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1
The occasional abnormally formed
erythrocyte was from the same normal Erythrocytes
African grey parrot seen previously.
It is important to
seperate artifact from
true morphologic
changes.
Erythrocytes missing
nuclei are called
erythroplastids. They
are often due to
preparation artifact.
Erythrocytes Erythrocytes
Immature Answer:
erythrocytes are also This is the most
more round than immature
mature erythrocytes. erythrocyte.
2
Anemia Anemia
An indication of erythrocyte regeneration Anisocytosis (variability in cell size)
(bone marrow response to an anemia) is occurs normally in blood smears from
the degree of polychromasia. 1-5 % healthy birds. With an active bone
erythrocyte polychromasia is normal in a marrow response to anemia, anisocytosis
healthy bird. In a blood smear from a bird increases and it is characterized by
with regenerative anemia the degree of younger larger and rounder erythrocytes.
polychromasia will increase.
Anemia Anemia
Increased erythrocyte destruction,
Nonregenerative anemia has no or little decreased erythrocyte production or
increase immature erythrocytes and a low blood loss can result in anemia.
degree of polychromasi which indicates a
lack of effective bone marrow response. Blood loss anemia may result from
One should identify the underlaying trauma, bloodsucking ectoparasites,
cause to allow a better prognosis. gastrointestinal parasitism,
coagulopathies, ulcerated neoplasms or
rupture of internal organs.
3
This is blood from the red fronted kakariki
Anemia with hemolytic anemia.
Increased
erythrocyte
destruction may be
associated with
bacterial
septicemias, acute
aflatoxicosis,
toxemias or blood
parasites.
Anemia Anemia
Decreased erythrocyte production may be
associated with chronic infectious diseases This picture
such as tuberculosis, chlamydiosis, present anemia
aspergillosis and chronic hepatic disease.
and hypochromic
erythrocytes
Other causes are nutritional deficiencies (iron, caused by lead
folic acid), chemicals and toxins (lead,
poisoning.
aflatoxin). It may also be associated with
neoplasias, such as lymphoid neoplasia.
4
Avian
thrombocytes Thrombocytes Thrombocytes
are often The cytoplasm is
mistaken for clear but not
lymphocytes homogenous.
by beginning Thrombocytes
hematologists contain specific
and even granules in
automated variable number,
hematology size and position
Lymphocyte in the cell. They
analyzers.
take a pink to
reddish color.
Thrombocytes Leukocytes
Enlargement of the thrombocyte’s
cytoplasm indicates a reactive change.
Thrombocytes have a phagocytic defense
function and the reactive changes are
thought to be associated with this
function.
5
Leukocytes Leukocytes
Differential white Disease or physiologic changes such as
cell count: ”stress” may cause leukocytosis
Interspecies Heterophils 30-75%
(increased number of leukocytes in
variations are great Lymphocytes 20-65%
blood). Infection is the most common
and these Monocytes 0-5%
cause to disease related leukocytosis.
reference values Basophils 0-5%
are only a very Eosinophils 0-4%
rough guide.
Leukocytes Leukocytes
Stress leukocytosis occur in species like Mild leukocytosis: bacterial, fungal and
macaws, cockatoos, African greys and chlamydial infections.
ratites. Stress causes endogenous release
Moderate leukocytosis: yolk peritonitis,
of cortisone which has many effects on granulomatous disease, some phases of
blood and other tissues. Treatment with septicemia.
corticosteroids can also result in stress
hemograms. Elevated leukocyte counts Severe leukocytosis: active chlamydiosis,
are common although the bird may not be aspergillosis, tuberculosis, leukemia.
diseased.
Leukocytes Leukocytes
Leukopenia is reduced leukocyte True leukopenia is usually a result of
numbers which are often an artifact overwhelming bacterial infection, severe
related to sample handling such as: viral disease or toxic substances.
• Blood clots before placement in
anticoagulant Consider the variation of leukocyte count
• Lysis due to excessive shipping and between species. Smaller birds tend to
storage time have lower leukocyte count than larger
• Poor quality blood films birds.
6
This is a heterophil from an 11 year old
Heterophils, the
Heterophils African grey parrot.
cells analogous
with mammalian
neutrophils, are the
most common
leukocyte in avian
blood. They are
round with
colorless
cytoplasm and
eosinophilic rod-
shaped granules.
7
Toxic heterophils Toxic Left shift
are seen with heterophils
septicemias, Immature heterophils
viremias and when seen indicates
severe inflammation.
chlamydial Both toxic
infections. More heterophils and
severe toxic immature heterophils
change indicates have cytoplasmic
basophilia and it is
more severe and easy to confuse these
often infectious two.
disease.
8
This is an eosinophil from a healthy
Eosinophils African grey parrot.
The nucleus of the
eosinophil often
stains more blue and
is more noticeable
than the heterophil
nucleus. Eosinophil
nuclei are lobed with
clumped chromatin
that stains purple.
Basophils Lymphocytes
In some avian
Avian basophils are
species
round with a round
lymphocytes are
nucleus. The
the most common
nucleus is centrally
leukocyte. They are
located and light
round but can
blue. The
sometimes look
cytoplasmic
irregular due to
granules stain
molding around
deeply basophilic
other adjacent
and often hide the
cells. The nucleus
nucleus.
is round.
Antigenic Reactive
Lymphocytes stimulation
transforms lymphocytes
lymphocytes into
The amount of reactive
cytoplasm may vary lymphocytes.
from a narrow band Viral and
to abundant chlamydial
cytoplasm in large infections may be
lymphs. The nuclear responsible but
to cytoplasmic ratio the
is high. The nonspecifically
cytoplasm is light indicate an
immune
blue and hyaline. response.
9
This is a reactive lymphocyte from a 15
year old parrot.
Reactive lymphocytes
The cytoplasm of
reactive
lymphocyes is
darker blue
reflecting protein
synthesis. The
nucleus often has
an immature
appearance.
10
This is a monocyte from an 11 year old
male African grey parrot.
Question
One of these
leukocytes is a
heterophil. Which
one is the
heterophil and
what type of
leukocytes is the
other one?
Answer Question
One of these
This is the leukocytes is a
heterophil (arrow) monocyte.
and the other Which one is the
leukocyte is a monocyte and
lymphocyte. what type of
leukocytes is the
other one?
Answer Question
This is the
monocyte (arrow) How many
and the other lymphocytes do
leukocyte is a you see in this
heterophil. picture?
11
Answer Question
There are four What caracterize an immature
lymphocytes in erythrocyte?
this picture. It´s
easy to get
confused by the
immature
erythrocyte
(arrow).
Answer Question
Immature erythrocytes are
polychromatophilic with basophilic
cytoplasm. They are also rounder than What kind of
mature erythrocytes. leukocytes can you
see in this picture?
Answer Question
This is a
monocyte Identify
(arrow). The these
other two leukocytes.
leukocytes are
lymphocytes.
12
Answer Question
The two
leukocytes to Name a disease that causes severe
the left are leukocytosis.
heterophils
(arrows) and
the two
leukocytes to
the right are
lymphocytes.
Answer Question
Active chlamydiosis, aspergillosis,
tuberculosis and leukemia are some
examples of diseases that causes severe Identify these
leukocytosis. blood cells.
Answer Question
13
Answer Question
In regenerative
anemia the degree What kind of
of polychromasi leukocyte is this?
and anisocytosis
increases.
Answer Question
Answer Question
The two
leukocytes are What kind of
normal leukocyte is
heterophils. Their this?
abnormal
appearance is due
to an artifact.
14
Answer Question
Answer Question
Answer Question
Antigenic
stimulation causes Identify these
the transformation blood cells.
of resting
lymphocytes to
reactive
lymphocytes.
15
Answer Question
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