serious consequences or could occur without adequate
warning of the danger to the general public, the selection
of the working stress should be reviewed and
consideration given to the requirements for corrosion
protection [see sections 3.5.1 to 3.5.3]. Further advice
may be found in CIRIA R101 (Douglas and Arthur,
1981).
For non-steel tendons, the manufacturer should be
consulted for guidance and design values should be
supported by design proof tests.
4.3.7 Shock loading of rock bolts
Rock bolts are often used in rock tunnelling for both
temporary and permanent support. Temporary bolts are
installed behind the advancing face to provide support to
the excavated profile following blasting and mucking
out. Permanent support bolts are installed when the face
has advanced sufficiently that the bolts are deemed to be
beyond the influence of blasting at the tunnel face. It is
current practice to regard all bolts within 5m of the face
as temporary and to replace them by permanent support
bolts as the face advances. However this may
effectively mean that the rock bolting system is
duplicated unnecessarily.
Extensive research on the resistance of rock bolts to the
shock loading produced by blasting was undertaken at
the Penmaenbach and Pen-y-Clip rock tunnels on the
A55 North Wales coast road: the results of this work
have been reported by Littlejohn et al (1987) and Xu et
al (1995) respectively. The results indicated that, in the
rock conditions within the tunnels on the A55, the rock
bolts were undamaged by blasting operations at
distances of less than 5m from the advancing face and
this opens up the possibility of their use for both
temporary and permanent purposes. At Pen-y-Clip, a
safe distance of 4m was adopted; this was based on a
mean peak particle velocity of 225mm/s (Xu et al,
1995): in practice, rock bolts further than 1.1m from the
blast force were found to be capable of holding load
after blasting.
Testing
4.4.1 Testing is an integral part of the design process.
The sequence and timing of the tests may vary from
contract to contract, but some test data will be required
prior to the installation of any works bolts. In many
cases it will be advantageous to undertake tests on trial
bolts to confirm or refine the design of the bolts in a
pre-contract trial.
4.4.2 Tests are required to demonstrate the satisfactory
performance of a bolting system for the conditions for
which it is proposed. The requirements of a test
programme vary according to the likely uncertainties in
the performance of the system, but any programme
should cover;
(i) the suitability of all materials and components
(and their possible interaction) - including their
strength, stiffness, durability and robustness,
(ii) the methods of construction and the equipment
used - including storage and handling of materials
and components, assembly of components,
stability of boreholes and cut faces, and stressing
operations,
(iii) the performance of the bolting system - including
load carrying capacity and load-extension
behaviour.
4.4.3 The objectives of an on-site testing programme, the
specification of the test procedures, and the
consequences of the required standard of performance
not being satisfied should be considered at an early stage
in design. A programme of tests form part of the
Contract.
4.4.4 Design proof tests are undertaken to show that the
performance of a bolt or any of its components satisfies
the design criteria for ultimate or serviceability
conditions. Thus some of these tests may be destructive
and the data may not be directly comparable to those
obtained from works bolts. These types of test may be
undertaken in the laboratory or in the field. The
requirements of a particular project may be satisfied by
tests undertaken for previous projects. Specific tests
include the following.
(i) Tests to define the ultimate bond strength of
various interfaces including (as applicable); grout/
rock, mechanical anchor/rock, shank/grout,
plastic duct/grout. Some tests may be undertaken
in the laboratory but others will have to be carried
out on site. In particular, on-site pull out tests
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Chapter 4
Design
may be required to define the ultimate bond
strength of the grout/ground interface. To attain
failure without rupturing the tendon, it may be
necessary to increase the cross section of the
tendon or reduce the size of the load transfer zone
in a trial bolt from that proposed for the works
bolts.
When investigating the performance of an anchor,
provision may be required to reduce, or eliminate,
the effect of any grout in the free anchor length.
(ii) On-site pull out tests should be undertaken to
determine the load-extension behaviour of a works
bolt. Creep tests are not usually undertaken,
unless the anchor length is in weak rocks which
are susceptible to creep such as some types of
mudrock.
(iii) Tests to prove the strength of the components of a
bolt system; for example the strength of the shank,
the bearing capacity of the bolt head and the
crushing strength of grouts. Usually tests on full
scale bolts are not taken to destruction, it being
sufficient to undertake non-destructive tests on
trial bolts (where up to, say, 80% of the strength
of the shank is mobilised) and quality assurance
tests on the tendon, concretes and grouts.
4.4.5 Confirmatory performance tests are undertaken to
show that the assembly of the works bolts, their
installation and resulting performance are satisfactory.
The number of tests and the test procedures may vary
according to the of a particular project and may be
satisfied by tests undertaken for previous projects. Such
tests may include the following.
(i) Inspection tests on sections cut through a
corrosion protected bolt to confirm continuity of
the grout within the protective sheath, positioning
of the shank within the encapsulation grout, and
the competence of the protective sheaths. Ideally,
some of these tests are best undertaken on bolts
that have been stressed so that the effects of
installation and stressing operations can be
assessed, but in practice this is rarely feasible.
(ii) A review of the constructability of the bolting
system, assessments of the method of construction
and the suitability of the proposed construction
plant, on-site checks on the orientation of trial
drillholes and a critique of the quality control
procedures for the works.
(iii) Trials to confirm the suitability of grout mixes.
(iv) Tests on the type and quality of the ground into
which the bolts are installed; these may include
checks on the strength, consistency, and grout
tightness.
(v) On-site tests to determine the load-extension
behaviour of works bolts. The results of such
tests can be used as benchmarks from which to
judge the performance of the works bolts.
Usually the ultimate load carrying capacity of a
works bolt or the surrounding ground is not
reached because the maximum load that can be
applied is limited by the tensile capacity of the
shank. Such tests may be undertaken on works
bolts if their subsequent performance is not
compromised.
4.4.6 Quality control tests are undertaken to check the
quality of components, workmanship, and the
performance of the works bolts. Such tests should be
undertaken as a matter of routine throughout
construction. Specific tests include the following.
(i) On-site and laboratory tests to check the physical
properties of cements, resins and grouts.
(ii) Laboratory tests to check the mechanical
properties of the tendon.
(iii) Laboratory tests to check the composition of the
various components, such as the chemical
make-up of cements and resins.
(iv) Spot checks on the efficiency of the construction
plant, such as grout pumps.
(v) Checks on the orientation and dimensions of
drillholes.
(vi) Confirmation of the type and quality of the
ground, including an assessment of the position of
the water table.
(vii) Tests on works bolts to check load-extension
characteristics.
(viii) Checks that any method statement for
construction is being followed.
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Factors of safety and proof loads
4.5.1 For economy, in most cases the maximum proof
load that can be applied to a works bolt is limited by the
acceptable level of stress in the shank. Thus the
maximum factor of safety against pull out that can be
proven is equal to the ratio of the safe stress and the
in-service stress. For proof tests, it is recommended that
the proof load (T
p
) be:
T
p
= 1.5 T
w
for permanent bolts, and
T
p
= 1.25 T
w
for temporary bolts.
4/7
Chapter 4
Design
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Chapter 4
Design
4/9
Rock type Ultimate Bolt load Ultimate Reference
compressive at yield bold load
strength
(MN/m
2
) (kN) (kN)
Granite >147 - Underwood and
Di Stefano (1964)
232-286 - Franklin & Woodfield
(1971)
Very >71 - Barry et al (1956)
strong
sandstone
Very 147 35 63 Caverson & Parker
strong (1971)
shale
Shale 112 98-134 112-134 Cochrane & St Louis
(1969)
Soft Shale 40 63 Liddle & Tisdale
(Coal (1968)
measures)
Soft 18 31-45 McLean (1964)
weathered
shale
Mudstone 49 54 Barnes & Howe
(1964)
Chalk 18-125 - Franklin & Woodfield
(1971)
Concrete 87-89 89-94 Barnes & Howe
(1964)
Table 4.1 Summary of pull out tests on mechanical expansion shell anchors, after Moy (1973)
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Chapter 4
Design
Rock type Ultimate Bond Hole Load at Bolt type Reference
compressive length diameter yield
strength
(MN/m
2
) (m) (mm) (kN)
Shear zone >7 0.9 40 103
granite
Underwood
&
Di Stefano
(1964)
" >7 1.2 32 >161 'Perfobolt'
" >7 2.4 38-44 >161 Hollow core
(typical) bar
" >7 2.4 38-44 >286 'Perfobolt'
Table 4.2 Summary of pull out tests on cement grouted rock bolts, after Moy (1973)
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Chapter 4
Design
4/11
Test ref Rock type (location) Bolt Hole Bond Max load Comments
number diameter diameter length
(mm) (mm) (mm) (kN)
1 Carb.shale 20 25 450 105 (c) Yield = 14mm
(Lorraine)
2 Slate (Dinorwig) 32 50 300 100 (f) resin/rock slip
3 Slate (Dinorwig) 32 50 450 225 (f) resin/rock slip
4 Slate (Dinorwig) 32 50 900 580 (f) resin/rock slip
5 Slate (Dinorwig) 25
+
50 450 600 (f) no failure
6 Granite (Peterhead) 25 32 1000 200 (f) test to working load
7 Limestone 25 32 1000 200 (c) Bolt broke
(Avon Gorge)
8 Limestone 25 38 1000 350 (c) Bolt broke
(Avon Gorge)
9 Seatearth 19
+
44 1000 35 (c) resin/rock slip
(Cotgrave colliery)
10 Seatearth 19
+
44 1200 40 (c) resin/rock slip
(Cotgrave colliery)
11 Seatearth 19
+
44 1400 70 (c) resin/rock slip
(Cotgrave colliery)
12 Sandstone (Godalming) 19* 44 1750 60 (c) wedge failure in rock
13 Slate (Isle of Man) 19 34 1750 170 (c) Bolt broke
14 Chalk (Dover) 25 44 1400 25 (c) rock failure
15 Chalk (Dover) 19
+
44 1400 190 (c) Bolt broke
16 Granite 25 32 300 200 (c) resin/rock slip
(Cambourne)
17 Limestone (Crich) 25 32 400 200 (c) resin/rock slip
18 Limestone (Crich) 25 32 462 250 (c) resin/rock slip
19 Limestone (Crich) 25 32 525 300 (c) Bolt broke
20 Sandstone (Darley Dale) 25 32 750 200 (c) resin/rock slip
21 Sandstone (Darley Dale) 25 32 875 250 (c) resin/rock slip
22 Sandstone (Darley Dale) 25 32 1000 300 (c) Bolt broke
23 Mudstone19* 44 1400 150 (c) Bolt broke
(Sutton Colliery)
24 Mudstone19* 44 1800 120 (c) No failure
(Bolsover Colliery)
Notes 1. * = 19mm steel bar +36 mm dia wood sleeve. 2.
+
= Debonded bolt type. 3. (c) = Resin capsules, (f) = Free flow resin.
Table 4.3 Summary of the results of on-site tests on resin grouted rockbolts,
after Whittaker et al (1977)
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Chapter 4
Design
60
o
=
T
1 00
90
80
70
60
0 20 40 60
Angl e of ncl i nati on a
45
o
W V
=
U
1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0
50
40
60
70
80
90
1 00
Angl e of ncl i nati on a
R
e
s
t
o
r
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
,

T

a
s

%

o
f

T

M
a
x

R
e
s
t
o
r
i
n
g

F
o
r
c
e
,

T

a
s

%

o
f

T

M
a
x

(a) (b)
Acti ve
Rei nforcement
Passi ve
Rei nforcement
Cabl e Bol ts
Cabl e Dowel s
Dowel s
Rock Anchors
Rock Bol ts
Rock
Rei nforcement
Mul ti strand
Mono-bar
Grouted Bol ts
Mechani cal Bol ts
Fri cti onal Bol ts
Fig 4.1 Classification of Rock reinforcement techniques.
Fig 4.2 The variation of restoring force T with angle of inclination a,
for two example cases of rock bolting.
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Chapter 4
Design
4/13
Envelope to
test data
low medium high v. high
5.0
2.5
0.1 1 10
Rock strength, I
s
(MN/m
2
)
B
o
n
d

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
m
n
/
k
N
)
Required bond length = (bond factor x design load) + safety margin
(I
s
= point load strength index)
(a) Load transferred by bond along
fixed anchor length
(b) Load transferred through an
end plate
Fig 4.3 Design chart for bonded anchors, after Franklin and Woodfield (1971)
Fig 4.4 Geometry of cone of rock assumed to be mobilised at failure of a rock mass,
after Littlejohn and Bruce (1977)
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5. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
5/1
Chapter 5
Construction details
Drilling
5.1.1 The drillholes for rock bolts are commonly formed
by a rotary or rotary percussive mechanism with air or
water normally being used as the flushing medium.
Core drilling is rarely used because of its relatively high
cost and the fact that the smoothness of the resulting
bore tends to produce a lower bond capacity,
particularly when polyester resins are used.
Most problems concerning the installation of rock bolts
are due to limited access. Thus the performance
capabilities of light-weight drilling and installation
equipment are often of prime importance. Hand held
drilling equipment is often used to form the drillholes but
with large excavations, as is becoming more common in
mechanised mines and civil engineering projects, access
must be provided by a lift platform and therefore
remotely operated drilling rigs and drill jumbos are
normally used to form the drillholes.
5.1.2 In principle, any drilling machine or technique may
be employed. But it must be capable of providing a
stable drillhole having dimensions within the permitted
tolerances and which is free of obstructions or major
protrusions so that the bar and any resin/cement
capsules can be inserted without undue resistance.
Installation
5.2.1 It is advisable to clear the drillhole, for example by
flushing the bore with air or water prior to installation of
the bolt. And, immediately prior to installation, the bolt
should be carefully inspected for damage or corrosion;
this is particularly important for corrosion protected
bolts.
Fixing of mechanical bolts
5.3.1 Proprietary devices, such as the Worley,
Split-set and Swellex rock bolts described earlier,
have system-specific features that are described in their
manufacturers technical literature. Swellex bolts, for
example, require the application of a large hydraulic
pressure of around 20N/mm
2
to expand the steel tube
against the wall of the drillhole.
With expansion shell bolts, various devices or techniques
are employed to hold the wedge shaped blades stationary
against the sides of the drillhole whilst an initial tension
is applied by tightening the bolt. Because such shells
only have a limited expansion range their effectiveness is
critically affected by the diameter of the drillhole. If the
hole is too large the shell may be difficult to expand and
uncertain in operation; conversely if the hole is too
small, due to worn drilling tools for instance, it might be
impossible to install the shell.
Grouting
5.4.1 Grouting can serve one or more purposes.
(i) Pregrouting works may be required to fill voids or
fissures prior to the installation of the bolts.
(ii) It can be the primary fixing mechanism for the
bolt.
(iii) It can bond the free length of the shank thereby
making the bolt an integral part of the rock mass.
(The interlocking of the individual elements of the
rock mass can significantly improve the properties
of the rock mass).
(iv) It can protect the bolt against corrosion.
5.4.2 Unless specifically instructed by the supplier,
water should be added to the mixer prior to the cement,
admixture or filler. Batching of dry materials should be
by mass. To ensure homogeneity, mixing should be
carried out mechanically for about two minutes
following the addition of cement. On completion of the
mixing, the grout should be kept in continuous
movement, for example by slow agitation in a storage
tank, but it should be pumped to its final position as
soon as is practicable. It is inappropriate to use a grout
after a period equivalent to the initial setting time has
elapsed from mixing.
5.4.3 In general, proportioning, batching and mixing of
resin materials should be carried out in accordance with
the manufacturers instructions. The batch size of a
resin mix may be dictated by the strength of exothermic
reaction on setting. Mixing should be carried out
mechanically, using a rotating paddle, and care is
required to avoid the permanent entrapment of air
bubbles which can reduce the strength and ductility of
the set resin.
5.4.4 Each stage of the injection should be performed in
one continuous operation. Wherever possible, grouting
should continue until the consistency of the grout return
is the same as the injected grout. Where a tremie
grouting technique is used the end of the tremie pipe
should be submerged throughout the grouting operation.
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5/2
Chapter 5
Construction details
5.4.5 With rock bolts it is unusual for grout to be
injected under pressure but, if used, the pressure should
be limited to a level that avoids distress to the ground or
adjacent structures - common practice is to limit the
pressure to 20kN/m
2
per metre depth of cover.
5.4.6 Capsules of resin grout are manufactured in a
range of dimensions and setting times. This allows the
installer to match the capsule size according to the
volume of the annulus between the shank and the sides
of the drillhole. To minimise the usage of material, hole
sizes are usually kept as small as necessary, but it is
important to check that the required anchor length is
provided. Drillholes which are longer than the installed
length of a bolt can lead to a wastage of resin or an
insufficient bond length. Deviations from the design
hole size can result in an under-supply of resin to the
anchor length.
5.4.7 Care must to be taken to ensure that grouting lines
are not trapped or kinked during the installation and
tensioning operations. It is important to check that the
lines are free of blockages by, for example, pumping
clean water through them.
Stressing and testing
5.5.1 Rock bolts are tensioned either directly, using
hydraulic jacks, or indirectly by applying a measured
torque to the locking nut. The former is generally
preferred because it provides a direct measure of the
load in the bolt and avoids the imposition of a torsional
stress to the tendon. However loading by torque wrench
or impact wrench is often far more convenient,
particularly for a large array of bolts. Where torquing is
used as the routine tensioning method, it is recommended
that the load in a representative number of the bolts is
checked with a hydraulic jack. Typically between 1%
and 5% of bolts should be checked in this manner, with
the percentage checked being dependent on the variation
found during check loading. Wallis (1992) reports that
on one site, bolts specified to have tension loads of
100kN were shown under test to have residual loads of
between 3 and 108kN. Load checks must be carried out
before secondary grouting of the free length of the bolt.
5.5.2 The hydraulic jack and pumping unit should be
capable of tensioning the tendon to not less than 80% of
the characteristic strength of the shank. The loads
applied by a hydraulic jack may be measured by direct
reading load cells but it is more common to use a
pressure gauge which has been calibrated for a
particular jack. Ideally the recording instruments should
be situated no further than 5m from the jack.
5.5.3 Load capacities of 50kN and 150kN are usual for
hand operated and pneumatic torque wrenches
respectively, but both types should be capable of
applying the design load to an accuracy of 5%. When
using torque wrenches it is particularly important to
ensure that the bolt threads are clean and well greased.
For each site and bolt type it is also important to
establish, and reconfirm as necessary, the relation
between the applied torque and axial load. Factors
which affect the calibration include the bolt diameter,
thread pitch and type, state of lubrication and the type of
faceplate assembly.
5.5.4 Jacks and torque wrenches should be calibrated at
least yearly using properly designed test equipment
having an absolute accuracy not exceeding 0.5%. Test
records for jacks should show the relation between load
and hydraulic pressure when the jack is in the active
mode for both increasing and decreasing loads. A jack
should be calibrated prior to the start of tensioning
operations on a contract. It is recommended that
pressure gauges be recalibrated after every 100
stressings or after 30 days (whichever occurs first) or
whenever they have been subjected to shock loading.
They should be calibrated against a properly maintained
master gauge complying with BS 1780: 1985. Similarly,
load cells should be recalibrated after every 200
stressings or 60 days whichever is the most frequent.
Where a load cell is used in conjunction with a pressure
gauge, BS 8081: 1989 suggests that as long as there is
no significant variation between the two devices the time
between the calibrations of the load cell may be extended
to a maximum of one year.
5.5.5 The method of tensioning, the sequence of
stressing and the procedures to be adopted for each
stressing operation should be specified at the planning
stage of a project. The equipment should be used in
accordance with the manufacturers operating
instructions.
5.5.6 For cement grouted bolts, tensioning should not
commence until the primary grout forming the fixed
anchor length has attained a crushing strength of at least
30N/mm
2
as verified from tests on 100mm or 150mm
cubes.
For resin bonded bolts, the manufacturers guidelines
should be followed. The use of two-speed grouts
provides a limited period of time between the tensioning
of the bolt and the bonding of the free length.
5.5.7 During stressing operations, adequate precautions
should be taken to protect personnel and property from
injury or damage due to rupture of a tendon or failure of
the stressing equipment.
Volume 2 Section 1
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Chapter 5
Construction details
Load monitoring
5.6.1 For monitoring bolts of particular interest, annular
load cells similar to those used for ground anchorages
are commonly used to measure the end load in a bolt,
but such instruments are too expensive to be used for a
large number of bolts. Strain gauged bolts have been
installed to determine the distribution of load along
particular bolts or an array of bolts (RMT Ltd): the
information from these instrumented bolts may be used
to confirm design assumptions and specifications.
Techniques adopted for the routine monitoring of the
load in a rock bolt usually depend upon an indicator
device which operates at a particular threshold value.
Typical of such devices is the Titan load indicator
(Ischebeck Titan Ltd) illustrated in Figure 5.1. This
consists of a stepped mechanical cylinder with the wall
thickness of each step calculated to allow the indicator to
yield at loads of 60, 120 and 180kN. The bolt is usually
torque loaded to close the 60kN groove, the progressive
closure of the 120 and 180kN grooves giving warning of
overload.
An alternative is provided by the Rotabolt system
(Rotabolt Ltd). As shown in Figure 5.2, in this system a
hole is drilled along the axis of the bolt and a headed pin
is inserted and anchored at its base. The headed end
retains a rotating indicator (rota) complete with a cap
which is set to spin freely on top of the bolt face. When
a load is applied to the bolt it stretches and at the
predetermined load it locks the rota and cap assembly.
The required gap is determined and set during the
conversion of the bolt to a Rotabolt configuration; such
a system can therefore measure a loss of load. The
successful use of this device for rock bolts requires close
site supervision during installation.
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY. 5/5
Chapter 5
Construction details
Working
grooves
Prestress
groove
Load indicator
Working
grooves
Prestress
groove
Fig 5.1 Operation of Titan Load indicator, taken from Ischebeck Titan Ltd
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY. 5/6
Chapter 5
Construction details
Fig 5.2 Schematic view of a stud fitted with a Rotabolt load indicator, taken from Rotabolt Ltd
Rota load indicator
Air gap closes at
set load preventing
indicator from
being turned
Gauge pin secured to
base of drilled hole
Volume 2 Section 1
Part 7 BA 80/99
February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
Chapter 6
References
6/1
6. REFERENCES
6.1.1 Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB): The Stationery Office
BD 70 Strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills for retaining walls and bridge abutments (DMRB 2.1.5)
BD 71 Design of ground anchors (DMRB 2.1.6)
6.1.2 Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works (MCHW): The Stationery Office
Volume 1: Specification for Highway Works
6.1.3 BSI Standards Publications: British Standards Institution, London
BS 12: 1996 Specification for Portland cements.
BS 915: 1983 Specification for high alumina cement.
BS 970: (various parts and dates) Specification for wrought steels for mechanical and allied engineering purposes.
BS 1370: 1979 Specification for low heat Portland cement.
BS 1780: 1985 Specification for bourdon tube pressure and vacuum gauges.
BS 4027: 1996 Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
BS 4246: 1996 Specification for high slag blastfurnace cement.
BS 4449: 1997 Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 5930: 1981 Code of practice for site investigation.
BS 6744: 1986 Specification for austenitic stainless steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 8006: 1995 Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills.
BS 8081: 1989 Code of practice for ground anchorages.
6.1.4 Other publications
Anon (1972). Three M5 sections near completion. Highways Design and Construction, Vol 40, No 1751, pp28-33.
Azir, Z, D Campbell and J Leroy (1992). Experience with resin anchored bolts in large permanent underground
excavations. Rock support in mining and underground excavations (eds Kaiser and M
c
Grath). Balkema, Rotterdam.
Barley, A D (1988). Ten thousand ground anchorages in rock. Ground Engineering, Vol 21; No 6, pp20-29; No 7,
pp24-35; No 8, pp35-39.
Barnes, E L S and B J Howe (1964). Surface and underground testing of polyester resin roof bolt anchorage.
Australian Coal Association (Research) Ltd, PR 64-6.
Barry, A J, L A Panek and J A M
c
Cormick (1956). Anchorage testing of mine roof bolts, Part 2, Expansion type
bolts. United States Bureau of Mines, RI 5194.
Volume 2 Section 1
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February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
Chapter 6
References
6/2
Barton, N & K Bakhtir (1983). Bolt design based on shear strength. In Proceedings of the International Symposium
on Rock Bolting, Abisko, 28
th
August 2
nd
September 1983, p367 376.
Baxter, D A (1997). Rockbolt corrosion under scrutiny. Tunnels and Tunnelling International, July, pp35-38.
Caverson, B and J Parker (1971). Roof bolts hold best with resin. Mining Engineering, Vol 23, No 5, May.
CIRIA Project Report 11, 1994 Foundations in Chalk.
Cochrane, T S and A V St Louis (1969). Rock bolt tests at Canmore Mines Ltd. CIM Bulletin, No 681, Jan, pp57.
Douglas, T H and L J Arthur (1981). A guide to the use of rock reinforcement in underground excavations. CIRIA
Research Report R101.
Faoro, M (1991). Improvements of historical masonry with reinforcing elements comprising non-corrosive glass
fibre composite materials. Sicom Gmbh, Cologne.
Franklin, J A & M B Dusseualt (1989). Rock Engineering, McGraw Hill Inc. USA pp600.
Franklin, J A and P Woodfield (1971). Comparison of polyester resin and a mechanical rock bolt anchor. Trans.
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Section A, Vol 80, No 776, pp91.
Franzn, T (1997). Rockbolt corrosion - Swedish view. Tunnels and Tunnelling International, Nov, pp33.
Gaziev, E G & L V Lapin (1983). Passive anchor reaction to shearing stress in a rock joint. In Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Rock Bolting, Abisko, 28
th
August 2
nd
September 1983, p 101 108.
Gerrard, C (1983). Rock bolting in theory. A Keynote Lecture. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Rock Bolting, Abisko, 28
th
August 2
nd
September 1983, p3 32.
Hobst, L and J Zajic (1983). Developments in Geotechnical Engineering 33: anchoring in rock and soil. Elsevier.
Hoek, E and E T Brown (1980). Underground excavations in rock. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London.
Hoek, E and D Wood (1992). Rock support. World Tunnelling, April 1992, 137 142.
Hoppe, R (1979). Winning the battle against hard ground. Engineering and Mining Journal, February, pp66-73.
Kempes Engineers Yearbook (1997). Morgan-Grampian.
Kennedy, B A , R Talbot and E J Wade (1973). Whats new in mining in 1972. World Mining, 25 June.
Liddle, T J and J E Tisdale (1968). Experience with resin capsule roof bolt anchors at Wentz No 1 mine. Mining
Congress Journal, Vol 54, No 10, Oct, pp64.
Littlejohn, G S (1970). Soil anchors. ICE Conference on Ground Engineering, London, pp34-44 and discussion
pp115-120.
Littlejohn, G S (1979). Ground anchors: state-of-the-art. Symposium on Prestressed Ground Anchors,
Johannesburg, October. The Concrete Society of South Africa, Prestressed Concrete Division, Johannesburg.
Littlejohn, G S and D A Bruce (1977). Rock anchors: state-of -the-art. Foundation Publications Ltd, England.
Littlejohn, G S, A A Rodger, D K V Mothersille and D C Holland (1987). Monitoring the influence of blasting on
the performance of rock bolts at Penmaenbach tunnel. Proc Int Conf on Foundations and Tunnels, University of
London.
Volume 2 Section 1
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February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
Chapter 6
References
6/3
Ludvig, B (1983). Shear tests on rock bolts. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rock Bolting,
Abisko, 28
th
August 2
nd
September 1983, p 113 123.
M
c
Lean, D C (1964). Use of resins in mine roof support. Mining Engineering, Vol 16, No 1, pp36.
McMillan, P. (1993). Cost effectiveness of rock strengthening. TRL Project Report PR/SC/11/93. Transport
Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, England, UK.
Miesseler, H J and L Preis (undated). High performance glass fibre composite bars as reinforcement in concrete and
foundation structures. Project Report Strabag BauAG/Bayer AG.
Moy, D (1973). Review of methods of rock reinforcement - Part 1: Report on large underground excavations (ed E
Hoek). Imperial College London, Rock Mechanics Progress Report No 11.
Scott, J J (1976). Friction rock stabilizers - a new rock reinforcement method. Proc 17
th
US Symposium on Rock
Mechanics, Snowbird, Utah, pp242-249.
Smith, M (1994). Hitra Strait Crossings. World Tunnelling, June, pp22.
Stillborg, B (1994). Professional users handbook for rockbolting. Trans Tech Publications, Claus-Zellerfield,
Germany.
Streuli, U and S Klahr (1995). Building the Vereina tunnel through the Alps. Tunnels and Tunnelling International,
October, pp5-28.
Suzuki, I, T Hirakawa, K Morii and K Kanenko (1972). Dvelopments noveaux dans les foundations de pylons
pour lignes de transport THT de Japon. Conf Int des Grande Reseaux Electriques Haute Tension, Paper 21-01, No
13.
Turner, M J (undated). Private communication.
Turner, M J (1980). Rock anchors: an outline of some current design, construction and testing practices in the
United Kingdom. Proc Int Conf on Structural Foundations on Rock, Sydney, May. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Turner, M J (1995). Some aspects of current ground anchor design and construction in the United Kingdom. Proc
Int Symposium on Anchors in Theory and Practice, Salzburg, 9-10 October. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Underwood, L B and C J Di Stefano (1964). Development of a rock bolt system for permanent support at NORAD.
Proc 6th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, University of Missouri, Rolla.
Wallis, S (1992). Pinning your hopes on safety and support. Tunnels and Tunnelling, September.
Whittaker, B N, I M Breckels and G Daws (1977). Performance of resin grouted reinforcing bars in carboniferous
rocks, with special reference to time-dependent behaviour. CORE-UK: Proc Conf on Rock Engineering, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, 4-7 April.
Xu, H, A A Rodger, D C Holland and G S Littlejohn (1995). Static service behaviour of rock bolts subjected to
blast loadings in tunnelling. Proc Int Symposium on Anchors in Theory and Practice, Salzburg, 9-10 October.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
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Chapter 6
References
6.1.5 Manufacturers technical literature
Ancon CCL. President Way, President Park, Sheffield, S4 7UR.
Atlas Copco Construction and Mining Ltd. PO Box 79, Swallowdale Lane, Hemel Hempstead, Herts, HP2 7HA.
Dywidag-Systems International Ltd. Westfield Road, Southam, Warwickshire, CV33 0JH.
Exchem Mining & Construction Ltd. PO Box 7, Venture Crescent, Alfreton, Derby, DE55 7RE.
Ingersoll-Rand Co Ltd. PO Box 2, Chorley New Road, Horwich, Bolton, BL6 6JN.
Ischebeck Titan Ltd. John Dean House, Wellington Road, Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire, DE14 2TG.
M
c
Calls Special Products Ltd. PO Box 71, Hawke Street, Sheffield, S9 2LN.
Mine Roof Support Systems. PO Box 303, Phoenixville, PA19460.
Polystal Composites GmbH, Althaldensleber Strasse 3, D-39340 Haldensleben.
Rock Mechanics Technology (RMT) Ltd. Bretby Business Park, Ashby Road, Stanhope Bretby, Burton-on-Trent,
Staffordshire, DE15 0QD.
Rotabolt Ltd. Peartree Business Park, Peartree Lane, Dudley, West Midlands, DY2 0UW.
Sireg Spa. 20043 Arcore (Mi), Via del Bruno, 12, Italy.
Stainless UK Ltd. Clay Street, Sheffield, S9 2PE.
Weidmann AG. 8640 Rapperswil, Switzerland.
Weldgrip Whaley Road, South Yorkshire Industrial Estate, Barugh, Barnsley, S75 1HT.
Volume 2 Section 1
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February 1999 ELECTRONIC COPY NOT FOR USE OUTSIDE THE AGENCY.
Chapter 7
Enquiries
7/1
7. ENQUIRIES
All technical enquiries or comments on this document should be sent in writing as appropriate to:
Civil Engineering Divisional Director
The Highways Agency
St Christopher House
Southwark Street A J PICKETT
London SE1 0TE Civil Engineering Division
Divisional Director
The Deputy Chief Engineer
The Scottish Office Development Department
National Roads Directorate
Victoria Quay J HOWISON
Edinburgh EH6 6QQ Deputy Chief Engineer
Head of Roads Major Projects Division
Welsh Office
Y Swyddfa Gymreig
Crown Buildings
Cathays Park B H HAWKER
Cardiff CF1 3NQ Head of Roads Major Projects Division
Assistant Technical Director
Department of the Environment for
Northern Ireland
Roads Service
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street D OHAGAN
Belfast BT2 8GB Assistant Technical Director

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